GROUP PRESENTATION

Submitted To:
Raheel Ahmad

Submitted by:
Applied Mathematicians

Topic:
Set theory

Group Members:

Muhammad Umair (Bsf1601568)

Ali Hassan (Bsf1601530)

Sufyan Ali (Bsf1601567)

Shahjahan Shanakhat (Bsf1601543)

University of Education Faisalabad Campus

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 History of set.

The theory of set was developed by German mathematicians Georg cantor (1845-
1918). He invented set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in
mathematics. He first encountered sets while working on problems on
trigonometric series. Set are used to defined the concepts of relation and
functions.
Georg cantor made the first formal study on sets; published main paper on sets in
1874.
Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence between the
members of two sets, defined infinite and well-ordered sets, and proved that
the real numbers are more numerous than the natural numbers.

Set:-
Definitions.
A setis a well-defined collection of distinct objects and the objects are called
elements or member of the set

Examples
Numerical Sets:

1. Set of natural numbers

2. Set of whole numbers
3. Set of integers
4. Set of rational numbers
5. Set of irrational numbers
6. Set of real numbers
7. Set of prime numbers
etc.
The items you wear is a set: these include shoes, socks, hat, shirt, pants,
and so on. You write sets inside curly brackets like thi

{socks, shoes, pants, watches, shirts, ...}

Sets representation.

There are two ways to represent a set.

Roster or tabular form
Set -builder form.

Roster or tabular form.

In roster form, all the elements of set are listed, the elements are being separated by
commas and are enclosed within braces. { }

e.g.: set of 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10.

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

Examples of set in builder to roster form.

A = {x : x is an odd number, 5 x 11}

Solution:
Here, we are required to write a set A whose each member is an
odd number greater than or equal to 5 and less than or equal to 11. Thus, we
get the following roster form -
A = {5, 7, 9, 11}

A = {a : a is the solution of the quadratic equation a2 + a - 2 = 0}

Solution:
Given that
A = {a : a is the solution of the quadratic equation a2+ a - 2 = 0}

a2 + a - 2 = 0
a2 + 2a - a - 2 = 0
a (a + 2) - (a + 2) = 0
(a + 2) (a - 1) = 0
 a = -2, 1
Thus, the roster form of the given set would be {- 2, 1}

Set- builder form.

In set builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property
which is not possessed by an element outside the set.

e.g.: set of natural number k

k = {x: x is a natural number}

Examples of set in roster to builder form.

{1, 4, 9 100}
It can be observe that 1 = 12, 4 = 22, 9 = 32 100 = 102
Hence set {1, 4, 9 100} } can be written in set builder form as
{x: x = n2, n N and 1 n 10}

{2, 4, 6 }
It is a set of all even natural numbers.
Hence set {2, 4, 6 } can be written in set builder form as
{x: x is an even natural number}

Types of sets.

Empty sets.
Finite or infinite sets.
Equal sets.
Subsets.
Power sets.
Universal sets.
Disjoint sets.
Singleton set or unit sets

Empty-Set
A set which doesnt have any element is called empty set or null set or void set denoted by
symbol or {}.

e. g.: let R = {x: 1<x<2 , x is a natural numbers }

Finite & infinite sets.

A set which is empty or consist of a definite number of elements is called finite

otherwise, the set is called infinite.
e.g.: Let R be the set of the days of the week then R is finite.
Let R be the set of points on a line then R is infinite.

Example of infinite set.

A segment of the line is an actually a piece of a line. It has two endpoints, say A and B as
shown in the diagram below :

A line or line segment has no width or height. It is composed of an infinite number of points
joined together. We can say that there will be infinitely many points between A and B. So if
we try to arrange all these points in the form of a set, it would be an infinite set.
i.e.

Sab= {x1,x2.x3,...x1,x2 ,x3,...}

Where, xi is a member of set Sab.

or

Sab = {x: x is a point on line segment AB}

Hence, we can say that a line segment is an infinite set of points.

Equal sets.
Given two set K & R are said to be equal if they have exactly the same element and we write
K = R otherwise the set are said to be unequal and we write K R .

e. g.:

Let K = {1,2,3}& R ={ 1,2,3 }

Then K =R.

Power set.

The set of all subset of a given set is called power set of

that set.The collection of all subset of a set K is called power set of denoted by P(K).
In P(K) every element is a set .
If K ={ 1,2 }
P(K) = { ,{1}.{2},{1,2}}

Universal set.

Universal set is a set which contains all objects,

including itself.
e , g.
The set of real number would be the universal set of all other sets of numbers.
Note : Excluding negative root.
 Disjoint sets.

If two set A and B should have no common

element or we can say that the intersection of any two sets A and B is the empty set,
then these sets are known as disjoint sets.e ,g. AB=
That means, when these condition n(AB)=0 is true, then the sets are disjoints sets.
Example :

A ={ 1,2,3 }
B ={ 4,5 }
n(AB) =0
Therefore, these sets A and B are disjoint sets.

Singleton set or unit sets.

A set which contains only one element is called singleton or unit set.

Example.
1- A = {2}
2- B = {x:4<x<6 and x is an integer}

Discrete Mathematics for Gernier , Taylor.

Exercise 3.1
1-List the element of each of the following sets , using the notation . where
necessary:

Thus, the roster form of the given set would be

(a) { x:x is an integer and -3<x<4}

= { -2 ,-1 ,0 ,1, 2 } Ans

(b) { x:x is a positive (integer) multiple of three }.

= { 3 ,6 ,9 ,12 ,} Ans

(c) { x:x =y2 and y is an integer }.

= { 0 ,1 ,4 ,9 ,} Ans

(d) { x:(3x-1)(x+2) =0}

= { -2 ,1/3 } Ans

(e) { x:x0 and (3x-1)(x+2)=0 }

= { 1/3 } Ans

(f) { x:x s an integer and (3x-1)(x+2)=0}

= { -2 ,1/3 } Ans

(g) { x:x s an positive integer and (3x-1)(x+2)=0}

= { 1/3 } Ans

(h) { x:2x is a positive integer }

= { 0 ,2 ,4 ,6 ,8 ,10 ,} Ans

2-Let X={ 0 ,1 ,2 } . List the elements of each of the following sets.

(a) { z : z=2x and x X}

= { 0 ,2 ,4 } Ans

(b) { z : z = x+y where x X and y X}

= { 0 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 } Ans

(c) { z : x =z+y where x X and y X}

= { -2 ,-1 ,0 ,1 ,2 } Ans

(d) { z : z X or z X }

= { -2 ,-1 ,0 ,1 ,2 } Ans

(e) { z : z2 X }

= { -1 ,0 ,1 } Ans
(f) { z : z is an integer and z2 X }

= { 0 ,1 ,2 } Ans

Subsets .

The set A is a subset of the set B, denoted A B, if every

element of A is also an element of B. Symbolically, A B if x [x A x B] is
true, and conversely .
Examples.

A ={ 1,2,3,4,5 }

B={ 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,10 }

Here A is said to be the subset of B

Example of subset :
 NWZQRC

. Examples 3.6 in discrete mathematics .

1 Show that {x : 2x2 +5x 3 = 0} { x : 2x2 +7x +2 =3/x}.

Solution

Let A ={ x : 2x2 +5x 3 = 0} and B ={ x :2x2 +7x +2 = 3/x}

.
We need to show that every element of A is an element of B.
The equation 2x2 +5x 3 =0 has solutions x = 1/2 and x =3, so A ={1/2,3}.

When x = 1/2, 2x2 +7x +2 = 1/2 + 7/2 +2 =6 = 3/x, so 1/2 B.

When x =3, 2x2 +7x +2 = 1821+2 = 1 = 3/x, so 3 B.

Therefore every element of A is an element of B, soA B.

Proper subset.
A proper subset of a set A is a subset of A that is not equal to A.
In other words, if B is a proper subset of A, then all elements of B are in A but A contains at
least one element that is not in B.

For example.

If A={1,3,5} then B={1,5} is a proper subset of A. The set C={1,3,5} is a subset of A, but it is
not a proper subset of A since C=A. The set D={1,4} is not even a subset of A, since 4 is not
an element of A.

Superset.
A set A is a superset of another set B if all elements of the set B are elements of the set A .
The superset relationship is denoted as AB .
For example, if A is the set {,,,} and B is the set {,,}, then AB but BA.
Since A contains elements not in B, we can say that A is a proper superset of B. Or if I1 is
the interval [0, 2] and I2 is the interval [0,1], then I1I2.

Discrete Mathematics for Gernier , Taylor.

 Exercise 3.2
1- State whether each of the following statement is true or false.

(a) 2 { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }..True
(b) { 2 } { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } False
(c) 2 { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } False
(d) { 2 } { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }.. True
(e) { , { }}. True
(f) { } { , { }} ... True
(g) 0 False
(h) { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } = { 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 }True

3-In each of the following cases state whether x A ,x A ,both or neither:

(a) X = { 1 } ; A = { 1, 2, 3 } ... x A
(b) X = { 1 } ; A = { { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 } }.. x A
(c) X = { 1 } ; A = { 1, 2, { 1, 2 }}. x A
(d) X = { 1, 2 } ; A = {{ 1, 2, 3 }}...Both
(e) X = 1 ; A = { {1}, {2}, {3} }...Neither
(f) X = {1} ; A = {{ 1, 2, 3 }} Neither

5- Let U = { x : x is an integer and 2 x 10} , In each of the following case ,

determine whether A B , B A , both or neither .

(a) A = { x : x is odd } and B = { x : x is a multiple of 3 }

Neither

(b) A = { x : x is even } and B = { x : x2 > 20 }

Both

(c) A = { x :x is even } and B = { x :x is a power of 2 }

Both

(d) A = { x : 2x+1 > 7 } and B = { x : x2 > 20 }

B A

(e) A = { x : z } and B = { x :x is a power of 2 or 3 }

AB

(f) A = { x : 2 } and B = { x :x is a perfect square }

Neither
2
(g) A = { x : x -3x+2 =0 } and B = { x : x+7 is a perfect square }
 BA

Set operations.
Unions.

The union of A and B, denoted A B

Two sets can be "added" together. The union of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all
things that are members of either A or B.
Examples:

{1, 2} {1, 2} = {1, 2}.

{1, 2} {2, 3} = {1, 2, 3}.
{1, 2, 3} {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Some basic properties of unions:

A B = B A.
A (B C) = (A B) C.
A (A B).
A A = A.
A U = U.
A = A.
A B if and only if A B = B.

Intersections.

A new set can also be constructed by determining which members two sets have "in
common". The intersection of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all things that
are members of both A and B. If A B = , then A and B are said to be disjoint.
 The intersection of A and B, denoted A B.

Examples:

{1, 2} {1, 2} = {1, 2}.

{1, 2} {2, 3} = {2}.
Some basic properties of intersections:

A B = B A.
A (B C) = (A B) C.
A B A.
A A = A.
A U = A.
A = .
A B if and only if A B = A.

Complement
It describes complement of set A relative to set U.
This operation is denoted by Ac or A. It means, the set all object of U is not a
members of A.
This operation is also known as set difference.

Example of complement:

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

A = {1, 2, 3 4, 5}

The complement is 6.

Given sets A and B , we can define the following operations:

Operation Notation Meaning

Intersection all elements which are

AB
in both A and B
all elements which are
Union AB
in either A or B(or both)
all elements which are
Difference AB
in Abut not in B
 all elements which are
Complement A` (or Ac )
not in A

Discrete Mathematics for Gernier , Taylor.

Exercise 3.3
2- Let U = { n :n N ^ n < 10 } , A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }, B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 } and C = { 1, 4, 9
} . Define ( for example listing elements ) each of the following sets.

(a) A B

= { 2, 4, 6, 8 } { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
={2} Ans
------------------------------------------
(b) A B

= { 2, 4, 6, 8 } { 2., 3, 5, 7 }
= { 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 } Ans
-----------------------------------------
(c) A B

= { 2, 4, 6, 8 } { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
= { 4, 6, 8 } Ans
-----------------------------------------
(d) B C

= { 2, 3, 5, 7 } { 1, 4, 9 }
= { } Ans
-----------------------------------------
c
(e) A B

= Ac = U A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 } { 2, 4, 6, 8 }
= Ac = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }
= Ac B = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 } { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
= { 3, 5, 7 } Ans
----------------------------------------
(f) A (B C)

= B C = { 2, 3, 5, 7 } { 1, 4, 9 }
= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 }
= A (B C) = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 }
= { 2, 4 } Ans
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(g) Bc B

= Bc = U-B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 } { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
= Bc = { 1, 4, 6, 8, 9 }
Bc B = { 1, 4, 6, 8, 9 } { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 } Ans
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(h) Bc B

= Bc = { 1, 4. 6. 8. 9 }
= Bc B = { 1, 4, 6, 8, 9 } { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
= { } Ans
----------------------------------------
(i) ( A C )c

= A C = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } { 1, 4, 9 }
= { 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 }
= ( A C )c = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 } { 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 }
= { 3, 5, 7 } Ans
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(j) ( A - C ) B

= A C = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } { 1, 4, 9 }
= { 2, 6, 8 }
= ( A C ) B = { 2, 6, 8 } { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
= { 6, 8 } Ans
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Families of Sets.
In section 3.3, we dened the intersection and union of a collection of n sets as
follows:

Ar = A1 A2 An = { x : x Ar for each r = 1,2,...,n}

And

Ar = A1 A2 An = { x : x Ar for some r = 1,2,...,n}.

In this section we turn our attention to more general families or collections of

sets which will include the case where there are innitely many sets in the family.
By a family or collection of sets, we really mean a set of sets, although the terms
family of sets or collection of sets are both in widespread use and we shall use
the three terms interchangeably. Before we can consider intersections and
unions of arbitrary families of sets, we need rst to describe carefully what we
mean by such a family.

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