Indian Journal of History of Science, 49.

3 (2014) 260-267

NEMICANDRAS RULES FOR COMPUTING

MULTIPLIER AND DIVISOR
DIPAK JADHAV*
(Received 23 September 2013, revised 27 July 2014)

Abstract
The paper makes a study of the two rules offered by Nemicandra (c. 981 AD), one for computing
multiplier and the other for divisor. It finds that the term viralita-ri employed by the Jaina school of
Indian mathematics is equivalent to the index of the power of a quantity. The fact that a logarithm is
simply an index was not observed long after John Naiper (1550-1617 AD) who discovered theory of
logarithms. On the basis of the illustration given by his pupil Mdhavacandra Traividya to the first of the
above two rules, the paper also corroborates that the fact was known to the school.
Key words: Ardhaccheda, Divisor, Index of power, Jaina school of Indian mathematics,
Logarithm, Multiplier, Nemicandra, Viralita-ri

1. INTRODUCTION (c. 981 AD), of oaramala (1720-1767 AD) are

The Jaina schools played a prominent role some of the works of the canonical class. The
in early and later Indian mathematics.1 The canvas authors of the exclusive class were originally
is vast and wide. However, it is divided into two mathematicians and contribute exclusively on
classes the canonical and exclusive. 2 The mathematics. Some of the works of this class are
canonical has dealt mainly with cosmological the Pgaita8 and Triatik9 of rdhara10 (c. 799
system and other the karma theory (the matter, AD), the Gaitasrasagraha11 of Mahvra (c.
exceptionally subtle, which actually does flow into 850 AD) and the Gaitasrakaumud 12 of
the jva, soul/bios). Mathematical materials found hakkara Pher (1265-1330 AD).
embedded in their works occurs in the form of Nemicandra (c. 981 AD) belonged to the
rules and results and at some places in the canonical class of the Jaina school of Indian
functioning form. The Bhagavat Stra 3 of mathematics. Cmuarya, his disciple and a
Sudharma Svm (300 BC or earlier), the celebrated commander-in-chief and wise minister
Tattvrthdhigama Stra Bhya4 of Umsvti of the Gaga dynasty during the period from 953
(some period between 150 BC and 219 AD), the AD to 985 AD, erected the colossal image of
Tiloyapaatti5 of Yativabha (some period Bhubal at ravaabelagola in India. Nemicandra
between 176 AD and 609 AD), the Dhaval, a
is said to have been associated with the first
commentary on the akhagama 6 of
consecration ceremony of the image, held on
Pupadanta and Bhtabal of some period between
March 13, 981 AD as it is well identified.13
87 AD and 156 AD, of Vrasena (816 AD) and the
Samyakjnacandrik7, a solo commentary on the Nemicandra appears to be the first
Gommamasra and Labdhisra of Nemicandra mathematician to have set forth the laws of
* Lecturer in Mathematics, Govt. Boys Higher Secondary School, Pansemal, Distt. Barwani, 451770 (M.P.), India.
Email: dipak_jadhav17@yahoo.com
 NEMICANDRAS RULES FOR COMPUTING MULTIPLIER AND DIVISOR 261

logarithms but in terms of ardhaccheda (= log2 x based directly in the relation between two
where x is some quantity) and vargaalk (= log2 progressions, one arithmetic and the other
log2 x where x is some quantity).14 geometric.20 It is Naiper who compounded the two
In this paper, <P> would indicate that P is ancient Greek terms logos, meaning ratio, and
a paraphrase supplied by the present author here arithmos, meaning number, to coin the term
to achieve comprehensiveness with clarity. logarithm, meaning ratio-number.21 Logarithms
made it possible to transform multiplications and
Ardhaccheda cannot be literally translated divisions into additions and subtractions
half-divisor. Its actual meaning is <the number respectively. Facilities of these sorts were required
of possible> divisions by two as he himself refers in Naipers time in many fields like observational
to it to be equal to the number of times that a astronomy and navigation. 22 He himself had
particular quantity is successively halved (or written that his logarithms will save calculators
divided by 2) to get the quantity reduced to one.15 much time and free them from the slippery errors
Similarly, vargaalk should not be interpreted of calculations.23
square-stick although alk literally stands for
stick. He refers to its two definitions. In one the If the ardhaccheda of a is n, then we can,
vargaalk of a particular quantity is equated to denoting ardhaccheda by AC, write it AC (a) = n.
the number of times that 2 is successively squared A. N. Singh opined that mediation, an operation
to get the quantity acquired, and in the other the considered important in Egypt and Greece along
vargaalk of a particular quantity is equated to with the duplication, was generalized into a theory
the ardhaccheda of the quantity.16 of logarithms to the base 2, 3, 4, etc.24 and does
not allow us to deem that logarithms of this sort
Long before Nemicandra the Jaina school from the beginning of their conception were based
of Indian mathematics had been well acquainted on indices although AC (a) = n is rightly
with the concept of ardhaccheda. This can be transformed into 2n = a, TC (a) = n, into 3n = a,
easily traced in the works of the school such as in CC (a) = n into 4n = a where TC and CC are the
the Tiloyapaatti17 of Yativabha (some period abbreviations of trikaccheda and caturthaccheda
between 176 AD and 609 AD) and in the Dhaval18 respectively. But today we are able to say that a
of Vrasena (816 AD). Like ardhaccheda the logarithm whether it was of ardhaccheda sort or
school also developed trikaccheda and approached through geometry was bound to be
caturthaccheda; they are equal to log3 x and observed, sooner or later, to be an index.
log4 x respectively where is some quantity.19
Logarithms of this sort were developed and used The Trilokasra (An Essence of the Three
in only the canonical class of the school. Regions of the Universe) is Nemicandras
celebrated work in 1014 Prakrit verses, mainly on
In Europe, theory of logarithms was
cosmology and cosmography. In it we find two
discovered by John Naiper (1550-1617 AD),
rules, one for computing multiplier for a given
Baron of Merchiston (then near, now in
difference between the indices of product and
Edinburgh), and Jobst Brgi (1552-1632 AD), a
multiplicand and the other for computing divisor
court clock-maker by profession in Switzerland.
for a given difference between the indices of
However, their approaches were entirely different.
dividend and quotient.
The former had a geometric approach as he took
two parallel lines, one infinite and the other finite, Did the Jaina school of Indian mathematics
with moving particles while the latter used use any general term for the index of the power of
algebraic methodology as his perception was a quantity? The author raised this question in a
262 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

paper published in Arhat Vacana. 25 That a rs , appropriate term: viralida-rs, Skt.

alogarithm is simply an index was also referred viralita-ri, p) is the multiplier
(guagra, Skt. guakra, aq) of the
to in the paper.26,27 quantity obtained (laddha-rs, Skt.
The purpose of this paper is, therefore labdha-ri, ap) <by means of distribution
three fold namely to understand the two rules of and substitute>.
Nemicandra on their own terms with modern That is to say
impact and to corroborate that above fact was
known to the school. This gives us an idea of the
Jain historiographic tradition, where it lets us to (2)
know if a logarithm, discovered in ancient Indian
culture-area, too was as an index. It may here be easily pointed out that
viralita-ri and index are equivalent in
For the reason that the school developed
mathematical sense. And what is beyond p is (r
theory of indices in requisite structure by involving
p). For a = 2, (2) can be written as
ideas such as ordinal succession and raising a
quantity to its own power and using the particular (3)
terms such as varga (square) and ghana (cube)28, (1) happens to be
the last two folds are essential to be dealt.

2. MULTIPLIER AND DIVISOR when r < p. And (p r)is said to be deviation to p

Let P, Q and R be three quantities such with respect to r.
that
In this case Nemicandra gives the
AC(P) = p, AC(Q) = q and AC(R) = r
following rule to compute for a given deviation.
or P = 2p, Q = 2q, and R = 2r.
viralidarsdo pua jettiyametti
Further, suppose that P is operated by Q to yield harvi |
R or in notation tesi aoahad hro uppaarsissa
||30
P*Q = R (1)
The mutual product (i.e., the product
It happens to be obtained by mutual multiplications) of as
PQ = R many (q) of those <integers 2, 3, etc. (a)>
as the unities (rva) that are missing from
when r>p. And (r p) is said to be surplus to p the distributed quantity (viralida-rs, Skt.
with respect to r. viralita-ri, p) is the divisor (hra, aq)
of the quantity produced (uppaa-rsi,
In this case Nemicandra gives the Skt. utpanna-ri, a p) <by means of
following rule to compute Q for a given surplus. distribution and substitute>.
varalidarsdo pua jettiyametti That is to say
ahiyarvi |
tesi aoahad guagro
laddharsisa||29 (4)
The mutual product (i.e., the product
obtained by mutual multiplications) of as
many (q) of those <integers 2, 3, etc. (a)> Here again we are able to point out that
as the unities (rva) that are <placed> viralita-ri and index are equivalent in
beyond the distributed quantity (varalida- mathematical sense. And what is missing from p
 NEMICANDRAS RULES FOR COMPUTING MULTIPLIER AND DIVISOR 263

is (p r). For a = 2, (4) can be written as the index of the power, is called the nth power of
and reads a raised to the nth power.
Q = 2pr (5)
Because of the algebraic power symbols
In order to make the interpretations drawn
used by Rene Descartes (1637 AD) we, today,
from the above two verses more convincing the
easily express aaa...a (n factors) as an. Why
explanation regarding the two terms, one labdha-
was such a notation introduced? It is simply a
ri and the other utpanna-ri, is the following.
matter of convenience. Surely it saves time and
The term labdha-ri usually means the quotient-
space if we write an instead of aaa...a (n
quantity in Indian mathematics but in the first of
factors). On the other hand in ancient time
the above two verses it has been taken in the sense
aaa...a (n factors) was to be taken as it is.37
of the multiplicand-quantity. On the other hand,
the term labdha has been employed in the verse For the multiplication of equal quantities
105 of the Trilokasra31 in the sense of product Bhskara I (c. 629 AD) employs a special term
while in the sense of quotient in its verse 106.32 gata. According to him, the term dvigata means
In fact, the word labdha-ri or labdha has been square, trigata means cube and so on. He
engaged in all of these verses in the sense of illustrates that the dvigata of 4 is the product of 4
quantity obtained and the sense yields and 4 or 42; the trigata of 4 is the continued product
mathematical term according to the context. In the of 4 and 4 and 4 or 43 and so on.38 Following him,
same spirit the word utpanna-ri has been an will be expressed by saying the n gata of a. The
inserted in the second of the above two verses and same expression occurs in the
in the verses 107 and 108 of the Trilokasra.33 Brhmasphuasiddhnta (c. 628 AD) of
Brahmagupta.39
The following is the context in which he
offers the above two rules. In order to find P when Today, the term ghtka, coined by
log2 P (i.e., p) is given, he refers to the rule, compounding ghta and aka, is used in Hindi
incorporated in the verse 75 of the Trilokasra, Mathematics Education for the index of the power
which reads that placing twos as many times as of a quantity. It is not known to the present author
the addhacheda (Skt. ardhaccheda, log2 P) and when and how it came into practice but it is certain
mutually multiplying them, the quantity (rs, Skt. that the term ghta was accustomed either as
ri, P) is obtained34. Following the same course multiplication or as product at least till the period
of action what quantity is obtained when surplus of Nryaa Paita (c. 1356 AD).40 Here it may
to p (adhikaccheda, full term: adhikrdhaccheda, be noted that the term index was first used for n
log2 R log2 P i.e., r p) is given?35 This is what in 1586 AD by Schoner.41 Before him, Michael
is stated in the preamble of the first of the above Stifel had used the word exponent for n.42
two rules. If there remains any doubt regarding The question was posed to know if the
when deviation to p (hnaccheda, full term: Jaina school of Indian mathematics had any
hnrdhaccheda, log2 P log2 R i.e., p r) is given, general term for the index of the power of a
incidentally the rule for that purpose is below.36 quantity.
This is what is the meaning of the preamble of the
Both of the rules contain a term viralita-
second of the above two rules.
ri. It has come definitely in the sense of the index
of the power of a quantity. It seems to be formed
3. REPLY TO THE QUESTION by joining the two words: viralita (distributed) and
A product of n equal factors, ri (quantity). Viralita seems to be derived from
(aaa...a)=an, where a is the base and n is viralana (distribution, abbreviated D) so that it
264 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

can work as an adjective. The latter has been a viralitari pa 16 palyacheda 4

noted operation in the school.43 It means the tasmda dhikarpacheda 3
tanmtradvik-nyonyhatau 8 labdha
separating of a given positive integer n(>1) (say) palyare 16 guakro bhavati |46
(n=1 is also meaningful.) into its unities as shown
The distributed quantity (viralitari, p),
below:
i.e., the <number of> divisions <into
D(n) = 1 1 1... n times. halves> (<ardhac> cheda) of playa (P),
pa 16 <in symbolic notation>, is 4. The
It is followed by another operation called <number of> divisions <into halves of the
deya (substitute, abbreviated S, original meaning: quantity to be obtained> from the unities
to be given) which means to put a given positive that are <placed> beyond it (distributed
quantity) is 3. What is obtained in mutual
integer a (>1) (say) in place of everywhere in the
multiplications of as many twos as those
above distribution as shown below: (divisions), i.e. 8, is the multiplier
S(a)D(n) = a a a... n times. (guakra, Q) of the quantity of playa.

Then comes the turn of the act of That is to say:

multiplying (abbreviated M) together as shown
below: (6)
M[S(a)D(n)] = aaa...a (n factors)
and
or M[S(a)D(n)] = an.
(7)
Following the above process, we can say
that the index n is called viralita-ri (distributed when expressed in general terms.
quantity) because its constituent parts (i.e., What is R in the illustration? To make the
unities) are distributed (i.e., put down with above illustration fully clear, he further adds as
interstice). follows:
For covering the case n = 0, we, today, 168 tayo guyaguakrayorguane
define that a0 = 1. In the above manner, there is sgaropama 128 syt /47
no distribution when n = 0 and a is substituted The sgaropama (R, 128) is arrived at
nowhere. In such position, we shall have to define when the multiplicand (guya, P, 16) is
that a reduces to unity as a has lost, being no place multiplied by the multiplier (guakra,
to be substituted in the distribution, even its power Q,8).
of one time. Moreover, according to the Jaina Before we analyze Traividyas above
school of Indian mathematics, unity is not a illustration it may be noted that palya and
number but a collection of units is a number. Two, sgaropama are simile measures founded,
three etc are numbers.44 developed and applied in only the Jaina canonical
texts.48
4. CORROBORATION OF THE FACT Equating the corresponding parts of the
Mdhavacandra Traividya was an equations (3) and (7), we have (6) and
immediate pupil45 of Nemicandra. He wrote a (8)
commentary in Sanskrit on the Trilokasra, which
viralitari pa 16 palyacheda 4
is available in published form along with the
Trilokasra itself. He gives an illustration to This is what the illustration begins with.
explain the first of the above two rules as follows: This statement yields (6). Here works the fact with
 NEMICANDRAS RULES FOR COMPUTING MULTIPLIER AND DIVISOR 265

the base two. (8) too confirms the same. In her the verse 75 that contains the method for finding
commentary on the Trilokasra ryik a quantity when its ardhaccheda is given are
Viuddhamati (1929-2002 AD) interprets the among those 38 verses. Those verses that, though
statement, in Hindi, as follows: they have something to do with ardhaccheda or
yaha viralana ri palya ke vargaalk or the both, appear after the verse 91
ardhaccheda hai |49 seem to be his creations. Among them are the four
Here the distributed quantity (viralana verses extending from 105 to 108 that form the
ri, appropriate term: viralita-ri) is laws of logarithms but to the base two54 and the
the <number of> divisions into halves above two verses that contain the rules for
(ardhaccheda) of palya.
computing multiplier and divisor.
The above interpretation of hers supports
our finding although it holds the fact in its converse 5. CONCLUSION
form.
The term viralita-ri employed by the
Sometimes the word ardha has been Jaina school of Indian mathematics is equivalent
deleted by Nemicandra from ardhaccheda and to the index of the power of a quantity. The fact
there remains simply the term cheda.50 This is why that <ardhac>cheda was viralita-ri <with
in the translation of the statement we have base two> was well known to the school.
suggested that cheda should be replaced by the
full term ardhaccheda. It is also supported by what 6. ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
is given in Viuddhamatis interpretation.
Otherwise, cheda would mean divisor. In the Except for a few changes and a number of
translation of her interpretation it has been additions, this paper was first presented in
suggested by us that the appropriate term for National Symposium on Sciences in India: From
viralana ri is viralita-ri. It is evidently Early Times to Independence, held during April
confirmed by the above original statement. 21-24, 2008 at University of Mysore, Mysore,
India. The author is grateful to three unknown
The context we have seen in the section learned scholars in the field and the learned referee
two was a particular one. The following is the of this journal for their helpful suggestions and
broad context. Nemicandra refers to fourteen
valuable comments.
sequences and their analysis in the 38 verses of
the Trilokasra extending from the verse 53 to
7. NOTES AND REFERENCES
the verse 90 with a purpose to realize the validity
of sakhyta (numerate), asakhyta (innumerate) 1. The introductory articles on the Jaina school of Indian
and ananta (infinite),51 three subclasses of natural mathematics are the following two ones. Datta, B.B.
The Jain School of Mathematics. Bulletin of Calcutta
numbers excluding one founded in the school prior
Mathematical Society, 21 (1929) 115-145. Jain, L. C.
to him for measure. Further, in the verse 91, he On the Jaina School of Mathematics in: Chhotelal
suggests to read the Bhaddhrparikarma Memorial Volume, Calcutta (now known as Kolkata),
(Greater <Treatise> on the Logistics of Sequences) 1967, pp. 265-292.
to know more about those sequences.52 B. B. Datta
2. For details see the following two ones. Jadhav, Dipak.
reports that the treatise has been lost.53 Here it can Theories of A. P. and G. P. in Nemicandras Works.
be easily inferred that material incorporated in ArhatVacana, 16.2 (2004) 35-40. Jadhav, Dipak.
those 38 verses was extracted from that treatise. Mensuration in India from Jaina Sources, Ph. D.
Remarkable is that the verse 76 that contains the Thesis, Devi Ahilya University, Indore, 2013, pp. 34-
definitions of ardhaccheda and vargaalk and 52.
266 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

3. Sudharma Svm,Vykhyprajaptistra (or Why do I assign 981 A.D. to Nemicandra? Arhat

Bhagavat Stra), ed. and tr., Amar Muni and Shri Vacana, 18.1 (2006) 75-81.
Chandra Surana, 4 Vols., r gama Prakana Samiti,
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Bhratavarya Digambara Jaina Vidvatpariad, Sagar,
Mohanti, Subodh. John Napier the Inventor of
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p.174; and Cajori, Florian. A History of Mathematics,
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Bhagawana Gommatesh and Shravanbelgola. The
Jaina Antiquary, 34.2 (1981) 1-18, Jadhav, Dipak. 27. Jadhav,op. cit., 2003, pp. 65, 67 and 73.
 NEMICANDRAS RULES FOR COMPUTING MULTIPLIER AND DIVISOR 267

28. Jadhav, op. cit., 2003, pp. 54-59; and Jadhav, Dipak. 41. Smith, op. cit., Vol. II, 1958, p. 522.
On Raising a Number to its Own Power in Ancient
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1914-1915, p. 16.
29. Nemicandra, Trilokasra,op. cit., 1975, v. 110, p. 106.
43. Singh, op. cit., 1942, p. 6; and Jadhav, op. cit.,2008,
30. Nemicandra, Trilokasra,op. cit., 1975, v. 111, p. 107. pp. 141-144.
31. Nemicandra, Trilokasra,op. cit., 1975, p. 101; and
44. Ganitanand. When there was no Unity in the Number-
Jadhav, op. cit., 2002, p. 263.
Land. Gaita Bhrat, 8.1-4 (1986) 44-45.
32. Nemicandra, Trilokasra,op. cit., 1975, p. 101; and
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Madhukara and others, Publication No. 28, r gama
37. Jadhav, Dipak. Three Ancient Approaches to the Sum
Prakana Samiti, Beawar (Rajsthan), 1987, stras
of a Geometric Progression. Mathematics in School
369-382, pp. 291-297 and stras 392-398, pp. 322-
37.3 (2008) 26-29.
326;Yativabha, Tiloyapaatti, op.cit., 1997, vv.
38. ryabhaa, ryabhaya (with BhskaraIs 1.117-130, pp. 26-30; Nemicandra, Trilokasra, op.
Commentary and Somevaras Commentary), ed. and cit., 1975, vv. 92-104, pp. 86-99.
tr., K. S. Shukla, Indian National Science Academy,
New Delhi, 1976., pp. 43-44. 49. Nemicandra, Trilokasra, op. cit., 1975,
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39. Brahmagupta, Brhmasphuasiddhnta (with Sanskrit
and Hindi Commentaries), ed. and tr., Ram Swarup 50. Nemicandra, Trilokasra,op. cit., 1975, the first
Sharma and others, Vol. II, Indian Institute of hemistich of the verse 8, p. 12 and the last quarter of
Astronomical and Sanskrit Research, New Delhi, the verse 105, p. 101.
1966., vv. 18.41-42.
51. Nemicandra, Trilokasra,op. cit. 1975, pp. 49-85; and
40. ryabhaa, ryabhaya, op. cit., the commentary Jain, L.C. Divergent Sequences Locating Transinfinite
below the first hemistich of the verse 3, p. 49; Sets in Triloksra. IJHS, 12.1 (1977) 57-75.
BhskaraII, Bijagaita, ed. and tr., Pt. Devachandra
Jha, K. D. Academy, Varanasi, 1983, vv. 9.18-19, pp. 52. Nemicandra, Trilokasra, op. cit., 1975, p. 86.
195-197; Bhskara II, Llvat, ed. and tr.,Patwardhan 53. Datta, B. B. Mathematics of Nemicandra. The Jaina
K.S., Naimpally S.A. and Singh S.L., Motilal Antiquary, 1.2 (1935) 25-44, esp. p. 32.
Banarsidass, New Delhi, 2001, v. 20, p. 19 and v. 25;
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Benares, 1942, v. 67, p. 77 and v. 96, p. 113. and Jadhav, op. cit., 2002, pp. 263-265.