DRILL

A drill is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool attachment, usually
a drill bit or driver bit, used for drilling holes in various materials or fastening various
materials together with the use of fasteners. The attachment is gripped by a chuck at
one end of the drill and rotated while pressed against the target material. The tip, and
sometimes edges, of the cutting tool does the work of cutting into the target material.
This may be slicing off thin shavings (twist drills or auger bits), grinding off small
particles (oil drilling), crushing and removing pieces of the workpiece (SDS masonry
drill), countersinking, counterboring, or other operations.

Drills are commonly used in woodworking, metalworking, construction and do-it-

yourself projects. Specially designed drills are also used in medicine, space missions
and other applications. Drills are available with a wide variety of performance
characteristics, such as power and capacity.
History

A wooden drill handle and other carpentry tools found on board the 16th
century carrack Mary Rose.
Around 35,000 BCE, Homo sapiens discovered the benefits of the application of rotary
tools. This would have rudimentarily consisted of a pointed rock being spun between the
hands to bore a hole through another material.[1] This led to the hand drill, a smooth
stick, that was sometimes attached to flint point, and was rubbed between the palms.
This was used by many ancient civilizations around the world including
the Mayans.[2] The earliest perforated artifacts, such
as bone, ivory, shells and antlersfound, are from the Upper Paleolithic era.[3]

Bow drill (strap-drills) are the first machine drills, as they convert a back-and forth
motion to a rotary motion, and they can be traced back to around 10,000 years ago. It
was discovered that tying a cord around a stick, and then attaching the ends of the
string to the ends of a stick(a bow), allowed a user to drill quicker and more efficiently.
Mainly used to create fire, bow-drills were also used in ancient woodwork, stonework
and dentistry. Archeologist discovered a Neolithic grave yard in Mehrgrath, Pakistan
dating from the time of the Harappans, around 7,500-9,000 years ago, containing 9
adult bodies with a total of 11 teeth that had been drilled. [4]There
are hieroglyphs depicting Egyptian carpenters and bead makers in a tomb
at Thebes using bow-drills. The earliest evidence of these tools being used
in Egypt dates back to around 2500 BCE.[5]The usage of bow-drills was widely spread
through Europe, Africa, Asia and North America, during ancient times and is still used
today. Over the years many slight variations of bow and strap drills have developed for
the various uses of either boring through materials or lighting fires.

The core drill was developed in ancient Egypt by 3000 BC.[6] The pump drill was
invented during Roman times, it consists of a vertical spindle aligned by a piece of
horizontal wood and a flywheel to maintain accuracy and momentum.[7]

The hollow-borer tip, first used around the 13th century, consisted of a stick with a
tubular shaped piece of metal on the end, such as copper. This allowed a hole to be
drilled while only actually grinding the outer section of it. This completely separates the
inner stone or wood from the rest, allowing the drill to pulverize less material to create a
similar sized hole.[8]

While the pump-drill and the bow-drill were used in Western Civilization to bore smaller
holes for a larger part of human history, the Auger was used to drill larger holes starting
sometime between Roman and Medieval ages.[9] The auger allowed for more torque for
larger holes. It is uncertain when the Brace and Bit was invented however the earliest
picture found so far dates from the 15th century.[9] It is a type of hand crank drill that
consists of two parts as seen in the picture. The brace, on the upper half, where the
user holds and turns it and on the lower part is the bit. The bit is interchangeable as bits
wear down. The auger uses a rotating helical screw similar to the Archimedean screw
shaped bit that is common today. The gimlet is also worth mentioning as it is scaled
down version of an auger.

In the East, churn drills were invented as early as 221 BC during the Chinese Qin
Dynasty,[10] capable of reaching a depth of 1500 m.[6] Churn drills in ancient China were
built of wood and labor intensive, but were able to go through solid rock. [11] The churn
drill appears in Europe during the 12th century.[6] In 1835 Isaac Singer is reported to
have built a steam powered churn drill based off the method the Chinese used. [12] Also
worth briefly discussing are the early drill presses, they were machine tools that derived
from bow-drills but were powered by windmills and water wheels. Drill presses
consisted of the powered drills that could be raised or lowered into a material, allowing
for less force by the user.

The next great advancement in drilling technology, the electric motor, led to the
invention of the electric drill. It is credited to Arthur James Arnot and William Blanch
Brain ofMelbourne, Australia who patented the electric drill in 1889.[13] In 1895, the first
portable handheld drill was created by brothers, Wilhem & Carl Fein,
from Stuttgart Germany. In 1917 the first trigger switch, pistol-grip portable drill was
patented by Black & Decker.[14] This was the start of the modern drill era. Over the last
century the electric drill has been created to the variety of types, and multiple sizes for
an assortment of specific uses.
Types

Inside an electric drill

There are many types of drills: some are powered manually, others use electricity
(electric drill) or compressed air (pneumatic drill) as the motive power, and a minority
are driven by an internal combustion engine (for example, earth drilling augers). Drills
with a percussive action (hammer drills) are mostly used in hard materials such
as masonry (brick, concrete and stone) or rock. Drilling rigs are used to bore holes in
the earth to obtain water or oil. Oil wells, water wells, or holes for geothermal
heating are created with large drilling rigs. Some types of hand-held drills are also used
to drive screws and other fasteners. Some small appliances that have no motor of their
own may be drill-powered, such as small pumps, grinders, etc.

Carpenter using a crank-powered brace to drill a hole

Hand tools
A variety of hand-powered drills have been employed over the centuries. Here are a
few, starting with approximately the oldest:

Bow drill
Brace and bit
Gimlet
Hand drill, also known as an "eggbeater" drill
Breast drill, similar to an "eggbeater" drill, it has a flat chest piece instead of a
handle
Push drill, a tool using a spiral ratchet mechanism
Pin chuck, a small hand-held jeweler's drill
An old hand drill or "eggbeater" drill. The hollow wooden handle, with screw-on cap, is
used to store drill bits

LATHE

A metalworking lathe from 1911 showing component parts.

a = bed
b = carriage (with cross-slide and toolpost)
c = headstock
d = back gear (other geartrain nearby drives leadscrew)
e = cone pulley for a belt drive from an external power source
f = faceplate mounted on spindle
g = tailstock
h = leadscrew

A watchmaker using a lathe to prepare a component cut from copper.

A lathe /le/ is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform
various operations such as cutting, sanding,knurling, drilling,
or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an
object which has symmetryabout an axis of rotation.
Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, Thermal spraying parts
reclamation, and glass-working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known
design being the potter's wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also
be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or
helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible
complexity. The material can be held in place by either one or two centers, at least one
of which can be moved horizontally to accommodate varying material lengths. Other
work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a
chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dogs.

Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestick holders, gun
barrels, cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments
(especially woodwind instruments), crankshafts, and camshafts.

History

The lathe is an ancient tool, dating at least to ancient Egypt and known and used in
Assyria and ancient Greece.

The origin of turning dates to around 1300 BC when the Ancient Egyptians first
developed a two-person lathe. One person would turn the wood work piece with a rope
while the other used a sharp tool to cut shapes in the wood. Ancient Rome improved the
Egyptian design with the addition of a turning bow. In the Middle Ages a pedal replaced
hand-operated turning, freeing both the craftsman's hands to hold the woodturning
tools. The pedal was usually connected to a pole, often a straight-grained sapling. The
system today is called the "spring pole" lathe. Spring pole lathes were in common use
into the early 20th century.

One of the first lathes in the UK was the Horizontal Boring Machine that was installed
by Jan Verbruggen (article in Dutch Wikipedia)in 1772 in the Royal
Arsenal in Woolwich. It was horse-powered and allowed for the production of much
more accurate and stronger cannon used with success in the American Revolutionary
War late 18th century. One of the key characteristics of this Boring Machine was that
the object was turning as opposed to the tool making it technically a lathe. (see attached
drawing). Henry Maudslay who later developed many improvements to the lathe worked
at the Royal Arsenal from 1783 being exposed to this machine in the Verbruggen
workshop.[1]
Exact Drawing made with Camera Obscura of Horizontal Boring Machine by Jan
Verbruggen in Woolwich Royal Brass Foundry approx 1778 (drawing 47 out of set of 50
drawings)

During the Industrial Revolution, mechanized power generated by water wheels or

steam engines was transmitted to the lathe via line shafting, allowing faster and easier
work. Metalworking lathes evolved into heavier machines with thicker, more rigid parts.
Between the late 19th and mid-20th centuries, individual electric motors at each lathe
replaced line shafting as the power source. Beginning in the
1950s, servomechanism were applied to the control of lathes and other machine tools
via numerical control, which often was coupled with computers to yield computerized
numerical control. Today manually controlled and CNC lathes coexist in the
manufacturing industries.

Descriptio

Parts

Parts of a wood lathe

A lathe may or may not have legs which sits on the floor and elevates the lathe bed to a
working height. Some lathes are small and sit on a workbench or table, and do not have
a stand.

Almost all lathes have a bed, which is (almost always) a horizontal beam
(although CNC lathes commonly have an inclined or vertical beam for a bed to ensure
that swarf, or chips, falls free of the bed). Woodturning lathes specialized for turning
large bowls often have no bed or tail stock, merely a free-standing headstock and a
cantilevered tool rest.

At one end of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the lathe) is a
headstock. The headstock contains high-precision spinning bearings. Rotating within
the bearings is a horizontal axle, with an axis parallel to the bed, called the spindle.
Spindles are often hollow, and have exterior threads and/or an interior Morse taper on
the "inboard" (i.e., facing to the right / towards the bed) by which work-holding
accessories may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have exterior threads
and/or an interior taper at their "outboard" (i.e., facing away from the bed) end, and/or
may have a hand-wheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles
are powered, and impart motion to the workpiece.

Tool and cutter grinder

A tool and cutter grinder is used to sharpen milling cutters and tool bits along with a
host of other cutting tools.

It is an extremely versatile machine used to perform a variety of grinding operations:

surface, cylindrical, or complex shapes. The image shows a manually operated setup,
however highly automated Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines are becoming
increasingly common due to the complexities involved in the process.

The operation of this machine (in particular, the manually operated variety) requires a
high level of skill. The two main skills needed are understanding of the relationship
between the grinding wheel and the metal being cut and knowledge of tool geometry.
The illustrated set-up is only one of many combinations available. The huge variety in
shapes and types of machining cutters requires flexibility in usage. A variety of
dedicated fixtures are included that allow cylindrical grinding operations or complex
angles to be ground. The vise shown can swivel in three planes.

The table moves longitudinally and laterally, the head can swivel as well as being
adjustable in the horizontal plane, as visible in the first image. This flexibility in the head
allows the critical clearance angles required by the various cutters to be achieved.

CNC TOOL AND CUTTER GRINDER

A modern CNC tool grinder with automatic wheel pack exchanger and tool loading
capabilities.

Today's tool and cutter grinder is typically a CNC machine tool, usually 5 axes, which
produces endmills, drills, step tools, etc. which are widely used in the metal cutting and
woodworking industries.

Modern CNC tool and cutter grinders enhance productivity by typically offering features
such as automatic tool loading as well as the ability to support multiple grinding wheels.
High levels of automation, as well as automatic in-machine tool measurement and
compensation, allow extended periods of unmanned production. With careful process
configuration and appropriate tool support, tolerances less than 5 micrometres (0.0002")
can be consistently achieved even on the most complex parts.

Apart from manufacturing, in-machine tool measurement using touch-probe or laser

technology allows cutting tools to be reconditioned. During normal use, cutting edges
either wear and/or chip. The geometric features of cutting tools can be automatically
measured within the CNC tool grinder and the tool ground to return cutting surfaces to
optimal condition.
Significant software advancements have allowed CNC tool and cutter grinders to be
utilized in a wide range of industries. Advanced CNC grinders feature sophisticated
software that allows geometrically complex parts to be designed either parametrically or
by using third party CAD/CAM software. 3D simulation of the entire grinding process
and the finished part is possible as well as detection of any potential mechanical
collisions and calculation of production time. Such features allow parts to be designed
and verified, as well as the production process optimized, entirely within the software
environment.

Tool and cutter grinders can be adapted to manufacturing precision machine

components. The machine, when used for these purposes more likely would be called a
CNC Grinding System.

CNC Grinding Systems are widely used to produce parts for aerospace, medical,
automotive, and other industries. Extremely hard and exotic materials are generally no
problem for today's grinding systems and the multi-axis machines are capable of
generating quite complex geometries.

RADIUS GRINDER

A radius grinder (or radius tool grinder) is a special grinder used for grinding the most
complex tool forms, and is the historical predecessor to the CNC tool and cutter grinder.
Like the CNC grinder, it may be used for other tasks where grinding spherical surfaces
is necessary. The tool itself consists of three parts: The grinder head, work table, and
holding fixture. The grinder head has three degrees of freedom. Vertical movement,
movement into the workpeice, and tilt. These are generally set statically, and left fixed
throughout operations. The work table is a T-slotted X-axis table mounted on top of a
radial fixture. Mounting the X axis on top of the radius table, as opposed to the other
way around, allows for complex and accurate radius grinds. The holding fixtures can be
anything one can mount on a slotted table, but most commonly used is a collet or chuck
fixture that indexes and has a separate Y movement to allow accurate depth setting and
endmill sharpening. The dressers used on these grinders are usually quite expensive,
and can dress the grinding wheel itself with a particular radius.
D-BIT GRINDER

The D-bit grinder is a tool bit grinder that specializes in the grinding of D-bit cutters
for pantograph milling machines. Pantographs are a variety of milling machine used to
create cavities for the dies used in the molding process, they are being rapidly replaced
byCNC machining centers.

WELDING

Gas metal arc welding (MIG welding)

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,

usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done
by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material
(the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in
conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast
with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material
between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the workpieces.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame,
an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an
industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including
open air,under water and in outer space. Welding is a potentially hazardous undertaking
and precautions are required to avoid burns,electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of
poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding,
which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and
hammering. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop
late in the century, and electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding
technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as World War I and World
War II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the
wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual methods
like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well
as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc welding, submerged
arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding. Developments continued
with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam welding,electromagnetic pulse
welding and friction stir welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the science
continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and
researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding
of weld quality.

Processes

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They
can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of
inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used
as well.
Power supplies[edit]
To supply the electrical power necessary for arc welding processes, a variety of
different power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies are
constantcurrent power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the
length of the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related
to the current. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding
processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because
they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important
because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and
as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power
supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often
used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc
welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant,
since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly
rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get
too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and
the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.[1]

The type of current used also plays an important role in arc welding. Consumable
electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding
generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or
negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat
concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode has an impact on
weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be hotter,
increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged
electrode results in more shallow welds.[2] Nonconsumable electrode processes, such
as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as well as alternating
current. However, with direct current, because the electrode only creates the arc and
does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds,
while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. [3] Alternating current rapidly
moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of
AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been
addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern
instead of the normal sine wave, making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing
the effects of the problem.[4]
Arc welding

Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric
arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point.
They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-
consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected by some type
of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic,
or fully automated. First developed in the early part of the 20th century, arc welding
became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War. Today it
remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

Power Supplies
Engine driven welder capable of AC/DC welding.

A diesel powered welding generator (the electric generator is on the left) as used
inIndonesia.

The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding.
Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc
welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively
or negatively. In welding, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat
concentration and, as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode has an impact on
weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, it will melt more quickly,
increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged
electrode results in more shallow welds.[2] Non-consumable electrode processes, such
as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as
alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only
creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode
causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper
welds.[3]Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-
penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after
every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that
produce asquare wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage
time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.[4]

Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes,
within a 10 minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For
example, an 80 A welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes
after 6 minutes of continuous welding.[5] Failure to observe duty cycle limitations could
damage the welder. Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100%
duty cycle.

CNC ROUTER

A CNC router is a computer controlled shaping machine. These are related to the hand
held router. Instead of hand held routing, the tool paths can be controlled viacomputer
numerical control. The most common G Code Controller of CNC Routers is Mach 3 It is
a computer-controlled machine for cutting various hard materials, such as wood,
composites, aluminum, steel, plastics, and foams. It is one of many kinds of tools that
have CNC variants. A CNC router is very similar in concept to a CNC milling machine.

Drawing of a Tabletop DIY - CNC router. Silver: Iron, Red: Stepper Motors, Light Brown:
MDF, Dark Brown: Hard Wood

CNC routers come in many configurations, from small home-style D.I.Y. "desktop" like
k2 cnc, to large Industrial CNC routers used in Sign Shops, Cabinet Making, Aero
Space and boat-making facilities. Although there are many configurations, most CNC
routers have a few specific parts: a dedicated CNC controller, one or
more spindle motors, servo motors, Stepper Motors, servo amplifiers, AC inverter
drives, linear guides, ball nuts and a workspace table or tables. In addition, CNC routers
may have vacuum pumps, with grid table tops or t slot hold down fixtures to hold the
parts in place for cutting.

CNC routers are generally available in 3-axis and 5-axis CNC formats. Many
Manufacturers offer A and B Axis for full 6 Axis capabilities.
The CNC router is controlled by a computer. Coordinates are uploaded into the machine
controller from a separate CAD program. CNC router owners often have two software
applicationsone program to make designs (CAD) and another to translate those
designs into a 'G-Code' program of instructions for the machine (CAM). As with CNC
milling machines, CNC routers can be controlled directly by manual programming, and
CAD/CAM opens up wider possibilities for contouring, speeding up the programming
process and in some cases creating programs whose manual programming would be, if
not truly impossible, certainly commercially impractical.

A CNC router typically produces consistent and high-quality work and improves factory
productivity. Unlike a jig router, the CNC router can produce a one-off as effectively as
repeated identical production. Automation and precision are the key benefits of cnc
router tables.

A CNC router can reduce waste, frequency of errors, and the time the finished product
takes to get to market. For example, CNC routers can perform the tasks of many
carpentry shop machines such as the panel saw, the spindle moulder, and the boring
machine. It can also cut mortises and tenons.

A CNC router can be used in the production of many different items, such as
door carvings, interior and exterior decorations, wood panels, sign boards, wooden
frames,moldings, musical instruments, furniture, and so on. In addition, the CNC router
helps in the thermoforming of plastics by automating the trimming process. CNC routers
can help ensure part repeatability and sufficient factory output.
CAM(Computer-aided manufacturing)

snapshot of Mastercam CAM software

CAM software make the CAD drawing/design into a code called g-code.This code the
CNC machine can understand.
Types
Wood

A typical CNC wood router

A CNC wood router is a CNC Router tool that creates objects from wood. CNC stands
for computer numerical control. The CNC works on the Cartesian coordinate system (X,
Y, Z) for 3D motion control. Parts of a project can be designed in the computer with a
CAD/CAM program, and then cut automatically using a router or other cutters to
produce a finished part.The CNC Router is ideal for hobbies, engineering prototyping,
product development, art, and production work.

Metal

Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material[1] from a
workpiece advancing (or feeding) in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool.[2][3] It
covers a wide variety of different operations and machines, on scales from small
individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang milling operations. It is one of the most
commonly used processes in industry and machine shops today for machining parts to
precise sizes and shapes.