Flight Safety Foundation

Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction

Tool Kit
FSF ALAR Briefing Note
7.2 Constant-angle Nonprecision
Approach

Planning and conducting a nonprecision approach are Statistical Data

challenging tasks that involve:
Decision making on strategies and options; The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force found that CFIT was involved
Task-sharing; in 37 percent of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and serious
Crew resource management (e.g., crew coordination, incidents worldwide in 1984 through 1997, and that 57 percent
cross-check and backup); and, of the CFIT accidents and incidents occurred during step-down
nonprecision approaches.3
Controlled-flight-into-terrain (CFIT) risk awareness
(e.g., awareness of the requirement for immediate The task force recommended expedited implementation
response to a ground-proximity warning system [GPWS] worldwide of constant-angle nonprecision approach (CANPA)
warning or a terrain awareness and warning system procedures and training flight crews to properly use such
[TAWS]1 warning). procedures.

Nonprecision approaches have common features but require

approach-specific techniques, depending on the navaids being Definition
used or on the strategy being used for:
A nonprecision approach is an instrument approach that does
Lateral navigation and vertical navigation; not incorporate vertical guidance (i.e., no glideslope).
Descent from the final approach fix (FAF) to the
minimum descent altitude/height (MDA[H]); and, This discussion will include nonprecision instrument
approaches that use the following navaids: nondirectional
Decision making before or upon reaching the MDA(H). beacon (NDB), very-high-frequency omnidirectional radio
(VOR), localizer (LOC), VOR-DME (distance-measuring
Note: The charted MDA(H) is referenced either to the equipment), LOC-DME and LOC back course (BC).
touchdown zone elevation (TDZE) or to the airport elevation,
which is the highest point in the landing area. The International Instrument approaches normally include three approach segments:
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines MDA(H) as:
obstacle clearance altitude/height (OCA[H]) plus 30 feet.2 Initial approach:

FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST AUGUSTNOVEMBER 2000 139

 Beginning at an initial approach fix (IAF) and ending The VDP location is defined by:
at the intermediate fix (IF), if defined; and,
Distance from a VOR-DME or LOC-DME; or,
With obstacle clearance of 1,000 feet; Time from the FAF.
Intermediate approach:
The VDP should be considered the last point from which a
From the IF to the final approach fix (FAF); and, stabilized approach can be conducted (Table 1).
With obstacle clearance of 500 feet; and,
CANPA Benefits
Final approach:
From the FAF to the MDA(H), visual descent point Traditional step-down approaches are based on an obstacle-
(VDP) or missed approach point (MAP); and, clearance profile; such approaches are not optimum for modern
turbine aircraft and turboprop aircraft.
With obstacle clearance of 250 feet.

During the intermediate approach, the aircraft is configured Table 1

for the final approach as follows:
Recommended Elements
Configuration established (landing flaps and landing Of a Stabilized Approach
gear extended);
All flights must be stabilized by 1,000 feet above
Airspeed stabilized at the final approach speed; airport elevation in instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC) and by 500 feet above airport
Aircraft aligned with the final approach course; and, elevation in visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
An approach is stabilized when all of the following
Landing checklist and briefings completed. criteria are met:
1. The aircraft is on the correct flight path;
The CANPA final approach features a constant-angle descent
using the vertical-speed mode or the flight-path vector (as 2. Only small changes in heading/pitch are required to
maintain the correct flight path;
available), with altitude-distance checks.
3. The aircraft speed is not more than VREF + 20 knots
indicated airspeed and not less than VREF;
VDP Concept 4. The aircraft is in the correct landing configuration;
5. Sink rate is no greater than 1,000 feet per minute; if
The VDP is the location at the MDA(H) where the aircraft can an approach requires a sink rate greater than 1,000
be flown on approximately a three-degree glide path to the feet per minute, a special briefing should be
runway (Figure 1). conducted;
6. Power setting is appropriate for the aircraft
configuration and is not below the minimum power
for approach as defined by the aircraft operating
manual;
Visual Descent Point Provides
7. All briefings and checklists have been conducted;
Normal Descent to Runway
8. Specific types of approaches are stabilized if they
also fulfill the following: instrument landing system
(ILS) approaches must be flown within one dot of
the glideslope and localizer; a Category II or
Category III ILS approach must be flown within the
Decision Go-around
expanded localizer band; during a circling
approach, wings should be level on final when the
V M aircraft reaches 300 feet above airport elevation;
MDA(H)
and,
Land
9. Unique approach procedures or abnormal
FAF VDP MAP conditions requiring a deviation from the above
elements of a stabilized approach require a special
briefing.
FAF = Final approach fix
An approach that becomes unstabilized below 1,000
MDA(H) = Minimum descent altitude/height
VDP = Visual descent point
feet above airport elevation in IMC or below 500 feet
MAP = Missed approach point
above airport elevation in VMC requires an immediate
go-around.
Source: Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force Source: Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force (V1.1 November 2000)

Figure 1

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 Flying a constant-angle approach profile: CFIT Awareness
Provides a more stabilized flight path;
During the final descent to the MDA(H), both pilots must
Reduces workload; and, monitor the flight path to ensure that descent is not
Reduces the risk of error. continued through a charted step-down altitude before
reaching the associated charted fix (DME distance or other
reference).
Strategies and Options
A GPWS/TAWS warning in instrument meteorological
Planning for a nonprecision approach requires several decisions conditions (IMC) or night conditions demands an immediate
on the following strategies and options: pull-up maneuver.

Lateral navigation:
Descending Below MDA(H)
Use of selected modes (heading or localizer); or,
Use of the flight management system (FMS) lateral- During a nonprecision approach, the pilot flying (PF) is either
navigation (LNAV) mode down to MDA(H) or until hand-flying the aircraft or supervising AP operation; the pilot
LOC interception; not flying (PNF) is responsible for acquiring and calling out
the visual references.
Vertical navigation:
Use of selected modes (altitude hold and vertical Continuing the approach below the MDA(H) is permitted only
speed); or, if at least one of the required visual references is distinctly
visible and identifiable by the PF.
Use of the FMS vertical-navigation (VNAV) mode
down to the FAF (or beyond, as applicable in A nonprecision approach is completed visually with a hand-
accordance with the aircraft operating manual flown landing, or a go-around is conducted.
[AOM]/quick reference handbook [QRH]), and use
of the vertical-speed mode down to the MDA(H);
and, SOPs and Standard Calls
Final descent from the FAF: Task-sharing, standard calls and altitude-deviation and
Constant-angle descent with the decision made before parameter-deviation calls are especially important during a
or upon reaching MDA(H). nonprecision approach.
The requirement to make the final-descent decision The following overview outlines the actions and standard calls
before or upon reaching the MDA(H) depends upon required by standard operating procedures (SOPs) and
applicable operating regulations about descent below illustrates the typical phases of the approach and the sequence
the MDA(H) during a go-around maneuver. The of decisions involved in a nonprecision approach.
CANPA MDA(H) may be considered a DA(H) only
if the approach has been surveyed and approved by
Descent/Approach Preparation
the appropriate regulatory authorities.
Anticipate and confirm the runway in use and the type
A nonprecision approach may be conducted using either: of approach to be conducted;
Lateral-navigation guidance, with monitoring of raw Define the approach strategy for lateral navigation:
data4;
Select heading mode and raw data (or VOR mode, if
Raw data only; allowed for navigation in terminal areas); or,
Flight-path director, with or without the autopilot (AP) Select FMS LNAV mode with monitoring of raw data,
engaged; or, provided that the approach is defined in the FMS
navigation database and that FMS navigation
Raw data supported by the flight-path vector (as
accuracy meets the criteria for approach;
available on the primary flight display [PFD] or head-
up display [HUD]). Define the approach strategy for vertical navigation:
Vertical-speed mode; or,
A nonprecision approach may be conducted with the AP
engaged. FMS VNAV mode down to the FAF (or beyond, as
applicable, in accordance with the AOM/QRH), then
The autothrottle system should remain in the speed mode. vertical-speed mode down to the MDA(H);

FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST AUGUSTNOVEMBER 2000 141

 Insert the desired standard terminal arrival (STAR) Keep both navigation displays (NDs) in MAP mode
and approach (from the database) in the FMS flight (unless FMS navigation accuracy is greater than one
plan; nautical mile [nm], or per applicable SOPs);
Enter the descent winds and surface winds on the If the FMS LNAV mode is used:
appropriate FMS page, as applicable;
Check the FMS navigation accuracy level (e.g., R/I
Enter the landing configuration and wind correction on or HIGH or [], depending on the FMS type and
the appropriate FMS page, as applicable; standard);
If the VNAV mode is authorized after the FAF, enter Check the NDs for correct flight plan and for correct
the MDA(H) on the appropriate FMS page, as TO WPT;
applicable;
Confirm that the FMS LNAV mode is shown on the
Set up navaids (identify, as required); and, flight-mode annunciator (FMA); and,
Plan the descent to reach the IAF at the prescribed Maintain both NDs in MAP mode (in accordance
altitude and planned airspeed. with the AOM/QRH);
Adjust the descent rate to reach the IAF at the charted/
Approach Briefing
prescribed altitude and target airspeed;
Check FMS navigation accuracy (usually by ensuring Establish the desired configuration (clean or slats
that the FMS bearing/distance to a tuned VOR-DME extended) and airspeed; and,
and the radio magnetic indicator [RMI] raw data agree
according to criteria defined in SOPs) and confirm Adjust weather radar gain and tilt, as applicable, for
strategies for lateral navigation and vertical navigation optimum use of the system for weather avoidance or
(i.e., FMS or selected guidance); enhanced horizontal situational awareness.
Review terrain features, location of obstacles and Upon Reaching the IAF or Holding Fix
obstacle clearances;
If the FMS LNAV mode will be used beyond the IAF
Confirm the minimum safe altitude (MSA); or holding fix, keep both NDs in MAP mode if the
Review the approach procedure (altitudes, bearings and FMS is certified as sole means of navigation for
headings); approach otherwise, one ND must be used to
monitor raw data;
Review the approach vertical profile (step-down
altitudes) and MDA(H); If selected heading mode or localizer mode will be used
to capture and to track the final approach course, set the
Set and check the MDA(H) on the barometric-altimeter PFs ND to the arc or horizontal situation indicator
bug; (HSI)-type display; and,
Review the expected visual references (approach lighting The PNF may keep the ND in MAP mode (with
and runway lighting); display of airspeed and altitude restrictions) for
Review the missed approach procedure; situational awareness.

Confirm the timing from the FAF to the MAP or to the While Holding or When Appropriate
VDP, or confirm the DME reading for the VDP;
Configure the aircraft (slats extended only or approach flaps)
Confirm the navaids (frequencies, courses and
and establish the associated maneuvering speed.
identifications);
Compute the expected groundspeed; Exiting the Holding Pattern
Confirm the published vertical speed or computed
Select the holding EXIT prompt to allow the correct
vertical speed for the final descent; and,
sequencing of the FMS flight plan.
Confirm use of the flight director (FD) or the flight-
path director (as applicable). After Leaving the Holding Pattern
If the FMS LNAV mode is not used, use the selected
Before Reaching the IAF/Holding Fix
heading mode (or the VOR mode, if allowed for
Keep the AP engaged with FMS or selected lateral- terminal area navigation; or the track mode, as
navigation mode and vertical-navigation mode, as available) to intercept the final approach course, as
desired; follows:

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 For an NDB approach, set the final approach course During the Descent to the MDA(H)
on the ILS course selector; this will set the ILS
Monitor the raw data (vertical speed, flight-path vector
course pointer on the ND and provide a course
[as available], course, distances, altitudes) and call the
reference;
vertical profile for correct slope and track (i.e., at each
For a VOR or VOR-DME approach, set the final altitude/distance check):
approach course on the VOR course selector, but do
Cross-check and call the altitude deviation;
not arm the VOR mode. Capture and track the VOR
course using the selected heading/track mode; or, Adjust vertical speed, as required; and,
For a LOC or LOC-DME approach, set the final Call the next fix (or DME distance) and crossing
approach course on the ILS course selector and arm altitude; and,
the localizer mode; and,
Set the altitude selector per applicable SOPs (usually,
To prepare for re-engaging the LNAV mode for a go- the go-around altitude).
around, check the correct FMS flight plan sequencing
(the TO WPT must be the FAF; if not, program a DIR Approaching the MDA(H)
TO the FAF).
At an altitude corresponding to the MDA(H) plus 1/10 the
Before Reaching the FAF rate of descent (typically MDA[H] plus 50 feet to 100 feet),
anticipate a go-around decision to avoid descent below the
Align the aircraft within five degrees of the final
MDA(H), as required by applicable regulations.
approach course;
Extend the landing gear; At the MDA(H)
Arm the ground spoilers;
If adequate visual references are acquired:
Set landing flaps;
Disconnect the AP and continue the approach visually
Enter the target final approach speed; (the autothrottles may remain engaged in speed mode
down to the retard point, as applicable).
Set the go-around altitude (if the go-around altitude is
the same as the FAF crossing altitude, set the go-around
If adequate visual references are not acquired:
altitude only after beginning the final descent);
Initiate a go-around climb; and,
Conduct the LANDING checklist;
Overfly the MAP (to guarantee obstacle clearance during
If the FMS VNAV mode will be used after the FAF, enter
the go-around) and fly the published missed approach
the published or computed vertical speed and course;
procedure.
If the flight-path vector will be used after the FAF (as
available on the PFD or HUD), enter the published or (ICAO says that although the flight crew should overfly the
computed flight-path angle and track; and, MAP before conducting the published missed approach
procedure, this does not preclude flying over the [MAP] at
If the VNAV mode is not authorized beyond the FAF,
an altitude/height greater than that required by the procedure
deselect the VNAV mode by selecting the altitude-hold
[as shown in Figure 1].) 5
mode or the vertical-speed mode, as required.

Approaching the FAF Nonprecision Approach Factors

Typically 0.3 nautical mile (nm) to 0.2 nm before reaching the Training feedback and line-operations experience have shown
FAF, to begin descent at the FAF on profile: that the nonprecision approach is affected by:
Engage the VNAV mode and check mode engagement Incorrect or outdated instrument approach chart;
on the FMA;
Late descent preparation;
Enter the published (or computed) vertical speed, as a
function of the groundspeed; FMS navigation accuracy not checked;
FMS flight plan not correctly programmed;
Select the flight-path vector display (as available);
Failure to monitor raw data;
Start timing (as required); and,
Navaids not tuned correctly (frequency or course);
Cross-check and call the next fix (or DME distance, as
applicable) and crossing altitude. Incomplete briefing;

FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST AUGUSTNOVEMBER 2000 143

 Incorrect choice of autopilot modes; 4.2 Energy Management;
Incorrect entry of autopilot targets (e.g., airspeed, 7.1 Stabilized Approach; and,
heading, altitude) or autothrottle targets;
7.3 Visual References.
Inadequate cross-check and backup by the PF/PNF;
Inaccurate tracking of the final approach course, using References
the selected heading (or track) mode;
1. Terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) is the term
Late configuration of aircraft; used by the European Joint Aviation Authorities and the
Final approach speed not stabilized at FAF; U.S. Federal Aviation Administration to describe
equipment meeting International Civil Aviation
Failure to include prevailing head-wind component in Organization standards and recommendations for ground-
computing the vertical speed for the final constant-angle proximity warning system (GPWS) equipment that
descent; provides predictive terrain-hazard warnings. Enhanced
No timing or positive identification of the VDP or MAP; GPWS and ground collision avoidance system are other
terms used to describe TAWS equipment.
Inadequate monitoring of raw data;
2. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Procedures
Incorrect identification of the FAF; for Air Navigation Services. Aircraft Operations. Volume I,
Go-around altitude not entered; and, Flight Procedures. Fourth edition, 1993. Reprinted May
2000, incorporating Amendments 110.
Premature descent to the next step-down altitude (if
multiple step-downs) or below the MDA(H). 3. Flight Safety Foundation. Killers in Aviation: FSF Task
Force Presents Facts About Approach-and-landing and
Controlled-flight-into-terrain Accidents. Flight Safety
Summary
Digest Volume 17 (NovemberDecember 1998) and
Volume 18 (JanuaryFebruary 1999): 1121. The facts
Successful nonprecision approaches include:
presented by the FSF ALAR Task Force were based on
Determining the type of guidance to be used; analyses of 287 fatal approach-and-landing accidents
(ALAs) that occurred in 1980 through 1996 involving
Preparing the FMS, as applicable;
turbine aircraft weighing more than 12,500 pounds/5,700
Completing an approach briefing; kilograms, detailed studies of 76 ALAs and serious incidents
in 1984 through 1997 and audits of about 3,300 flights.
Planning aircraft configuration setup;
4. The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing
Monitoring descent;
Accident Reduction (ALAR) Task Force defines raw data
Managing aircraft energy condition during intermediate as data received directly (not via the flight director or
approach and final approach; flight management computer) from basic navigation aids
(e.g., ADF, VOR, DME, barometric altimeter).
Not descending below an altitude before reaching the
associated fix; 5. ICAO. Manual of All-Weather Operations. Second edition
1991.
Determining the correct angle (vertical speed) for the
final descent;
Beginning the descent at the correct point; Related Reading from FSF Publications
Maintaining the correct flight-path angle (vertical speed)
FSF Editorial Staff. Collision with Antenna Guy Wire Severs
during the final descent;
Jets Wing During Nonprecision Approach. Accident
Acquiring visual references and making the decision to Prevention Volume 54 (October 1997).
land; and,
FSF Editorial Staff. During Nonprecision Approach at Night,
Preparing for a go-around.
MD-83 Descends Below Minimum Descent Altitude and
Contacts Trees, Resulting in Engine Flame-out and Touchdown
The following FSF ALAR Briefing Notes provide information
Short of Runway. Accident Prevention Volume 54 (April 1997).
to supplement this discussion:
1.1 Operating Philosophy; Enders, John H.; Dodd, Robert; Tarrel, Rick; Khatwa, Ratan;
Roelen, Alfred L.C.; Karwal, Arun K. Airport Safety: A study
1.4 Standard Calls;
of Accidents and Available Approach-and-landing Aids. Flight
1.6 Approach Briefing; Safety Digest Volume 15 (March 1996).

144 FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST AUGUSTNOVEMBER 2000

 FSF Editorial Staff. Different Altimeter Displays and Crew flight-into-terrain Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 51
Fatigue Likely Contributed to Canadian Controlled-flight-into- (September 1994).
terrain Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (December
1995). Regulatory Resource
Lawton, Russell. Breakdown in Coordination by Commuter U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Special Notice to
Crew During Unstabilized Approach Results in Controlled- Airmen AFS-420 (11/26/99).

Notice
The Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Approach-and-landing Accident Flight management system;
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force has produced this briefing note to Automatic ground spoilers;
help prevent ALAs, including those involving controlled flight into
terrain. The briefing note is based on the task forces data-driven Autobrakes;
conclusions and recommendations, as well as data from the U.S. Thrust reversers;
Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) Joint Safety Analysis Manufacturers/operators standard operating procedures; and,
Team (JSAT) and the European Joint Aviation Authorities Safety
Strategy Initiative (JSSI). Two-person flight crew.

The briefing note has been prepared primarily for operators and pilots This briefing note is one of 34 briefing notes that comprise a
of turbine-powered airplanes with underwing-mounted engines (but fundamental part of the FSF ALAR Tool Kit, which includes a variety
can be adapted for fuselage-mounted turbine engines, turboprop- of other safety products that have been developed to help prevent
powered aircraft and piston-powered aircraft) and with the following: ALAs.
Glass flight deck (i.e., an electronic flight instrument system This information is not intended to supersede operators or
with a primary flight display and a navigation display); manufacturers policies, practices or requirements, and is not
Integrated autopilot, flight director and autothrottle systems; intended to supersede government regulations.

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