Monitoring Ageing CCVTs

Practical Solutions with Modern Relays to Avoid Catastrophic Failures

Bogdan Kasztenny, Ian Stevens

Abstract - Ageing Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers porcelain fragments and hot synthetic oil within the local
(CCVTs) can pose safety problems and possibly restrain system area (Figure 3). This debris is a real threat to staff safety and
operations. Catastrophic failure of a CCVT could start a wide- to surrounding plant (in a similar incident in a capacitor bank,
spread fault in the substation and/or endanger personnel work- Powerlink Queensland suffered damage to 26 plant items from
ing in a close proximity. The latter becomes a real danger when a capacitor can explosion). In addition, the CCVT is commonly
inspecting a suspicious CCVT or when Live Line work is being located on the substation bus and bus protection will clear
performed. CCVT monitoring becomes more and more impor- the fault. This can result in loss of supply to a large number
tant as the installed population of CCVTs ages with sporadic of customers and possibly incur a penalty from the Energy
incidents of catastrophic failures alerting both field personnel Regulator. Where CCVT supplies degrading voltages to revenue
and dispatching managers regarding safety and liability. metering, the billing data will contain an error. The billing
discrepancy can be substantial if the magnitude or phase error
Microprocessor-based protection relays facilitate cost-efficient is small enough to remain undetected for very long periods of
and broad deployment of CCVT monitoring functions across time, but large enough to accumulate into a significant energy
the organization. measurement error.
First, modern relays allow programming a number of indica- Powerlink is replacing its line protection relays with
tors that alone, or in combination, are reliable enough to raise microprocessor-based protection relays and it is beneficial and
alarms and initiate an in-depth engineering analysis. cost effective to provide VT monitoring within this relay.
Second, these relays can provide data recording and remote Emerging considerations in Australia are the legal requirement
access. This data includes high-resolution data such as oscil- for managers to exercise Duty of Care, especially with respect
lography, and long-term trending such as the magnitude profil- to staff safety [2]. This consideration requires managers to
ing. ensure staff safety in the substation and approved procedures
Third, relay-based CCVT monitoring schemes can be retrofitted exist for staff to safely isolate faulty HV assets.
in the existing installations. In many cases with a simple wiring This paper provides methods of monitoring with
and setting changes, existing relays could provide a solid CCVT microprocessor-based protection relays and providing
health indication. information for safely isolating CCVT assets, in a timely manner
The combination of reliable alarming via protective relays with and thus maintaining security of supply. In addition, novel
remote access yields a cost-efficient, easy to implement, and methods of monitoring a single phase CCVT are presented.
safe to operate, solution.
This paper presents a number of CCVT health indicators that 2. Failure Modes and Consequences
could be programmed on modern relays via logic and simple The failure modes for conventional CCVTs are:
math operands in order to monitor the CCVTs with a minimum
material and labor investment. Failure of one or more capacitor elements in the HV stack
(C1), which is usually oil impregnated. The critical factor is the
increase in voltage and stress upon healthy capacitors as each
1. Introduction capacitor fails, e.g. 275kV CCVT has about 160 capacitors in
CCVTs are widely used in transmission and distribution C1. This can lead to an avalanche failure mode and a possible
substations to provide proportional, secondary single-, or three- explosion.
phase voltages for protection, metering and control functions.
Failure of one or more capacitor elements in the LV grounding
The CCVT has three basic components: a capacitor divider
stack (C2), which is usually oil impregnated. The important factor
made from a group of high voltage capacitors and a lower
is the decrease in secondary voltage. However, this failure mode
voltage grounding capacitor(s), and a voltage transformer/filter
can result in an explosion as experienced in New Zealand when
element which provides the single phase secondary voltage
C2 failed due to a faulty connection.
(Figure 1).
Failure of the intermediate voltage transformer or the series
One common problem in electricity supply is the ageing
reactor, which can result in changes in phase angle and/or
population of CCVTs (Figure 2). Over many decades, the CCVT
voltage.
components will degrade and/or experience overvoltages.
This may result in capacitor element failure and the secondary Failure of the ferroresonance suppression circuit, which can
voltage progressively losing its integrity, but more importantly, produce waveform distortion, changes in phase angle and/
the CCVT can explode if sufficient number of capacitor elements or voltage. It is possible for ferroresonance events to occur
fail. The explosion can rupture the porcelain shell and radiate if the connected burden has too low a knee point voltage in
88
its transformer(s). Powerlink experienced an intermittent DMM) in the output voltage. Investigation revealed there was
connection in the CCVTs ferroresonance damping circuit and an open circuited choke in the ferroresonance damping circuit
this fault produced a reasonably stable voltage (64V compared in the CCVT basebox due to an imperfectly soldered joint in the
to 67V on healthy phases) and fluctuating frequency in one wire, within a sleeve in the choke toroid. This open circuit had
phase between 47 to 53 Hz (50Hz nominal; measured with the effect of directly shunting portion of the VT primary winding

Fig. 1.
Construction of a
typical CCVT [1].

Fig. 2. 300
Distribution of CCVTs purchased
by Powerlink (sample plant, all
still in service). 250

200

150

100

50

0
1960-1965

1966-1970

1971-1975

1976-1980

1981-1985

1986-1990

1991-1995

1996-2000

2001-2005
< 1960

89
 with a capacitive impedance rather than the normal high 50Hz The consequences of CCVT failure could be:
impedance and would have affected the voltage output.
The CCVT can explode if sufficient number of capacitor
Failure of the filter circuit or spark gaps, which are used to elements fail and arcing occurs within it. The explosion can
minimize harmonic and transient voltages in the output voltage. rupture the porcelain shell and radiate porcelain fragments and
Frequent overvoltage events can wear out the spark gap and hot synthetic oil within the local area. This debris is a real threat
the flashover voltage level increases. This will increase the stress to safety of staff and to surrounding plant.
on components in the VT circuit and these eventually fail.
The CCVT is commonly located on the substation bus and bus
External flashover along the porcelain bushing due to pollution protection will clear the fault. This can result in loss of supply
contamination of flashover clearance. The cause is incorrect to a large number of customers, or weakened system integrity
CCVT specification for the local environment when purchasing (stability problems).
the CCVT.
The failure mechanism was due to a generic or age related
Failure of expansion membrane, which results in contamination fault. Thus the remaining CCVTs could be deemed suspect
of oil and capacitor failure. Powerlink has experienced failure and, without monitoring, result in constraints upon system
of the expansion membrane in a magnetic VT because the operations and substation work.
membrane was incompatible with the synthetic oil. This
Progressive failure over a long period of time will cause
eventually resulted in the VT exploding.
incorrect revenue billing because one secondary voltage
was incorrect. Microprocessor revenue meters will alarm if
the voltage exceeds the typical limits of 80% to 115%. CCVT
monitoring can overcome this problem, eliminate the need to
repay/recoup the amount of incorrect billing and maintain a
companys reputation.

3. Present Monitoring Schemes

The present monitoring schemes are limited to three-
phase groups of CCVTs. The commonly used methods are
based on under/over voltage protection relays, which create
an operational window and alarm for voltages outside the
window (except for near zero voltage where the CCVT was
de-energised). This method is an absolute measurement and
is relatively insensitive because the window thresholds must
be set above possible network voltage fluctuations (10% of
nominal). Therefore, the alarm could be raised just before the
CCVT could explode.
A novel method developed by TransGrid (an Australian
transmission authority) was to monitor the half wave rectified,
three-phase voltages with a missing pulse detector [3]. A high
voltage will cause its rectified phase pulse to dominate, thereby
causing one healthy pulse to be missed (Figure 6). A low voltage
will cause its rectifying diode to be biased off, thereby causing
the phase pulse to be missed. The missing pulse detector fed
into a time delay and output relay circuits. This method is
sensitive to voltage but relatively insensitive to phase drift as
Fig. 3. detection occurs around 60. This method is a relative three-
Porcelain debris after rupture of a VT. phase method, and it has been successful. However, it requires
a separate relay for each three-phase CCVT and it cannot
Failure in gasket seal which may allow high moisture content
provide additional information as to which phase failed.
(>30 ppm) in oil which reduces the withstand voltage capability
and increases stress in basebox items which use oil impregnated These monitors were set with a 10 minute time delay so that
paper. any transient voltage fluctuations from the electricity network
or secondary system loads is filtered out. The time delay
Low oil condition due to prolonged oil leak which results in
prevents incorrect and unnecessary alarms, which can give
capacitor failure. CCVT monitoring a bad reputation with resulting distrust and
The capacitor, series reactor and intermediate voltage poor response to legitimate alarms.
transformer components can be degraded by high harmonic
Dissolved gas analysis of oil samples taken from CCVTs will
currents (e.g. AC-powered trains), lightning or prolonged
provide static assessment on the health of each CCVT. The
ferroresonance conditions.

90
 Fig. 4.
New CCVT capacitor stack (left) and CCVT under high-voltage testing (right).
disadvantages are high cost and labour requirements, and its a SCADA communication link (such as DNP 3.0) to annunciate
possible the CCVT could fail between oil samples. CCVT alarms.
The provision of voltage waveforms in real time or as records
4. Attributes for CCVT Monitoring allows staff to investigate the problem and take appropriate
The required attributes for CCVT monitoring are: actions to maintain staff safety and security of supply.

Continuous, reliable monitoring is provided and the alarms The above information is provided by remote interrogation and
are supervised. in a timely manner. Powerlink has developed a 2MB Wide Area
Network (WAN), which connects to the majority of substations
It uses a relative voltage measurement technique so as to and it enables remote interrogation within 5 minutes.
give sensitive monitoring irrespective of unrelated transient
voltages. Microprocessor-based protection relays measure Modern microprocessor-based protection relays provide
zero sequence and/or negative sequence voltages providing many of these attributes and are ideal for performing this
for this attribute. monitoring.

It logs the voltages in a FIFO record of suitable length and

frequency for post fault analysis. 5. System Conditions and Voltage
It filters out transient sequence events such as secondary Monitoring
transient loads on one phase, network faults or switching of Operating range of electricity network is typically 10% of the
reactive assets such as shunt capacitor banks and reactors. nominal voltage. However under system abnormal conditions
Typically, a long time delay is used but this can still produce (e.g. one feeder out for maintenance and an associated supply
fleeting alarms that may be ignored by the operator. feeder trips), it may be possible for three phase voltage dips
The installed and maintained costs for providing monitoring or brown out events to occur. It is important that resultant,
are low as the frequency of CCVT faults is very low but the incorrect CCVT monitoring alarms do not occur and increase
consequences of a fault are very high and costly. The cheapest the workload of network control centre operators during this
monitoring available is to incorporate it into existing feeder crisis.
protection or SCADA control equipment. This equipment The electricity network is designed to limit the levels of the
already has three-phase voltages connected, and may provide negative-sequence voltage to a maximum 2% averaged over
91
 protection systems are distance protection and/or current
differential protection, which may have distance back up
protection. The distance protection function requires three-
phase voltages and hence it is ideal to perform CCVT monitoring.
The new method can be applied on these relays utilizing their
metering, logic and math capabilities.
One design objective was to eliminate the need to wire the
CB status into the monitoring system. Therefore, overvoltage
elements are set low (15-20% of nominal) to indicate the VT
is energised. Note if the capacitively coupled voltage on a de-
energised bus or feeder is high, it may be necessary to increase
the supervising setting.

6.1.1 Monitoring with Negative-Sequence Voltage

Negative-sequence voltage is a preferred monitoring method

because it provides relative coverage over the whole voltage
phasor range, and negative-sequence overvoltage elements
are often available in microprocessor-based protection relays
for purposes such as weak-infeed logic.
Assume phase A is failing while phases B and C display
virtually no errors. The negative-sequence derived from such
voltages is:
Fig. 5. Examples of failed CCVT capacitor stacks.
a 1-minute period. The quiescent level is typically around 0.5%. V2 =
1
3
(
VA(sec) + a 2 VB ( prim ) + a VC ( prim ) ) (1)
This limit was derived from the adverse impacts upon motors
producing torque in the opposite direction and overheating which can be re-written as:
their rotors if exposed to negative-sequence. For example,
NEMA recommends keeping the continuous negative-sequence (
V A(sec) = 3 V2 a 2 VB ( prim ) + a VC ( prim ) ) 2)
unbalance to within 1% [4]. Therefore, these levels will give
guidance for selecting the pick up value and minimum operating Expression in the brackets is minus the primary ratio voltage
time for CCVT monitoring. Some extra high voltage networks are in phase A, and therefore:
operated untransposed with significant negative-sequence in
currents and voltages. If this is the case, zero-sequence voltage V A(sec) = 3 V2 + V A( prim ) (3)
could be considered instead.
Any measurement grade VT is designed for operation under Equation (3) means that assuming balanced primary voltages,
any burden conditions such that magnitude and phase errors and phase A voltage failing, the negative-sequence overvoltage
are less than accuracy class, which usually have limits of 1.5% function defines a limit around the true ratio voltage in the
and 1. However, VT burdens are generally balanced so there shape of a circle with the radius of three times the applied
will be minimal magnitude and phase differences between pickup (Figure 7).
phases, i.e. all magnitude and phase errors will have the same This provides for good sensitivity to angle shifts in the
sign. monitored voltage. Assuming the VA magnitude does not
Therefore under healthy CCVT conditions and with no change and the failure shifts the vector, the following shift will
negative sequence voltage in the electricity network, there will trigger the negative-sequence function if set to pickup at V2.
be negligible negative-sequence voltage.
The major consideration in the electricity network is power 3 V 3 (4)
system faults which are limited to around 10s duration. D 2 arcsin 2 | 2 arcsin V2( PU )
Therefore, the negative-sequence time guideline will supersede 2 VA 2
this requirement. And furthermore:

6. Proposed Voltage Monitoring Schemes
3 180 (5)
6.1. Methods for three-phase sets of CCVTs D (deg) | V2 ( PU )
S
For example, if set to 0.03pu, the
The advent of microprocessor-based protection relays can negative-sequence overvoltage function would trigger when
give the opportunity to provide CCVT monitoring at virtually the secondary voltage shifts by about 5.2 degrees. This is the
no additional cost. The commonly used transmission feeder
92
Fig. 6.
Illustration of the
CCVT monitor [3].

worst case scenario; if the magnitude changes, either increases

or decreases, even smaller angle differences will trigger the 3V2
negative-sequence function (see Figure 7).

However, sensitivity to magnitude changes is lower. Assume VA(prim)

no angle error occurs as a result of the failing CCVT. It will take a VA(sec)
magnitude excursion of 3 times the negative-sequence pickup
to trigger an alarm. For example, with a 0.03pu pickup, it will
take a change in magnitude by 9% to trigger the alarm. This
may be considered not sensitive enough.
The high voltage capacitor stack (C1) may be composed of
one hundred cans at 132kV level, 160 cans at 275kV level, etc.
Approximately, the voltage ratio changes in proportion to the
amount of shorted capacitor cans. For example, at 275kV level
with 160 cans, it will take 2 cans to cause a change of 1.2% in
the voltage; a single can failure would cause a 0.6% change,
which could be below the class error of the transformer. This
sets a limit on the minimum number of shorted cans that
could be detected. Failures of the low voltage stack have a VC(prim) VB(prim)
more dramatic effect on the ratio and could be detected much
easier. Fig.7.
Operating region of the negative-sequence overvoltage
Sensitivity to magnitude excursions can be improved by
assuming B and C voltages normal.
monitoring differences between the magnitude of the A phase
voltage and reference phases B and C, as shown in Figure 8.
93
 Fig. 8. (a) (b) 3D1
Negative-sequence
overvoltage VA
NORMAL
monitoring logic VB | V2 | > D 1
(a) and effective VC
operating TIMER
characteristic (b). | VA | tPKP

OR
| |VA| - |VB| | > D2 ALARM

(1+D 2)*V A(prim)

All expressions are | VB | tDPO ALARM
per unit.

(1-D 2)*V A(prim)

| VA | 3
| |VA| - |VC| | > D2 2 arcsin D1
| VC | 2

A delay timer is the comparator is asserted. The value of T is set to 200-300

applied to ride through faults, single-pole tripping and reclosing seconds. The threshold could be set as low as 0.02pu. Here, the
sequences and other switching events. Applying scheme of steady state errors in the CCVTs and the relay are filtered out
Figure 8a, a normal/alarm operating region is shaped as shown by using the change over time. Also, the natural fluctuations in
in Figure 8b. each individual voltage are filtered out by using the differential
Typical settings are negative-sequence overvoltage pickup of magnitude voltage.
0.03pu (D1 threshold), magnitude differential pickup of 0.06pu Third, the output of the differential over time comparator is
(D2 threshold), 120sec time delay (tPKP delay), and 10 minute connected to a timer (set at 120 sec).
dropout time (tDPO delay). The 10 minute duration ensures this
problem is not considered a fleeting event. Figure 10 illustrates this principle by showing the A and B
voltage magnitudes (a), the magnitude differential (b), change
A practical implementation may require connecting two over time of the differential, and the operating flag (c).
timers in series: the first timer is a zero pickup, and small
dropout timer. This timer is meant to prevent reset of the main This method will generate a single alarm and it will reset
timer during sporadic situations when the negative sequence afterwards. This must be taken into account when programming
voltage drops temporarily to low values, e.g. varying frequency post-filtering of alarms generated by this version of the logic.
output from intermittent connection in CCVT ferroresonance Methods of Figures 8 and 9 shall be used together to produce
circuit. The second timer is the main, 120 sec pickup, 10 minute permanent alarm on substantial voltage deviations (Fig.8), and
dropout timer.
single alarm on small voltage deviations (Fig.9).
6.1.2 Using change over time to increase sensitivity | VA |
| ||VA| - |VB||(t) - ||VA| - |VB||(t-T) | > D3 TIMER
| VB |
tPKP
ALARM
OR

Method of section 6.1.1 uses a steady state approach: it | VA | tDPO

| ||VA| - |VC||(t) - ||VA| - |VC||(t-T) | > D3
detects abnormal situation after it occurs and continues to | VC |
be steady state. For example, when a can fails short in the HV
stack of the divider, the magnitude of the secondary voltage Fig. 9.
increases and is driven by a permanently higher ratio. A failure Monitoring logic responding to fluctuations of the differential
in the tuning reactor can lead to a permanent phase shift in the magnitude.
secondary voltage. Because of the relatively long time delay, the
method requires the failure to stabilize before it could detect 6.2. Methods for single CCVTs
it. At the same time the lowest possible pickup level must be
above the normal steady-state difference between the phases. Presently single phase CCVTs are not monitored at Powerlink
because of the difficulty in obtaining a reliable reference
In order to make the detection more sensitive, a change over
quantity.
time for the differential magnitudes could be applied as shown
in Figure 9.
6.2.1 Monitoring with Negative-Sequence Voltage via
First, the difference between the two voltage magnitudes is Pseudo Three-phase Arrangement
derived. This difference may be as high a 2-3% under normal
conditions, requiring the threshold in the previous method to be The three-phase steady state method of section 6.1.1 can
well above that level. be used for this purpose assuming one could borrow the two
Second, the change over time is measured by comparing other phases from CCVTs that are measuring the same primary
the present value of the difference with its historical, T sec voltage. Quite often this is possible. A single CCVT on the bus
old value. If a change greater than D3 occurs, the output of facilitating synchrocheck against a three-phase full set of line
CCVTs is a typical case.
94
 With reference to Figure 11, extra security conditions are The comparison itself could be done using flexibility of
checked. First, using overvoltage functions one needs to make modern relays as shown in Figure 12, or utilizing a synchrocheck
sure the monitored (VX) and the reference (VB and VC) CCVTs are function as illustrated in Figure 13.
energized. Second, one needs to monitor the position of breakers/ Modern relays provide for a synchronism check function.
disconnectors to make sure the monitored and reference CCVTs This function can be used to monitor consistency of any two
are connected to the same metallically coupled portion of the secondary voltages assuming the two CCVTs work with the
bus (i.e. the reference voltages are truly valid references). Also, same primary voltage. The three basic synchrocheck settings
if the reference CCVT is monitored, its health indicator could be are selected as follows:
used to supervise the logic.
Magnitude difference (D7 threshold): 2.5-3 times the sum of
Method of section 6.1.2 with increased sensitivity could also CCVT worst-case error and relay worst-case error. This is driven
be used when borrowing other phase voltages. by the assumption that one voltage is measured with the
maximum in class negative error, while the other is measured
6.2.2 Using reference from the same phase with the maximum positive error. Therefore, the worst-case
normal difference is twice the summated error of the CCVT and
This is a simple method that is based on using the reference the relay. Assuming 1% CCVT error and 0.25% of relay error, the
voltage from the same phase. This could be done for a single difference shall be set above 2.5% (4-5%).
CCVT, or for a set of three CCVTs with three pairs of voltages Angle difference (D6 threshold): similar reasoning applies
compared. (twice the error of the CCVT and the relay). A 2-30 setting shall
be sufficient.
Fig. 10.
Illustration of the method of
Figure 9.

Fig. 11. VX
Monitoring single CCVT (VX = A VB | V2 | > D1
phase) with negative-sequence
VC
while using reference voltages (VB
& VC).All expressions are per unit. | VX |
| |VX| - |VB| | > D2
OR

| VB |
| VX | > D4
| VX | TIMER
| |VX| - |VC| | > D2 | VB | > D4
| VC | tPKP
AND

ALARM
| VC | > D4 tDPO

X, B & C on the same bus

reference VT is healthy
95
 Frequency difference (D5 threshold): 2.5-3 times the worst- 6.3. Additional Filtering of Alarms
case relay frequency measurement error. For example with a
10mHz worst-case measuring error, one could set the allowable The CCVT monitoring alarm outputs are sent in real time to the
delta-frequency setting to 30-50mHz. network control centre over SCADA for operator investigation.
Normally, all three parameters (magnitudes, angles, and Powerlink has decided to perform post processing by
frequency) are identical. Should any of them divert due to CCVT computer of all alarms received at the control centre. The aims
failure, the synchrocheck permissive flag resets. This opens the are to detect high frequency of plant operation (e.g. tap changer
AND-gate, starts the timer, and sends an alarm if the situation operation of transformer) and to detect fleeting alarms, which
persists. may not be detected by humans.
Quite often the synchrocheck function is available as a CCVT monitoring alarms fall into the second aim and this
standard feature, but is not used on a given IED. This gives an is simple to achieve if a standard alarm naming convention
opportunity to use it as a voltage differential function to monitor is used. This computer filtering provides a safety net in the
a CCVT against a reference voltage. monitoring scheme.
In Figures 12 and 13 the supervision from the reference CCVT Table 1 shows an extracted alarm record of a failing CCVT at a
being healthy is optional. If the monitor triggers an alarm, the control centre.
operators should understand that either of the two CCVT could
have a problem, and both should be checked.
6.4. Additional Features of Microprocessor-based
Method of section 6.1.2 with increased sensitivity could also Relays
be used when borrowing the same phase CCVT for reference.
Microprocessor-based protection relays provide additional
| VA |
| |VA| - |VA(REF)| | > D2 functions beneficial for CCVT monitoring. Importantly, these
| VA(REF) | relays provide oscillographic and event recording and data
| V A | > D4 TIMER
logging of voltages; all these can be remotely accessed over a
tPKP communication link by the control centre operator (Figure 14).
AND

| VA(REF) | > D4 ALARM

tDPO
This enables quick, safe interrogation of possible CCVT failure
A & A(reference) on the same bus and prompt removal of plant before a possible explosion and
reference VT is healthy
resultant supply interruption. This information is very useful for
Fig. 12. CCVT repair and detecting generic faults due to CCVT age or
Monitoring single CCVT (A phase) by comparison with the design related faults.
same phase of a different CCVT. These additional features are extremely useful and cost
effective to Powerlink.
SYNCHROCHECK
VX f < D5
VA < D6 7. Implementation on Modern Relays
select to IN SYNCH
VB V < D7
match
VS Modern microprocessor-based protection relays provide for
VC | VX | > D4 TIMER simple math capabilities. The CCVT monitoring function is not
tPKP time critical, therefore a generic PLC-like math operations could
AND

| VS | > D4 ALARM
tDPO
be used for this purpose.
X, A, B & C on the same bus
One particular solution uses a universal comparator to
reference (ABC) VT is healthy perform comparison, or rate-of-change monitoring for analog
Fig. 13. signals.
Monitoring single CCVT by comparison with the same phase of
a different CCVT (application of the synchrocheck function). With reference to Figure 15 the universal comparator could
have up to two signals configured as inputs in a differential
mode. These inputs are any signals measured by the relay and
6.2.3 Providing alternate reference VT
include phasor magnitudes and angles, true RMS value, active
and reactive power, magnitudes and angle of symmetrical
These monitoring schemes rely upon a reference VT, and it may
currents and voltages, frequency, power factor, etc. Either two
be required to provide monitoring when the reference VT is de-
signals are subtracted (Figure 16a), a single signal is used (Figure
energized. This is easily achieved by:
16b), a single inverted signal is used (Figure 16c), or a sum of two
A simple armature relay to appropriately select another signals is used by cascading two comparators (Figure 16d).
reference VT;
The comparator could be set to respond to signed or
Within the relay, creating a monitoring scheme for each absolute value of the effective operating (differential) signal.
reference VT and ORing the outputs. (The above monitoring The absolute value allows for symmetric response for positive
methods will not provide an output when the reference VT is and negative values; the signed value allows for monitoring
de-energized.) both the value and its sign. For example, to alarm on low power
96
Table 1. DATE ALARM DESCRIPTION DURATION
Sample of SCADA logs 1/10/2003 16:36:32 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:14:39
prompting operators to 31/10/2003 1:59:20 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:12:49
investigate. 31/10/2003 2:14:00 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:10:10
31/10/2003 10:42:05 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:15:41
31/10/2003 13:31:45 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:16:11
31/10/2003 19:24:11 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:11:30
31/10/2003 20:08:40 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:16:30
31/10/2003 20:41:20 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:18:20
31/10/2003 20:57:02 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:11:32
31/10/2003 21:40:50 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:10:30
31/10/2003 22:20:28 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:10:50
1/11/2003 9:17:23 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:15:19
1/11/2003 9:42:43 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:10:31
1/11/2003 11:18:13 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:11:42
1/11/2003 12:00:41 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:10:50
1/11/2003 17:45:30 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:12:52
1/11/2003 18:46:18 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:13:58
1/11/2003 21:02:18 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:11:21
1/11/2003 22:32:17 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:17:59
2/11/2003 1:21:56 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:11:30
2/11/2003 1:48:14 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:11:20
2/11/2003 10:19:10 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:12:10
2/11/2003 11:55:39 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:12:30
2/11/2003 22:23:33 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:11:28
3/11/2003 2:11:43 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:15:20
3/11/2003 4:25:51 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:15:31
3/11/2003 10:52:57 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:13:30
3/11/2003 11:36:58 R-9 H016-RLEA 110KV FDR CCVT VOLTAGE ABNORMAL->NORMAL 0:15:00
Total 28
Maximum Time= 0:25:41
Minimum Time= 0:10:10
Average Time = 0:13:38

Fig. 14.
Example of remote
interrogation of a
microprocessor-based
protection relay.
The site is 1,800km (1,110
miles) away.

97
 Fig. 15.

signed/absolute
Operating logic
of the universal

over/under
level/delta
comparator. Input Plus TIMER
Y>C
+ tPKP
-
6 OpSignal
X Y
tDPO
OP
abs(.) x(t)- x(t-T) Y<C
Input Minus PKP

factor one would use 8. Conclusions

the absolute mode (Figure 17a). But to alarm separately on
low leading, and low lagging power factor, one would use two The causes for CCVT failure and electricity network events
comparators set in the signed mode (Figure 17b). were presented. From these conditions, it was possible to
develop monitoring schemes and settings, which will give reliable
The comparator allows responding to either the value of alarms to network control centre operators for action. Various
the effective operating signal (level mode) or the change of monitoring schemes suitable for three-phase and single-phase
the signal over a pre-defined period of time (delta mode). The CCVTs were presented.
former could be used to define functions such low power factor
alarm, positive sequence undervoltage, negative-sequence Microprocessor-based protection relays contain the functions
overcurrent, over-frequency, under-frequency, etc. The later necessary to perform monitoring on an incremental cost basis.
allows defining custom functions such rate-of-change-of- Importantly, these relays provide oscillographic, event and data
frequency, rate-of-change-of-power, etc. logging recording of voltages, which can be remotely accessed
over a communication link. This enables a quick, safe interrogation
Finally, the comparator could be set to perform over of possible CCVT failure and prompt removal of plant before
or under comparison against a constant user-selectable a possible explosion and resultant supply interruption. This
threshold. The hysteresis is user-adjustable too. information is very useful for CCVT repair and detecting generic
Figure 18 shows an application example for the logic of Figure faults due to age or inadequate design.
8. In this example FlexElements 1 and 2 (universal comparators) The benefits to an organization are improved security of supply,
are used to monitor the voltage magnitude differences, while enhanced staff safety and continuance of reputation and goodwill
negative-sequence over-voltage function is set to monitor the with its customers. In addition, within the National Electricity
unbalance. OR-gate no.1 and Timer 1 are used to complete the Market in Australia, a considerable annual reward or penalty can
logic circuit. The CCVT ALARM flag is set to drive and output be received based upon security of supply performance against
contact or alarm via communications. specified levels.

Fig. 16. (a) (b)

Illustration of the sum/subtract
capabilities of the universal Vab mag PowerFactor
comparator. + +
-
6 OpSignal 1
-
6 OpSignal 2

Vbc mag Off

OpSignal 1 = Vab mag - Vbc mag OpSignal 2 = PowerFactor

(c)
Off
+
-
6 OpSignal 3

ActivePower
OpSignal 3 = - ActivePower

(d) ActivePower2
+
Off
-
6 OpSignal 5

+
-
6 OpSignal 4
OpSignal 5 = ActivePower2 - (- ActivePower1) =
ActivePower1 + ActivePower2
ActivePower1
OpSignal 4 = - ActivePower1

98
Fig. 17. (a)
Illustration of the

absolute

under
absolute (a) and

level
PowerFactor
signed (b) modes Y>C
+
of operation. Low -
6 OpSignal
X Y
LOW POWER FACTOR
abs(.) x(t)- x(t-T) Y<C
power factor Off
alarm (a), and
low power factor
lagging, and
(b)
leading alarms (b).

absolute

under
level
PowerFactor
Y>C
+
-
6 OpSignal
X Y
LOW PF
LOW &

AND
abs(.) x(t)- x(t-T) Y<C
LEADING PF
Off

signed

level

over
PowerFactor LOW &

AND
Y>0 LAGGING PF
+
-
6 OpSignal
X Y
PF > 0
abs(.) x(t)- x(t-T) Y<C
Off

Fig. 18.
Settings
implementing
the monitoring
logic of Figure 8.

9. References [2] (Australian) NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

COMMISSION ACT 1985, (http://www.nohsc.gov.au)
[1] Tanaskovic M., Nabi A., Misur S., Diamanti P., McTaggart
R., Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers as Harmonics [3] Industrial Electronics Engineering P/L, Kirrawee (Australia),
Distortion Monitoring Devices in Transmission Systems, 2005 model 604Q relay.
International Conference on Power System Transients (IPST), [4] NEMA Standards Publication MG 1-2003, Motors and
Montreal, Canada, June 19-23, 2005, paper 031. Generators, Section 12.45, Voltage Unbalance, NEMA, 2003.

99