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A rockfill dam is a type of embankment dam which comprises primarily

compacted rock materials. Shaped much like a bank or hill, rockfill dams are
effective because the force of the river or reservoir hits the core of the
embankment, is exerted in a downward direction, and transferred to the
solid foundation of the da

INTRODUCTION

Modern day rockfill dam construction must rely heavily on past experiences for
guidance pertaining to the placement and compaction of large rock fragments in a
compacted fill structure. Special rock equipment and procedures are required for rock
borrow development, hauling, placing, and compacting to produce a stable and
acceptable engineered fill structure. The conventional earthfill test methods for
controlling lift thickness, gradation, moisture content, and compaction are not applicable
to rockfills and must be modified to a site specific compactive effort specification using
test fills and large vibratory roller compactors. This article presents a suggested
definition of rockfill versus earthfill material. Typical rockfill and earthfill materials in
stockpiles

SUMMARY
This review discusses the use of rock fill in the construction of mine facilities. Rock fill is defined, and links to literature and
descriptions of rock fill embankments at mines are given. Topics discussed include lift thickness, gradation, moisture conditioning,
test pad size, and rock fill density.

INTRODUCTION
This technology review discusses the use of rock fill in the construction of mine facilities, including
foundations for plant buildings, heap leach pad foundations, mine haul roads, and embankments for
tailings impoundments.

This review is based on work done by the senior author on the Cannon Mine tailings embankment, a
470-ft high rock fill embankment at the mine adjacent to Wenatchee, Washington. The second,
junior, author was the original design engineer on the first phase of the embankment and tailings
impoundment reservoir.
In this review, we provide links to mine facilities involving the use of rock fill and to general literature
on the placement of rock fill for civil engineering purposes.
BACKGROUND
Large quantities of mine waste rock material (non-ore overburden) are generally available from open
pit mine cuts. The mine waste rock, already drilled, blasted or ripped and loaded into rock haul
trucks, can be economically hauled and placed in embankment fills several miles from the open pit
mine for less cost than local borrow development within the planned impoundment or leach pad
grading fill limits.
HISTORY
The earliest writings on rock fill dams we have found is the 1888 book The Design and Construction of Dams, all of which is
available at this link.

Richard Wiltshire in a seminal paper 100 years of Embankment Design and Construction in the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation surveys
the history of earth and rock fill dam construction in the United States.

The largest earth and rock fill dam in the world is the Tarbela dam. Both authors have been privileged to work with Syd Hillis who
was the chief geotechnical engineer on this dam.

Rock dump construction in thick and dry loose rock fill lifts has been successful in providing stable water storage embankments for
large and small dams for more than 100 years after this type of rock fill construction began in the 1850's. However, several larger
dams constructed between 1910 and 1940, and exceeding 100 feet (30 m) in height, experienced excessive post-construction
settlement and movement of the upstream facing materials during first reservoir filling.

Thorough wetting or flooding of the dry rock dump lifts during lift placement in the 1940's to 1950's, as well as a reduction of the
loose lift thickness in the mid to late 1950's, minimized post-construction settlement movements in the larger dams during reservoir
filling.

From the 1960's to the present, the accepted practice for modern-day rock fill dam construction is moisture conditioning and
compaction in thinner controlled lifts with vibratory steel drum roller compactors. Self-propelled rollers are more efficient over tractor-
pulled rollers, particularly at dam abutments. Rock fill moisture conditioning is generally site-specific with wetting of rock materials in
the borrow area or on the fill surface.

In comparison to the earlier thick rock dump techniques, the placement and compaction of rock fills in thinner controlled lifts
significantly reduced post-construction settlement, reduced material segregation due to high lift rock fall on the slopes, increased the
rock fill density and related strength, and allowed lateral and vertical placement of transitional zones for fine to coarse rock
materials, as well as better tie-in to internal earth fill core and drain filter systems within the dam embankment.

SOME MODERN ROCK FILL EMBANKMENTS FOR MINES

The design and construction of the rock fill embankments and dikes for the Canadian diamond mines is described at these links:

Diavik diamond mine are described at this link.

Snap Lake at this link.

Cannon Mine at this link,

Ekati Diamond Mine at this link.

THE LITERATURE
This Technical Review is augmented and expanded on in an e-Book by Breitenbach. The e-Book contains considerably more
information on the history of rock fill placement, technical methods for placing rock fill, and the testing and control of rock fill to
minimize settlement.

The seismic stability of rock fill embankments is discussed by Barbosa, Morris, and Sarma in a paper Factor of safety and
probability of rockfill embankments. They provide design charts to establish the factor of safety for rock fill embankments for critical
acceleration coefficients.

Chrzanowski and Massiera discuss the monitoring of large earth and rock fill dams in a 2006 paper.

The U.S. Corps of Engineers discusses earth and rock fill placement and compaction at this link.

For general guidance on compaction and compaction equipment, go to the Caterpillar site.

WHAT IS ROCK FILL

In 1968, the USBR published the Earth Manual, which further defined cobble and boulder rock particles as follows: "Rounded
particles are called cobbles, if they are between 3 and 12 inches (0.07 to 0.30 m) in size, and boulders, if they are greater than 12
inches (0.30 m) in size. Angular particles above 3 inches (0.07 m) in size are classified as rock fragments."
No further distinction was made about the rock fragment quality or gradation required for defining rock fill structures. From this
author's experience, the "cobble" definition is commonly used by engineers to the present day for defining both rounded and angular
rock fragments falling within the 3 to 12 inch (0.07 to 0.30 m) square mesh size range.

The term "rock fragment" is defined for this review as any rock (rounded to angular in shape) retained on the inch (19 mm)
square mesh screen size.

The definition of rock fill materials includes an upper and lower rock size. The upper rock size is set by the allowable loose lift
thickness for adequate compaction using conventional vibratory rollers or large loaded haul truck rollers for rubber-tired compaction.
This should be about 2/3 of the maximum loose lift thickness with some allowance for larger rock fragments.

The lower rock size is defined as the point at which standard ASTM field and laboratory soils testing methods are no longer
applicable to earth fill materials that contain excessive rock fragments. This earth fill soil limit is defined by ASTM test methods as no
more than 30 percent of the sample retained by dry weight on a inch (19 mm) square mesh sieve size.

The definition of the rock fill lower limit is also suggested to limit the fine particle size to contain less than 15 percent silt and clay
materials passing the No. 200 (0.074 mm) ASTM sieve size.

Rock used for rock fill embankments should preferably not be acid generating. Nor should it be subjected to other
undesirable geochemical factors that may preclude it use in an embankment as described at this link.

GUIDELINES FOR ROCK FILL PLACEMENT AND COMPACTION

LIFT THICKNESS
Maximum loose lift thickness is governed by maximum rock size and type of compaction equipment. Optimum rock fill loose lift
thicknesses are generally about 18 to 30 inches (0.5 to 0.8 m) with maximum rock sizes limited to two thirds of the lift thickness.
Larger rock sizes can be incorporated into the fill provided the rock does not protrude above the fill surface to hinder compaction.

ROLLER TYPE
Experience indicates that the most efficient rock fill compactors are vibratory steel drum rollers with vibrations in the range of 1200
to 1500 vpm, roller speed of about 2 mph (3.2 km/h), a minimum static drum weight of 8 tons on level ground, and a minimum
operating dynamic force of 15 tons.

Heavy loaded rubber-tired haul trucks (up to 240 tons) can provide some dynamic deep lift compaction, however the large haul
trucks are limited to keeping a safe distance away from exterior fill slopes to prevent concentrated tire load bearing capacity failure
near the edge of the fill slope or potential accidental truck roll over.

ROLLER PASSES
Optimum roller passes are determined from surveyed settlement versus roller pass curves developed in large-scale test fills. The
general limit is between four to six passes. More than six passes tends to crush and pulverize the rock fill surface without adding
significant compaction to the lower part of the lift. Each roller pass should overlap the edge of preceding passes for 100 percent
roller pass coverage on the surface.

GRADATION
Rock fills for compacted embankment structures are generally placed in transitional zones with the coarser and more competent
rock placed in the outer shell and finer, more weathered rock placed in the interior or adjacent to filter drain and core materials. A
similar transition zone is developed for leach padsite grading fills with the finer rock materials placed beneath the pad subgrade soil
and geomembrane liner system.

Oversized rocks are generally placed on the downstream or exterior rock fill slopes and in downstream outlet and spillway plunge
pools for erosion and energy dissipation. Occasional extremely large oversized rock can be incorporated into rock fills provided no
overhangs occur and the surrounding rock fill is compacted against the large rock pieces similar to compaction techniques against
the rock abutments. Phased downstream raises to existing rock fill dams can incorporate the new rock fill into the oversized rock on
the downstream slope of an existing dam, provided the large rock fragments are not clustered.

MOISTURE CONDITIONING
Moisture conditioning is desirable in the rock borrow areas for better mixing of moisture and materials during excavation, loading,
dumping, and spreading for compaction. However, development of rock borrow areas involves blasting or ripping operations that
sometimes make the borrow surface too rugged for conventional water trucks with spray bars.
Ideally the rock borrow should be sufficiently wetted so that no dust occurs when the haul truck or scraper dumps a load on the fill
surface for spreading and compacting. Wetting of the rock fill in the fill area should be accomplished prior to spreading the new lift or
following compaction of the lift. Wetting immediately prior to compaction by vibratory rollers significantly dampens the dynamic force
of the compactor for inefficiency in compaction. The exception to this rule is a clean rock fill, which can be flooded with water and
rapidly drained before compaction begins.

OVERBUILD
Modern day compacted rock fills that are relatively well graded experience post-construction settlements of the order of 0.2 ft per
100 ft of height (0.2 m per 100 m). For compacted large earth-rock fill dam structures with a relatively thin central core or upstream
earth fill impervious core liner facing, about 0.5 ft (0.15 m) crest overbuild per 100 ft (30 m) of dam height appears conservative.

For large compacted earth-rock fill dams with relatively thick central earth fill cores, about 1 ft (0.3 m) minimum crest overbuild per
100 ft (30 m) of dam height is reasonable to counteract the long-term consolidation of the low permeability core materials (post-
construction dissipation of excess pore water pressures in the fine-grained core materials).

Additional overbuild may be required in high seismicity dam locations to accommodate potential dynamic deformations and related
settlement in the dam crest. The engineering analyses of potential earthquake related dam crest movements typically includes the
maximum design earthquake (MDE) during operations and the long-term maximum credible earthquake (MCE) at closure.

TESTING ROCK FILL

GENERAL
Test fills are generally conducted in rock fills during construction to suit available rock borrow and site conditions. The test fills are
conducted to determine specific acceptable procedures for placement and compaction including moisture conditioning, loose lift
thickness, rock type and gradation, compaction equipment, and number of passes by the specified compactor. Some limitations are
initially set during design concerning the specified rock types, maximum rock sizes, lift thickness, and compaction equipment
requirements.

The test fill limits are determined by the size of the construction equipment and the number of lifts to be used for testing the rock fill
placement and compaction.

TEST PAD SIZE

The minimum width of the test fill subgrade area is generally set at three times the width of the compaction roller and three times the
height of the final test fill surface above the base level, as shown in Equation 1. The same test fill width is suggested for loaded haul
trucks, due to the potential for lateral spreading of the rock fill along the exterior slopes of the test fill pad from the more
concentrated and dynamic haul truck tire loads.

Test Fill Minimum Base Width = (W x 3) + (N x T x 3) (Eq. 1)

Where:
W = Roller drum width,
N = Number of lifts to be placed, and
T = Planned loose lift thickness.

A typical 10-ton vibratory roller with a drum width of 7 ft (2.1 m) and say two test fill lifts of 1.5 ft (0.46 m) each should have a 30 ft
(9.1m) minimum test fill subgrade base width, as shown in Equation 2. Assuming approximate 1 ft (0.3 m) side overlaps in the steel
drum roller passes for ideal 100 percent pass coverage, this base width spacing allows the steel drum roller compactor to stay about
1 ft (0.3 m) away from the edges of the final lift fill level for support purposes. Loaded rubber-tired haul trucks would have
approximately half the truck width of lateral spacing from the edge of the final test pad lift level, as the tire tracks are staggered
across the center of the test pad area for 100 percent tire pass coverage.

The compactor length dictates how much level fill surface length is required between the ramp and test area for level compaction
across the test section. The test fill length is generally at least two times the width to allow the vibratory compaction operator to set
and adjust his speed and vibration controls before crossing the planned control area on a level test fill surface. Ramps are used at
both ends of the test fill as needed to place, spread, and compact each lift horizontally; similar to planned operations.

In the example above for the steel drum roller, the minimum length at the base of the test fill pad would be about 60 ft (18 m),
depending on the time required to set compaction controls. Shorter test fill lengths are possible when the operator does the machine
adjustments outside of the test fill limits before reaching the ramp to the level test fill surface.

LIFT THICKNESS
An 8 to 15 ton (static drum weight) smooth steel drum vibratory compaction rollers generally has an effective rock fill compaction lift
thickness of between 1.5 to 3 ft (0.5 to 0.9 m) in about 4 roller passes on moistened rock fill. The 20 ton (static drum weight) smooth
steel drum vibratory compaction rollers generally have a deeper effective rock fill compaction lift thickness of between 3 to 5 ft (1 to
1.5 m) in about 4 passes on moistened rock fill. The vibratory compaction roller weight versus general rock fill lift thickness
estimates on moistened rock fill are approximate, based on visual observations and recorded field densities by this author in large
hand excavated test pits at several dam sites. The definition of moistened rock fill for this discussion is minus inch (19 mm) earth
fill materials within a range of 2 percent dry to 2 percent wet of optimum moisture content.

ROCK FILL DENSITY

Large scale rock fill density and gradation tests can generally be limited to about one day of testing time with a single field engineer
or senior technician assisted by a technician for measuring excavated material and water replacement buckets, and to complete the
laboratory gradation testing. The typical diameter size for the test hole ring should be 4 times the excavated maximum square mesh
rock size for acceptable test accuracy. The typical test hole depth should extend through the entire rock fill lift, or through multiple
lifts if practical, to account for the overall change in effective roller compaction with depth.

Water replacement techniques are used to determine the volume of the lined test ring and excavated and lined test hole. The
excavated test hole material is weighed and test hole volume calculated to determine the moist unit weight rock fill density. Moisture
content is generally determined on the finer minus 0.75 inch (19 mm) square mesh rock fraction for calculating the rock fill dry
density. Some rock fills may require moisture content measurements in the larger weathered or moisture absorbing rock fragments,
as needed.

Bulk gradations include measuring the larger plus 0.75 inch (19 mm) rock fraction in 2 inch (50.8 mm) square mesh increments for
discarding. The minus 0.75 inch (19 mm) rock fraction can be accurately quartered and split by ASTM procedures to reduce the
amount of finer rock materials for ease in completing the gradation testing.

rockfill advantages

Rockfill is particularly suitable when there is no satisfactory earth available and when
a plentiful supply of sound rock is at hand. The rockfilling is especially adapted to
construction during wet and cold weather and permits continuous work under weather
conditions that would not permit earth or concrete construction.

Very rapid constructions are possible with rockfill because of its adaptability to bad weather and
because the process of filling does not have to be interrupted for rolling or other separate
compaction operations.

The rockfill dam with an upstream diaphragm is very well adapted to stage construction. The
dam height can be increased merely by dumping more rock behind the impervious diaphragm
without interfering with or encroaching on the reservoir. The dam is then made water-tight by
continuing the impervious face upward. The stage construction concept is also suitable for
cofferdamming, as the first part of the dam serves as a cofferdam which protects the remainder
of the foundation for further construction.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.

2. If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity
generation. The water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand is
high.

3. Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of
electricity for many years / decades.

4. The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure /
pleasure activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions in their own right.

5. The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.

6. The build up of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed, when
the water is released to produce electricity.

7. When in use, electricity produced by dam systems do not produce green house gases.
They do not pollute the atmosphere.

DISADVANATGES:
1. Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high standard.

2. The high cost of dam construction means that they must operate for many decades to
become profitable.

3. The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is destroyed.

4. People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must move out.
This means that they lose their farms and businesses. In some countries, people are
forcibly removed so that hydro-power schemes can go ahead.

5. The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage. For example, the
building of the Hoover Dam in the USA triggered a number of earth quakes and has
depressed the earths surface at its location.

6. Although modern planning and design of dams is good, in the past old dams have
been known to be breached (the dam gives under the weight of water in the lake). This
has led to deaths and flooding.

7. Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country usually means that the
water supply from the same river in the following country is out of their control. This
can lead to serious problems between neighbouring countries.

8. Building a large dam alters the natural water table level. For example, the building of
the Aswan Dam in Egypt has altered the level of the water table. This is slowly leading to
damage of many of its ancient monuments as salts and destructive minerals are
deposited in the stone work from rising damp caused by the changing water table level.
procedure of rockfill

There is presently little analytical and essentially no observational evidence on

the behavior of the concrete-face of the very popular concrete-faced rockfill
(CFR) dams during strong seismic shaking. The choice of slab thickness and
steel reinforcement is based solely on precedent, with performance under
static loads being the only design consideration. To fill this gap, a dynamic
finite element (FE) procedure is presented to design the concrete-face slab
which involves a realistic modeling for the embankment material, the face
slab, and the slabrockfill interface. A set of historic accelerograms, with peak
ground accelerations (pga) of about 0.60 g, is used as excitation. Numerical
results highlight key aspects of the seismic response of CFR dams with
emphasis on the internal forces developing in the slab. It is shown that slab
distress may be produced only from axial tensile forces, developing mainly
due to the rocking component of dam deformation. For the 0.60 g shaking
tensile stresses much higher than the likely tensile strength of concrete
development in the slab. All analyses in this FE study are performed with the
ADINA special interface elements to model the slip and Newmarks time-
integration algorithm for a direct step-by-step solution.

duration of rockfill
Dam risk analysis is at the heart of dam failure prevention and mitigation. In order to
assess dam risk, it is essential to conduct a quantitative analysis of the process of a
dam breach, which can be described by such parameters as breach geometry,
breaching duration, and peak outflow rate. The main objective of this paper is to
develop robust empirical formulas with physical meaning for predicting dam
breaching parameters based on past dam failure data. A database of 182 earth and
rockfill dam failure cases has been compiled; among these cases nearly one-half are
for large dams higher than 15 m. A multiparameter nonlinear regression model is
recommended to develop empirical relationships between five breaching parameters
(breach depth, breach top width, average breach width, peak outflow rate, and failure
time) and five selected dam and reservoir control variables (dam height, reservoir
shape coefficient, dam type, failure mode, and dam erodibility). The relative
importance of each control variable is evaluated. The dam erodibility is found to be
the most important factor, influencing all five breaching parameters. The reservoir
shape coefficient and the failure mode also play an important role in the prediction
models. Two case studies are presented to show the application of the empirical
models developed in this paper.