Third Edition

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

2 MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf

Lecture Notes:
Stress and Strain
Axial Loading
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University

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Contents

Stress & Strain: Axial Loading Generalized Hookes Law

Normal Strain Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Stress-Strain Test Shearing Strain
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials Example 2.10
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials Relation Among E, , and G
Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity Sample Problem 2.5
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior Composite Materials
Fatigue Saint-Venants Principle
Deformations Under Axial Loading Stress Concentration: Hole
Example 2.01 Stress Concentration: Fillet
Sample Problem 2.1 Example 2.12
Static Indeterminacy Elastoplastic Materials
Example 2.04 Plastic Deformations
Thermal Stresses Residual Stresses
Poissons Ratio Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

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Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in

the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics
analyses alone are not sufficient.

Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member

forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate.

Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires

consideration of deformations in the member.

Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under

axial loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending
loads.

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Normal Strain

P 2P P P
= = stress = = =
A 2A A A
2
= = normal strain = = =
L L 2L L
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Stress-Strain Test

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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

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Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity

Below the yield stress

= E
E = Youngs Modulusor
Modulus of Elasticity

Strength is affected by alloying,

heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.

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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

If the strain disappears when the

stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.

The largest stress for which this

occurs is called the elastic limit.

When the strain does not return

to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
behave plastically.

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Fatigue

Fatigue properties are shown on

S-N diagrams.

A member may fail due to fatigue

at stress levels significantly below
the ultimate strength if subjected
to many loading cycles.

When the stress is reduced below

the endurance limit, fatigue
failures do not occur for any
number of cycles.

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Deformations Under Axial Loading

From Hookes Law:

P
= E = =
E AE
From the definition of strain:

=
L

Equating and solving for the deformation,

PL
=
AE

With variations in loading, cross-section or

material properties,
PL
= i i
i Ai Ei

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Example 2.01

SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.

Apply a free-body analysis on each

E = 29 106 psi component to determine the
D = 1.07 in. d = 0.618 in. internal force

Evaluate the total of the component

Determine the deformation of deflections.
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.

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SOLUTION: Apply free-body analysis to each

component to determine internal forces,
Divide the rod into three
components: P1 = 60 103 lb

P2 = 15 10 3 lb

P3 = 30 103 lb

Evaluate total deflection,

PL 1PL P L P L
= i i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
i Ai Ei E A1 A2 A3

=
1

( ) (
+
) (
60 103 12 15 103 12 30 10 3 16
+
)
6
29 10 0 .9 0 .9 0 .3
= 75.9 10 3 in.

L1 = L2 = 12 in. L3 = 16 in.
= 75.9 10 3 in.
2
A1 = A2 = 0.9 in A3 = 0 .3 in 2

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Sample Problem 2.1

SOLUTION:
Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
Evaluate the deformation of links AB
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two and DC or the displacements of B
links AB and CD. and D.

Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 Work out the geometry to find the

GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500 deflection at E given the deflections
2
mm . Link CD is made of steel (E = 200 at B and D.
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600
mm2 ).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.

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Sample Problem 2.1

SOLUTION: Displacement of B:
PL
Free body: Bar BDE B =
AE

=
( 60 103 N )(0.3 m)
(500 10-6 m2 )(70 109 Pa)
= 514 10 6 m
B = 0.514 mm
MB = 0
Displacement of D:
0 = (30kN 0.6 m) + FCD 0.2 m
PL
FCD = +90 kN tension D =
AE
MD = 0
=
(90 103 N )(0.4 m )
0 = (30kN 0.4 m) FAB 0.2 m (600 10- 6 m2 )(200 109 Pa)
FAB = 60kN compression = 300 10 6 m

D = 0.300 mm

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Sample Problem 2.1

Displacement of D:

BB BH
=
DD HD
0.514 mm (200 mm) x
=
0.300mm x
x = 73.7 mm

EE HE
=
DD HD
E
=
(400 + 73.7)mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
E = 1.928 mm

E = 1.928 mm

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Static Indeterminacy
Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are said
to be statically indeterminate.

A structure will be statically indeterminate

whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.

Redundant reactions are replaced with

unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.

Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

reactions are determined separately and then added
or superposed.
= L +R = 0

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Example 2.04
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.

SOLUTION:
Consider the reaction at B as redundant, release
the bar from that support, and solve for the
displacement at B due to the applied loads.

Solve for the displacement at B due to the

redundant reaction at B.

Require that the displacements due to the loads

and due to the redundant reaction be compatible,
i.e., require that their sum be zero.

Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads

and the reaction found at B.
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Example 2.04
SOLUTION:
Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads with the redundant constraint released,
P1 = 0 P2 = P3 = 600 10 3 N P4 = 900 10 3 N

A1 = A2 = 400 10 6 m 2 A3 = A4 = 250 10 6 m2
L1 = L2 = L3 = L4 = 0 .150 m

P L 1 .125 10 9
L = i i =
i Ai Ei E

Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant

constraint,
P1 = P2 = RB

A1 = 400 10 6 m2 A2 = 250 10 6 m2
L1 = L2 = 0 .300 m

PL
dR = i i =
(
1.95 103 RB )
i Ai Ei E
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Example 2.04
Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
= L + R = 0

=
(
1.125 109 1.95 103 RB
=0
)
E E
RB = 577 103 N = 577 kN

Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

Fy = 0 = R A 300 kN 600 kN + 577 kN
RA = 323 kN

RA = 323 kN
RB = 577 kN

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Thermal Stresses
A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
PL
T = ( T ) L P =
AE
= thermal expansion coef.
The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
= T +P = 0 =T + P = 0
P = AE ( T )
PL
(T )L + =0 P
AE = = E (T )
A

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Poissons Ratio

For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x = x y = z = 0
E

The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y =z 0

Poissons ratio is defined as

lateral strain y
= = = z
axial strain x x

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Generalized Hookes Law

For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,

the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small

With these restrictions:

x y z
x = +
E E E
x y z
y = +
E E E
x y z
z = +
E E E

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Dilatation: Bulk Modulus

Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
[ ( ) ] [
e = 1 (1 + x ) 1 + y (1 + z ) = 1 1 + x + y + z ]
= x + y + z

=
1 2
E
(
x + y + z )
= dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)

For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

3(1 2 ) p
e = p =
E k
E
k= = bulk modulus
3(1 2 )

Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

negative, therefore
0 < < 12

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Shearing Strain

A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will

deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,
xy = f ( xy )

A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar the

previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
xy = G xy yz = G yz zx = G zx

where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

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Example 2.10
SOLUTION:
Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
Apply Hookes law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
A rectangular block of material with
modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is Use the definition of shearing stress to
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates. find the force P.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and b)
the force P exerted on the plate.

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Determine the average angular deformation

or shearing strain of the block.
0.04in.
xy tan xy = xy = 0.020 rad
2 in.

Apply Hookes law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.
( )
xy = G xy = 90 103 psi (0.020rad ) = 1800psi

Use the definition of shearing stress to find

the force P.
P = xy A = (1800psi)(8 in.)(2.5 in.) = 36 103 lb

P = 36 .0 kips

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Relation Among E, , and G

An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.
An initially cubic element oriented as in
top figure will deform into a rectangular
parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.
If the cubic element is oriented as in the
bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear
strain.
Components of normal and shear strain are
related,
E
= (1 + )
2G

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Sample Problem 2.5

A circle of diameter d = 9 in. is scribed on an

unstressed aluminum plate of thickness t = 3/4
in. Forces acting in the plane of the plate later
cause normal stresses x = 12 ksi and z = 20
ksi.
For E = 10x106 psi and = 1/3, determine the
change in:
a) the length of diameter AB,
b) the length of diameter C D,
c) the thickness of the plate, and
d) the volume of the plate.

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SOLUTION:
Apply the generalized Hookes Law Evaluate the deformation components.
to find the three components of
normal strain.
( )
B A = x d = + 0 .533 10 3 in./in. (9 in.)

y z B A = + 4.8 103 in.

x = + x
E E E
( )
C D = z d = + 1.600103 in./in. (9in.)

=
1
(12 ksi ) 0 1 (20 ksi )
10 106 psi 3 C D = +14.4 10 3 in.

= +0.533103in./in. ( )
t = y t = 1.067103 in./in. (0.75in.)
x y z
y = + t = 0 .800 10 3 in.
E E E
= 1.067 10 3in./in.
Find the change in volume
x y z
z = + e = x + y + z = 1.06710 3 in3/in 3
E E E
= +1.600103 in./in. V = eV = 1.067 103 (15 15 0.75)in3
V = +0.187in3

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Composite Materials
Fiber-reinforced composite materials are formed
from lamina of fibers of graphite, glass, or
polymers embedded in a resin matrix.

Normal stresses and strains are related by Hookes

Law but with directionally dependent moduli of
elasticity,
y
Ex = x E y = Ez = z
x y z

Transverse contractions are related by directionally

dependent values of Poissons ratio, e.g.,
y
xy = xz = z
x x

Materials with directionally dependent mechanical

properties are anisotropic.

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Saint-Venants Principle
Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.

Concentrated loads result in large

stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.

Stress and strain distributions

become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.

Saint-Venants Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
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Stress Concentration: Hole

Discontinuities of cross section may result in max

K=
high localized or concentrated stresses. ave

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Stress Concentration: Fillet

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Example 2.12

SOLUTION:
Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
Determine the largest axial load P
that can be safely supported by a Find the allowable average normal
flat steel bar consisting of two stress using the material allowable
portions, both 10 mm thick, and normal stress and the stress
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide, concentration factor.
connected by fillets of radius r = 8 Apply the definition of normal stress to
mm. Assume an allowable normal find the allowable load.
stress of 165 MPa.

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Determine the geometric ratios and

find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
D 60 mm r 8mm
= = 1.50 = = 0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K = 1.82

Find the allowable average normal

stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
165 MPa
ave = max = = 90.7 MPa
K 1.82

Apply the definition of normal stress

to find the allowable load.
P = A ave = (40 mm)(10 mm)(90.7 MPa )

= 36.3103 N
P = 36.3 kN

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Elastoplastic Materials
Previous analyses based on assumption of
linear stress-strain relationship, i.e.,
stresses below the yield stress
Assumption is good for brittle material
which rupture without yielding
If the yield stress of ductile materials is
exceeded, then plastic deformations occur
Analysis of plastic deformations is
simplified by assuming an idealized
elastoplastic material
Deformations of an elastoplastic material
are divided into elastic and plastic ranges
Permanent deformations result from
loading beyond the yield stress

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Plastic Deformations

max A Elastic deformation while maximum

P = ave A =
K stress is less than yield stress

Maximum stress is equal to the yield

A
PY = Y stress at the maximum elastic
K
loading

At loadings above the maximum

elastic load, a region of plastic
deformations develop near the hole
As the loading increases, the plastic
PU = Y A region expands until the section is at
= K PY a uniform stress equal to the yield
stress

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Residual Stresses

When a single structural element is loaded uniformly

beyond its yield stress and then unloaded, it is permanently
deformed but all stresses disappear. This is not the general
result.
Residual stresses will remain in a structure after
loading and unloading if
- only part of the structure undergoes plastic
deformation
- different parts of the structure undergo different
plastic deformations

Residual stresses also result from the uneven heating or

cooling of structures or structural elements

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Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

A cylindrical rod is placed inside a tube

of the same length. The ends of the rod
and tube are attached to a rigid support
on one side and a rigid plate on the
other. The load on the rod-tube
assembly is increased from zero to 5.7
kips and decreased back to zero.
a) draw a load-deflection diagram
for the rod-tube assembly Ar = 0.075in.2 At = 0.100in.2

b) determine the maximum Er = 30 106 psi Et = 15 106 psi

elongation s Y , r = 36 ksi s Y , t = 45ksi

c) determine the permanent set

d) calculate the residual stresses in
the rod and tube.

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Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

a) draw a load-deflection diagram for the rod-
tube assembly
( )
PY ,r = Y ,r Ar = (36 ksi ) 0.075in 2 = 2.7 kips

Y,r 36 103psi
dY,r = Y , r L = L= 30in. = 36 10-3 in.
EY , r 30 106 psi

( )
PY ,t = Y , t At = (45ksi ) 0.100in 2 = 4.5 kips

Y ,t 45 103 psi
dY,t = Y , t L = L= 30in. = 90 10-3 in.
EY ,t 15 106 psi

P = Pr + Pt
= r = t

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b,c) determine the maximum elongation and permanent set
Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16
at a load of P = 5.7 kips, the rod has reached the
plastic range while the tube is still in the elastic range
Pr = PY , r = 2 .7 kips

Pt = P Pr = (5 .7 2.7 ) kips = 3 .0 kips

P 3 .0 kips
t = t = = 30 ksi
At 0.1in 2
3
30 10 psi
t = tL = t L = 30 in. max = t = 60 103 in.
Et 15 10 6 psi

the rod-tube assembly unloads along a line parallel to

0Yr
4.5 kips
m= = 125kips in. = slope
36 10-3 in.
P 5.7 kips
= max = = 45.6 103 in.
m 125kips in.

p = max + = (60 45.6)103 in. p = 14.4 10 3 in.

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Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

calculate the residual stresses in the rod and tube.
calculate the reverse stresses in the rod and tube
caused by unloading and add them to the maximum
stresses.

45.6 10 3 in.
= = = 1 .52 10 3 in. in.
L 30 in.

( )( )
r = Er = 1.52 10 3 30 106 psi = 45 .6 ksi

t = Et = ( 1 .52 10 )(15 10 psi ) = 22.8 ksi

3 6

residual, r = r + r = (36 45.6 ) ksi = 9 .6 ksi

residual,t = t + t = (30 22.8 )ksi = 7.2 ksi

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