HVAC Chilled Water Distribution Schemes Course No: M05-008 Credit: 5 PDH A. Bhatia engineering com Continuing Education and Development, Inc. 9 Greyridge Farm Court Stony Point, NY 10980 P: (877) 322-5800 F: (877) 322-4774 info@cedengineering.com DlHVAC CHILLED WATER DISTRIBUTION SCHEMES A chilled water system is a cooling system in which chilled water is circulated throughout the building or through cooling coils in an HVAC system in order to provide space cooling, The principal objectives of chilled water pumping system selection and design are to provide the required cooling capacity to each load, ta promote the efficient use of refrigeration capacity in the plant, and to minimize pump energy consumption subject to whatever budgetary constraints may apply. In the typical design process, such decisions are made on the basis of economic calculations. In chilled water systems, pumping normally draws from around 6 to 12 % of the total annual plant energy consumption. Conventional chilled water plants distribute water at constant flow rate, regardless of the actual cooling demand. Since most air-conditioning systems only reach peak load a few hours a year, energy is wasted by continually running the pumps at constant flaw (speed). An efficient distribution system use variable flow that tracks the variable thermal load. This course provides a description of common chilled water system types from the most basic constant flow to all variable flow systems along with advantages and limitations. For Purposes of discussion, chilled water pumping systems are divided into three categories 1. Constant Volume Chilled Water Systems 2. Primary/Secondary Chilled Water Systems 3. Variable Primary Flow Chilled Water Systems Before we move further, let's briefly refresh the basic hydronic principles: In chilled water systems, water is distributed throughout the entire hydraulic network. The chilled water flow rate required for a given heat load is determined as follows:HL. CWFR= Dx 60902 x86 x SHx aT r Where ‘+ CWFR: Chilled water flow rate (gal/min) + HL Heat load (8TU/hr)......or chiller capacity ‘+ D: Liquid density (water density = 8.34 Ib/gal) + SG: Liquid specific gravity (water specific gravity = 1) ‘+ SH: Liquid specific heat (water specific heat = 1 BTU/lb-"F) ‘+ AT: Chilled Water temperature differential (i.e. T return water - T supply water] in °F Simply stated the water flow rate is given by equation eTumr OPM = Seo xaT CA Since, the HVAC designer's converse more in terms of tons of refrigeration, the equation can be simplified as +2000 SPMMTon = Son aT CA OR 4 oPwiton = aren Note that 1 ton of refrigeration = Heat extraction rate of 12000 BTU/hrExample How many tons of cooling is served by a 6,000 GPM operating at 42°F supply water temperature and 54°F return water? GPM = 6,000 Supply water temperature = 42°F Return water temperature = 54°F AT in distribution system = 12 degrees — [ 54°F — 42°F] LFR = 24/ AT = 24/12 = 2 GPM/Ton Tons Cooling = GPM / (24/Delta T) = 6,000/2 = 3,000 tans The example illustrates a very important aspect. Far a given design load, the chiller is selected for fixed temperature range AT and the associated chilled water pumps are selected for calculated flow rate. The chilled water supply temperature usually has a fixed set point and the only variable that affects the output capacity of chiller is the return water temperature. We will learn more in the following sections. Pump Affinity Laws The affinity laws are rules that govern the performance of a pump under varying conditions of flow and pressure. The laws can be roughly stated as follows: ‘+ Flow varies with rotating speed ‘+ Head varies with the square of the rotating speed «Brake horsepower varies as the cube of the rotating speed ExampleA chilled water pumping system delivers 10000 GPM @ 240 BHP. Whatis the approximate required pumping horsepower the flow rate is cut to half by variable speed drive on the pumps? 10,000 GPM requires 240 BHP 5,000 GPM requires what BHP? Q, = 10,000 GPM, Qp = 5,000 GPM, BHP, = 240 BHP2 = BHP, (Q2/Q1)° or BHP2 = 240(5,000/10,000)° = 240/8 = 30 BHP The example illustrates another important aspect. If the flow rate were 50% of the design flow, half the higher flow rate then the power necessary to provide the slower flow rate would be (0.5)' = 0.125 or 12.5 % of the power required for the higher flow rate. It means an energy saving of 87.5 %. Such savings justify the applications of variable speed pumping in chilled water distribution schemes, which we will study in following sections SCHEME #1 CONSTANT FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEM A constant flow system is the simplest chilled water distribution scheme. Here, a set of constant speed pumps distributes fixed quantity of water at all times and the temperature varies to meet the load. The system uses 3-way control valves at air handler coils that allow some water to bypass the cooling coil during part load conditions. At low loads, the chilled water flow through the coaling coil is restricted (in response to supply air temperatures to the space) but the total quantity retumed to the chiller remains constant. Figure below shows the schematic of the constant-flow rate primary systemPRODUCTION LOAD DISTRIBUTION LOAD | ! loos | foeaud | faust rane | a | Speed "CY Speee” CY ‘Spee 2 Pump t mp2 S77 Damp 3 ! ! Balancing Le rena (CHILLER PLANT) (@ULOING cooLING Loa) Looking at the equation that governs heat transfer, the capacity of a chiller is proportional to the product of flow rate and the temperature difference of entering and leaving chilled water, or chiller capacity (BTU/hr) = GPM x 500 x AT In canstant-flow systems, flow rate (GPM) is established for peak design condition and Delta-T (the difference between the chiller supply and return) varies in reponse to the load (BTUMr). In air-conditioning applications, since the design conditions occur only during 1% of the operational hours in a year [i.¢. 99% of the time the system runs on part load], some of the chilled water will always bypass through the three-way valve for most of coil's operational life. Higher quantities of bypassed chilled water mixes with leaving water from the cooling cail yielding lower chilled water return temperature to the plant. The lower return water temperature reduces the operating temperature differential (AT) across the chiller as the supply water temperature Is fixed to a setpoint. This phenomenon is termed “Low delta — T syndrome” in HVAC industry. ‘Remember that the chillers are able to control only the temperature at which chilled water is sent out, while cooling loads contro! the temperature at which it is returned and, ultimately, Delta-T.Higher return water temperature leads to higher loading of chillers. Impact of Low delta-T (AT) syndrome Low AT can be a serious prablem for constant flow system because It robs chiller of its. useful capacity. For example, if chiller is receiving return water temperature of 52°F rather than the design retum water temperature of 55°F, the chiller will be loaded to: (ca)= cu CWRTR cmt _ CWRTD — CWSTD. + CHL (%): Percent chiller loading * CWRTR: Real chilled water return temperature + CWSTD: Design chilled water supply temperature * _ CWRTD: Design chilled water return temperature In this case, AT pes 58-45 = 10°F and AT pul = 52-45 = 7°F: 52-45 55-45, CHEE =| ] 100 = 70 What does this mean? The chiller can be loaded only to 70% of its capacity. To overcome the capacity deficiency, the plant operators turn on extra chillers and associated pumps to provide the needed capacity. This means, not only the delivered capacity of the chillers is reduced, but also the operation becomes inefficient as the chillers must remain “on-line” to satisfy the building load. This increases plant's energy usage and compounding the prablem, when chillers are not optimally loaded, these are less efficient consuming higher energy rate per ton of cooling (i.€., KW per ton). The system may be keeping the building cool but it is inefficient and a lot of chiller capacity is wasted.Let's check this out again with an example. Example + Building type = Office © Structure = 6 floors ‘+ Design load of building = 600 TR (100 tons of refrigeration each floor) BUILDING LOAD ‘on -zcn @irar “mM TR an cena] CaM @irar “7M PRODUCTION LOAD fponcrK | afr 1007 (aw: arorar “™0oPM wom = ancea Birat exert] fe mor roe 5) E. 20 §) gurar *) oom constant fe. Consany pirat Speed CY ‘Spon LY) soa 80 cet Play? SP? lp aera | asacra = mae | | | | | (CHILLER PLANT) Tota Buking oat cova 20067 {Each tor 10078 ‘+ Each floor (coll) is designed for 100 tons of refrigeration with a cumulative load of the 600 TR «Three x 200 ton capacity chillers serve to meet this load with chilled water supply (CHWS) temperature of 44°F ‘+ Both the chillers and the cooling coils of AHUs are designed for AT of 12°F yielding flow rate of 400 GPM | 24/AT x 200 TR chiller capacity] thru chillers and 200 GPM [ 24IAT x 100 TR AHU cooling coil capacity] thru AHU cooling coils.Now let's look at two operation scenarios: 1) Full load and 2) Partial load Full Load Conaitions Figure below shaws the peak design conditions where chilled water is entering the cooling coil at 44°F and leaving the cooling coil at 56°F. At full load 100% af chilled water @ 200 GPM will flow through the coil and 3-way bypass valve will not allow any water to bypass. AHU PEAK LOAD CONDITION etum Ar . Conk _ Josie 8" Ouse Z eon weg Sensor aD ee CHIR | 56°F Consider off -peak canditions, when the actual load drops to 50%. As the LOW load is sensed by the leaving air temperature thermostat, the 3-way valves restrict water supply to the cooling coil, allowing some chilled water @ 44°F to bypass directly into the return line Water stream temperature of 56°F Off Load ConditionsAHU "OFF -LOAD" CONDITION Return Ait Supply Cooling Fan Cel Fiter Outside Air Temperature ‘Sensor (LAT) AWA LL Z Z z 4a) |lsor case cHWR Assuming linear* relationship between coil heat transfer and water flow rate — 100 GPM of flow rate will be needed for achieving 50% heat transfer of coils OR in other words 50% (100 GPM of water @ 44°F) will be bypassed resulting in mixed chilled water return (CHWR) temperature of 50°F... (Refer figure above) Micec water temperature [e100% 44 + 100x568) / 200) 0°F [Note that the coil characteristics are actually NON-linear i.e. at 50% flow, the coll capacity is still 80% (and not 50%). The flow has to be reduced to a very low percentage of design in order to provide low part-load heat transfer and approximately 30% flow rate is enough for achieving 50% capacity of the colls. Thus actually, 70% of water will bypass @ 44°F and the retum water temperature to chiller will lower than 50°F. The delta-T across the chiller will have the worst impact than you may think], The Delta-T across the chiller will be 6°F and the chiller will be loaded to 50% of its capacity ie. 100 TR 50-44 6-4 cxst)=[ 100 50 This leads to three important conclusions:1. Although the 50% demand of the building (300 TR) can effectively be met through two chillers, the operators will run 3 chillers to meet the capacity. This is because the AT has dropped to 6°F limiting the effective delivered capacity of each chiller to 100 TR Because evaporator flow rate is constant, full cooling capacity can be achieved only when the chilled water temperature difference across the evaporator is at its design value 2. Although the 50% demand of the building (300 TR) can effectively be met through 600 GPM of chilled water, all the three chillers pumps must remain on-line to deliver 1200 GPM 3. So long all the AHUs on the bullding distribution side are operational, 2 x 300 TR designed chillers must remain on-line irrespective of the load. The only time one chiller can put out of operation is when at least two floars of the building are non-operational PUMPING ARRANGEMENT There are two ways to arrange pumps: Chiller chiller TANDEM PUMPS HEADERED PUMIS. ‘Tandem arrangement — Here each pump is dedicated to its respective chiller i.e. pump 1 Is piped directly to chiller 1 and whenever this chiller is operating its dedicated pump should be operating. Building operators find this simplicity beneficial. Another benefit ofdedicated pumps is that they can handle unequally sized chillers without using control valves and flow measurement devices to balance the carrect flaw to each chiller. The downside is that a standby pump cannot be started automatically by the building control system, but instead needs manual intervention. This can present a problem with chiller plants that do nat have standby capacity. The constant flaw systems are recommended in distributed arrangement. Headered arrangement — Here the discharge af multiple pumps is connected to a common manifold before entering the chiller. This arrangement is desirable for afew reasons: First, they give users the ability to operate any chiller with any primary chilled water pump. This helps whenever a single pump is down for maintenance because pump outage does not correspond ta a particular chiller. Also, headered pumps give users the ability to operate more than one pump for a single chiller. This can help solve alow AT problem by increasing primary flow and forcing a chiller to a greater load when the return temperature Is less than design. Disadvantage Ifthe multiple chillers are arranged in parallel, these must be “on-line” all the time lmespective of load. By turning off one chiller, the flow will spit into three streams, allawing the flow to continue through the down machine/s. The supply temperature from the plant will thus increase due to the mixing of water from the chiller that has been off, with the water of the chillers that remain “on-line”. The only way to counter the supply temperature degradation is to drop the temperature of the water leaving the active chillers, but this complicates the operation and/or cantrols, making it an unsatisfactory option. To overcome this deficiency, a cantral valve on the chiller evaporator is added to balance flow between chillers and keep constant flow to each chiller. The control valve is, interlocked to the operation of pump in such a way that if one pump is off, one control valve will remain shut-off in closed position. This works well for balancing flow, but interferes with the benefit of allowing additional flow, if desired, to counteract a system's low AT.b b Poses Shut-r Valves HEADERED PUMPS Another problem with manifolded pumps is that an entire chiller plant can fail due to a single pump’s failure. Here's haw: consider a typical plant with three chillers and three manifolded primary pumps, with two chillers and two pumps operating, If a single pump fails, the flow rate to each chiller drops substantially at the moment of pump failure. This sudden drop in evaporator flow trips each chiller's flow switch and causes failure of both chillers. A misconception exists that manifalded pumps allow for a backup pump to start upon a lead pump failure (thereby maintaining chiller plant operation). On the contrary, the author's experience has been that the evaporator flow switches shut down the chillers before the software of the building control system determines the pump fallure and starts, the backup pump. There may be a creative solution to this, but if not addressed, this is a strong reason NOT to use a manifolded primary pump arrangement. SCHEME #2 PRIMARY / SECONDAY DISTRIBUTION SCHEME ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1- 1989 - Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings requires "all HVAC hydronic systems having a total pump system pawer exceeding 10 hp must be capable to flow at 50 % of design value or less." This standard highly recommends use of primary/secondary system for large complexes.A primary- secondary pumping scheme divides the chilled water system into two distinct circuits (loops) that are hydraulically separated by a neutral bridge (de-coupler) 1. Primary circult is the place where chilled water is produced and its principal components are the chiller and pumps. The primary pumps are typically constant volume, low head pumps intended to provide a constant flow through the evaporator of the chiller. These are usually placed in tandem with each chiller though can also be arranged in common header. 2. The secondary circuit is responsible for the distribution of the chilled water to the terminal units. Among the components of the secondary circults are pumps, terminal units such as fan-coils and air handling units (AHU) and control valves. The secondary pumps can be constant speed or variable speed and are sized to move the flaw rate and head intended to overcome the pressure drop of secondary circuit only 3. The neutral bridge consists of two tees that are typically located at the suction header of the secondary pumps and at the suction header of the primary pumps and connected by a de- coupling pipe. This de-coupler separates the primary and secondary loops. This comman pipe is designed for negligible pressure drop at design flow. A well designed, low-pressure- drop common pipe is the heart of primary- secondary pumping, allowing the two pumps to operate independently. CONSTANT PRIMARY & CONSTANT SECONDARY ARRANGEMENT Refer below for a schematic of canstant primary and constant variable system. It consists of one set of constant speed primary pumps and one set of constant speed secondary pumps.ry Loop Secondary Loop (Production) (Distribution) Chior t Supply Lead} | Loaaz | hoaw3 sec Pumps Constant Speed wo oe Balancing Valve ean Constant flow primary/secondary chilled water system Primary pumps are lower horsepower than the secandary pumps because they only have to overcome the friction loss associated with the chiller, pipes, and valves in the primary loop. The secondary pumps, in contrast, are higher horsepower because they must. overcome the friction loss associated with the secondary loop: the distribution piping, fittings, valves, coils, etc. The Secondary loop contains 3-way valves to vary chilled water quantity thraugh the coil in response to load but the tatal quantity of flow in secondary loop remains the same. (One of the salient features of a primary/secandary pumping schemes is to allow different chilled water flaw rates as well delta-T on the two loops Example Consider the same example of scheme 1, with a difference that the scheme is converted to primary/secandary arrangement and 4 x 300 GPM constant volume pumps added in secondary loop. (Refer schematic figure below).AW Dsigncunsing Lees fs conigy 2) ERAN si . 100-7R , 200 GPMGI ZF sav orw » ratamonanguese [Pama eno eg 1200 GPa oerieg Condon zeore | | 200m | | an07R ‘Budgie Ws om on one LE] eset cesign nadie 3007 consi | constant constant +D- Snood” gPXy Eoees.” AY Soe const Fine CS Pons CY Fires CY Sure scocrn | acoorn [40064 “Tegy == eocencony om om oe [SB BSP pumped 300 oem 200aem ee (CHILLER PLANT) Consider the case when the building is experiencing just the 50% of the load ie. 300 TR The inherent separation of the primary and secondary loops allows two different flows in these circuits because both circuits are hydraulically independent. This way the system face the variable thermal load without having to keep all chillers “on-line” and pumping energy saving are realized during periods of low loads Flow in primary circuit A.50 % drop in load could be faced with two chillers, with around 67 % [33.33% + 33.33%] of the total production flow of the plant. The flow in the primary circuit will be 800 GPM and the secondary loop continues to circulate 1200 GPM. Compared to constant valume systems, It is definitely a more efficient strategy than keeping in service all production units and theirs pumps at all loads Flow in secondary circuitThe primary chiller sequencing does nat really change the secandary loop flow rate, which remain constant and higher percent than actual load. At 50% off-load conditions, 600 GPM Is required for 300 TR load but 1200 GPM delivered through 4 x 300 secondary pumps This wastes energy at low loads. thas another disadvantage. The excess flow will simply run through the common pipe in the direction towards the secandary pumps creating a mixing point and further degradation of the supply temperature. This reduces the cooling capacity of the coils, especially latent cooling capacity which could mean a loss of humidity control in the zones CONSTANT PRIMARY/ VARIABLE SECONDARY SYSTEM In primary/secondary systems, water flows through the chiller primary loop at a constant rate, and water flows through the secondary loop, which serves air handlers or fan coils, at a variable rate. The constant speed pumps in secondary circuit are replaced with “variable speed” pumps. The speed of the secondary pumps is determined by a controller measuring differential pressure (DP) across the supply-return mains or across the selected critical zones. The decoupled section isolates the two systems hydraulically. Also the system uses two-way valves in the air handlers that modulate secondary loop flow rate with load requirements. During light load condition, the 2-way control valves will close (partially or fully) in response to load conditions, resulting in pressure rise in the secondary chilled water loop. A differential pressure sensor measures the pressure rise in the secondary loop and signals variable frequency drive of secondary pumps to alter the speed (flow) Primary-secondary variable-flow systems are more energy efficient than constant-flow systems, because they allow the secondary variable-speed pump to use only as much energy as necessary to meet the system demand. Refer to the schematic belowPrimary Loop (Production) Secondary Loop (Distribution) hit Loos float — Lona Sensor Ra Constant-flow primary/variable-flow secondary chilled water system While the primary-secondary system takes advantage of the reduced pumping cost offered by variable speed secondary loop pumping, itis stil “blinded” by low temperature differential Example Consider the same example of scheme 1, with a difference that the scheme is converted to primary/secandary arrangement and 4 x 300 GPM variable volume pumps added in secondary loop. (Refer schematic figure below)Design suiting Loss pranary—Seconnany © E20haHU tor each toor | CAEZ me, Secondary 00 7R, 200 GF Z| awvceu ) tom auiangoas | [ans n foo TR 1200 6H 9 fenitor 1) | enitor2| | caer ‘rena conan 2) Buldingie ! I | ! : Lo] | cosionload io a00TR conaint | contant | corset Sota” Ay Shwee Ny Soro ‘oie rips CS) Pies ES ries CS ‘ume reosen ] tongen [4000P0 |g) ge Senay on a or | BEL rims acoor oa ru AX anos (CHILLER PLANT) ‘When the building is experiencing just the 50% of the load i.e. 300 TR, the flow requirement in secondary loap is varied in response to load and delivers 600 GPM for 300 TR load. The primary loop is adjusted to 2.x 200 TR or 800 GPM by turning aff one chiller. Energy savings in secondary circuit ‘As the volume of water circulating in the secondary circuit varies at all mes because of the two way control valve on each terminal unit of the system, the variable secondary pumping saves energy at low loads. If the flow rate were half, the power necessary to provide the slower flow rate would be (0.5)° = 0.125 or 12.5 % of the power required far the higher flow rate. It means an energy saving of 87.5%. Energy savings in primary circuit ‘A.50% drop in load could be faced with two chillers. It means facing a 50 % coaling load with around 67 % [33.33% + 33.33%] of the total production flow of the plant. Compared to constant volume systems, it is definitely a more efficient strategy than keeping in service all production units and theirs pumps at all loads. However, chiller sequencing does notreally change the primary loop into a true variable distribution because the flaw remains a higher percent than load [600 GPM required for 300 TR and 800 GPM delivered for 2 x 200 TR chillers}. The excess flow will simply run through the common pipe in the direction towards the return loop creating a mixing point and further degradation of return temperature. This reduces the AT across chillers. This "low Delta - T syndrome" has a variety of causes, some of which are easily remedied and some which are not. As per the previous discussion, optimization of the system AT Is critical for the successful operation of a chilled water system. Let's analyze the causes and mitigation steps for the low AT prablem Cause # Improper setpoint or poor controls calibratior This problem is created when the supply air set point is lowered from the design set point, often in response to complaints trom occupants in the building. The cooling valve will open to increase the flow rate through the coil, which again will lead to a corresponding decrease in AT. Table below shows how even a modest drop in supply air temperature setpoint trom 54°F to 51°F can cause coil flow rate to more than double and delta-T to drop in half. This is likely the greatest single cause of the low AT syndrome Coll Performance at Low SAT Setpoints cuw | %of Leaving Air Temperature | Flow | Delt-t, | Design Setpoint, “F Rate,pm| “F_| GPM 54 so | 3 [00 33 104 re 2 143 ss | 1% SL 208 65 | 200 50 327 43 | aco 9 ‘canner be attained [Based ona sixxow 100 fpf col, 78°F entering 63°F entering wet-balb Measure: Use Pressure Independent delta — P Control ValvesCheck set points and recalibrate controls regularly. Low setpoints means the control valves are wide open to allow more flow. The problem of exceeding design flow rates when valves are wide open can be resolved by installing “pressure independent delta-P control valves" that maintain a preset maximum flow regardless of the differential pressure acrass them (within certain limits). These valves, however, add considerable cost and pressure drop to the system, both due to the valves themselves and to the strainers that are often required in front of them to prevent valve clogging. Also, these valves can only prevent flow from exceeding design rates; an improper setpoint can stil result in considerable bypass of water above what is actually “used’ in the coll at low-load conditions even though flaw is limited Ifthe cantral system is digital, lock” setpoint ranges in software to prevent operators from setting overly low setpaints Cause # 2: Using three-way valves: Valves control the water flow through a coil in order to vary the heat transfer rate. Three- way (diverting) valves, by their nature, bypass supply water into the return to control temperatures at the load. These systems operate with virtually constant flow, which Is detrimental to the system AT. Measure: Use two-way valves All three-way (diverting) valves must be replaced by properly sized two-way, fully modulating valves to achieve variable flow conditions. Plugging the bypass port does not usually offer a good engineering solution since the three-way valve actuator spring range ratings are not adequate to close against the system pressure. In addition, the existing valves may be oversized which can cause unstable operation (“hunting’). Both two-way and three-way valves praduce the same result so far as the coil is concerned; they reduce coll flow to reduce heat transfer. But there is a difference .... 3- way valves theoretically maintain constant flow and, hence, A-T will vary proportionally with the load. Compared to 3-way valve systems, 2-way valve provide variable volume andsave energy at part load by pumping less water through the system. This is an obvious requirement since operating cast savings for variable primary flow result from flow variation. A fifty percent reduction in system flow has the potential to reduce pumping power by as much as 80%. In large systems, sometimes, 3-way valves are put at the terminal end (so called end-of- line 3 way valve) to keep water constantly moving through the circuit so that chilled water will be available immediately on demand by any call in the system. The concept probably comes from domestic water re-circulating systems, which are designed to make sure people do not have to wait to get hat water at a lavatory. But the concept is not applicable to most chilled water systems simply because it seldom matters if coils have to wait a few seconds or a few minutes to get chilled water when they call for it. Unless some process load requires instantaneous chilled water, or if the chilled water plant serves buildings very far away, end-ot-line three-way valves are not necessary and should be avoided An improperly sized two-way control valve may consume more water flow when open than the design calls for. With full flow thraugh the coil, at partial loads the A-T will Invariably be lower than design. Also the oversized or warn two-way valves may act as three-way valves which can lead to hunting”. This means that the valves alternately open and close causing over and under- shooting of the set point. This results in very unstable operation. Another prablem could be undersized actuators with an insufficient close-off pressure rating which can cause the valve to open when that is not intended. Measure: Don't oversize or undersize 2-way valves Select the control valves considering the pressure drap of the load served and the available differential across the supply and retum mains. Manufacturers usually recommend that wide-open control valve pressure drop shall be equal to ar greater than the pressure drop of the coil plus the pipe and fittings connecting them to supply andreturn mains. (Refer to control valves and actuators description later on this course far detailed description) Cause # 4: Improper Coil Selection: Cooling coil selected for a lower A-T than the chiller A-T is a problem Existing coil rows, fin spacing, tube velocity, and circuiting should be investigated to determine any impact (potential reduction of capacity) to the existing HVAC system Measure: Select cooling coils for high temperature drops at design conditions If chiller is selected for AT of 12°F, the cooling coils should be selected for AT of minimum 12°F or higher say 14°F. The most effective method of increasing the leaving water temperature (LWT) of a cooling coil is to lower its entering water temperature (EWT). If the EWT to the coil is lowered from the 42°F original design to 38°F, the AT should increase from 10°F to 14°F with virtually No impact on the coil capacity. The good design may be to use “dual-row coils” that is piped with the water entering at two coil locations (last row and middle row), rather a standard “full row” coll where the water enters only into the last row af the coll (the row at the air discharge side af the coil). The dual-row cail has lower tube velocity and, hence, lower water-side pressure drop than the standard coil. tis recommended to use dual-row calls on the hydraulically langest runs to reduce pump head, then compensate by using higher delta-T calls on circuits closer to the pump where excess head is available. Cause # 5: Reduced coil effectiveness: The perfarmance (ar lack of) of the existing cooling coils and control valves creates the low AT problem. Cail transfer effectiveness is reduced over a period of time by water side fouling (slime, scale or corrosion), air side fouling (dirt build-up) and cail bypass air. Anyreduction in coil effectiveness increases the flow rate of water required to deliver the desired leaving water temperature, thus reducing delta-T. Measure: Improve housekeeping Waterside fouling is easily controlled by proper water treatment. Since the chilled water piping is most often a closed system, water treatment need not be an ongoing expense Reduced airside fouling is a very good reason to consider increasing the filter efficiencies. Cause # 6: Improperly Piped Coils: Coils piped in parallel flow arrangement with water entering the coil on the same side as the entering air Measure: Coils shall be arranged in counter-flow Coils must be piped counter-flow. Refer to figure below: X incorrect J connect furrow sanrvow > ( | we come ye frowns cad The chilled water supply shall be from bottom and shall be on the opposite side to the direction of airflow.A coil piped counter-flaw can achieve “overlapping” temperature ranges with the supply air, €.g., the leaving water temperature can enter at 44°F and leave at 60°F while the supply air enters at 80°F and leaves at 55°F. With parallel-flow piping, the two ranges cannot overlap and therefore leaving water temperature will always be a few degrees cooler than the leaving supply air temperature. Cause # 7: Dirty Filte Reduction in air flaw is caused by dirty filters. This reduces air-side heat transfer coefficients and reduces the averall space cooling capacity of the system. To compensate for the low airflow, the space thermostat causes the chilled water valve to increase water flow rates to deliver colder supply air temperatures, thus reducing delta-T. Measure: Proper Housekeeping Alt-side fouling Is usually minimized by good filtration. Filters should be at least 30% dust- spot efficiency (or MERV 6 or 7 using the new ASHRAE 52.2 rating method) Although the design should take mitigation measures to prevent low AT. experience indicates it is unavoidable primarily due to cause 5 and 7 PRIMARY/SECONDARY DESIGN PRACTICE There are three critical design areas that must be considered far any variable volume pumping system: 1. The common pipe (De-coupler) 2. Chiller staging 3. Control valves and actuators DE-COUPLER Referring to primary / secondary schematic, it wauld appear that the primary and secondary pumps are in series. This is not the case however, because of the de-coupler.Primary-secondary pumping is based on a simple fact that when two circuits are interconnected, flow in one will NOT cause flow in the other if the pressure drop in the piping common to both is eliminated. To ensure proper system performance, the de- coupler sizing criteria is as follows De-coupler Sizing De-couplers should be sized for the flaw rate of the largest primary pump. For simplicity of design and installation, the common pipe is often the same diameter as the distribution piping ‘The maximum pressure drop in the common pipe shall not exceed 1.5 ft By restricting the pressure drop to 1.5 ft maximum, water that is flowing in the primary loop. will not flow into the secondary circuit unti its circulator turns on. That way the hydraulic isolation between both primary and secondary circuit is achieved and is the fundamental basis of primary-secondary pumping. [Note that the higher friction loss in the common. tends to make the primary and secondary pumps act in series, resulting in an induced flow in the system] Maximum three pipe diameters of separation between the secondary supply tee and the secondary return tee Acomman pipe of 3 pipe diameter apart is more than adequate to eliminate mixing due to excessive retum velocity in the secondary return piping. Longer length common pipes may result in an excessive pressure drop greater than 1.5 ft with results as described above Keep minimum 10 pipe diameters to the first chiller When the secandary retum flows straight through in the tee to the primary return, there should be at least 10 pipe diameters to the first chiller. This is to help avoid the possibilty of having stratification in the primary return line, which can lead to unmixed water to the first chiller. This can lead to chiller cycling.Varlable Speed secondary Pumps q cviter2) — Jeninter 1 [fae a0 puking Fesuppy sa sno nod wee Pipe Diameters Constant ane Speed Primary Friction Loss < 1.5 ft Pumps eee Return CHILLER SEQUENCING Proper chiller sequencing plays an important role in the overall performance of a primary- secondary pumping systems. The operator of the system must recognize the three flaw conditions that can occur. These are: 1. Primary flow equals secondary flow 2. Secondary flaw is greater than primary flow 3. Primary flow is greater than secondary flow Primary flow equals secondary flow Only on special occasions will the primary pump flow and the secondary flow be equal. An example would be when the cooling load (and secondary flaw) can be met by a fully loaded chiller. Although this flow condition rarely occurs, we will observe the flow pattern of this scenario (Fig. below).PRIMARY LOOP SECONDARY LOOP (production) (istibution) 1500 GPM @ 15 F Secondary (gan Chiller 3 Chiller 2 Chiller -+—}— 625 7R 625 7R e51R Seily OFF OFF on G ~ ae [1500 GPM @ 45 F Piimaty No flow through rte 1@ | exmme. oorpM] 0GeM 800.SEM 1500 GPM @ 56 F = 1500 GPM @ 6 F Retuin Primary Flow Equals Secondary Flow The chiller is supplying 1500 GPM of 45°F water to the load systems. The two way valves in the secondary are responding to conditions equal to 1500 GPM x 10°F AT x 500 = 7.5 MBtuh or 625 tons Because the load is equal to 625 tons, the retum water temperature to the chiller is 55°F at a flow rate of 1500 GPM. The thermal balance is complete. There is no flow in the comman pipe. Secondary flow greater than primary flow The amount af time the system operates at peak is extremely small compared to the hours per year it operates at part load. Therefore, the primary/secondary loop flow will never be exactly balanced and there will always be some flaw in de-coupler line. Two conditions are possible: 1) the secondary flaw greater than primary flow or 2) the primary flow greater than secondary.Continuing from previous example, consider naw the distribution side load increases and the two-way valves in secondary circult modulate open in response, to increase the flow rate to 2000 GPM. The one chiller that is operating will accept only 1500 GPM and to balance the mass flow, the excess 500 GPM must run through the common pipe. (Refer figure below) aksion daeien reo oR @F eueoter pe cites] este | | caters |—¢3— wir | [osm | | sore can ot} Lor) Low t—D— aa] \ wins asme san + em0@ 509 = Primary 58 2000 GPM @ 47.5 F Ros 35 ocem 2000 OPM @ 65 F Retun 1600 GPM @ 55 F Secondary Flow Greater Than Primary Flow Look also at the temperature relationships. The temperature of the 500 GPM in the common pipe is 55°F. This blends with the 1500 GPM of 45°F supply water, resulting in 2000 GPM of 47.5°F blended supply water. A higher secondary supply water temperature to coils hinders its ability to provide dehumidification that could mean a loss of humiaity contro! in the secondary zones. A common description of this situation from operators is that “the chiller can’t handle the load”. To deal with this situation, they will immediately start additional chiller that will result in primary flows greater than the secondary. This requirement leads to a simple design rule: “primary cireuit flow should equal or slightly exceed secondary circult design flow rate”. In short, flow in the reverse primary direction ina de-coupler bridge is not goodOther options include: Secondary flow is permitted to increase the primary flaw if following options are considered Option #1 — Select cooling coils on a somewhat higher than design chilled water supply temperature; for example 1°F to 2°F higher inlet temperature to cooling coil is prudent to account for coil fouling over time Option #2 — Reset chiller temperature. Within the limits of the type of machine, chiller temperatures can be reset to a lower temperature to compensate for the increased load and secondary flows. In essence, more capacity is provided at a lower aperating efficiency. The increase in cost of chiller operation due to the lowering of the chiller supply temperature can range fram 1 to 3 percent per degree of reset. This is a very desirable alterative, especially when large chillers are in use. The longer the start of a lag chiller can be delayed, the better it will perform when it is finally brought an line. Option #3 - Use smaller chiller in series, if a small portion of the load requires a fixed temperature Option #4 — Some designers opt for putting a check valve in the de-coupler line that prevents flow in reverse primary direction. Engineers who design chilled water distribution systems have different opinions on this approach. The advantages and disadvantages are highlighted below: Check Valve Advantages: «The check valve allows the secondary pumps to “help” pump the primary loop and push additional flow through chiller evaporators above their design rate. This additional flow will force load the chiller to 100% during a situation when the chiller ATis less than design, or greater than 100% if this condition coincides with low outdoor wet-bulb temperatures.‘A check valve helps to reduce plant energy consumption by keeping the quantity of active chillers matched to the system load. Additional chiller is not brought on-line simply to provide additional primary water flow A check valve prohibits secondary return water at high temperature to the cooling coils, thus the dehumidification at the secondary calls is nat impacted. Check Valve Disadvantages: A check valve forces the secondary pumps in series with the primary pumps when secondary pump speed and flow is increasing beyond the capacity of the primary pumps. Assisted by the secondary pumps, the constant flow primary pumps mave to the right on their characteristic curves to accommodate the increased flow and operate at a head lower than design. This leads ta higher chiller discharge temperatures and chiller tube erosion. There is possibility of potential dead-nead condition of the secondary pumps if no primary pumps are operating. During this condition, tne secondary pump speed escalates in response to the differential pressure sensor out in the system, which senses zero differential because no secondary flow exists. One approach to resolving this problem is ta require proof of operation of at least one primary pump for any secandary pump to operate. Upon loss of proof of operation of all primary pumps, the secondary pumps stop. There is a possibility of ghost flow thraugh inactive chillers with dedicated pumps The author's experience is to be without a check valve. Primary flow greater than secondary flow Continuing from same example, let's say the operator turn-on additional chiller ta keep primary flow greater than secondary flow. (Refer Fig below)PRIMARY LOOP SECDNDARY LODP (erouton (stauon 3000 GPM @ 45 F pec yer chiter3 | | ckier2 | | chiller 1 —— ea5TR ans TR 25 TR ao OFF on ON —— 7100 OFM @ 457 Zu z oaeaie BS Pumps iT + baer 8 OGM] 100 CPV] 1500 5°! | anon opin 62 F ee Retun Se Mixing @100 @ S5F) + G00 @ 457) = 3000 GPM @ 52 F Primary Flow Greater Than Secondary Flow The flow rate through two chillers is fixed, this time at 3000 GPM. The new secondary load Is say 875 tons, which corresponds to demand rate of 2100 GPM @ 10°F delta -T across the cooling coils. There will be excess flow of 900 GPM in de-coupler as 2100 GPM circulates in the secondary loop and 3000 GPM Is being pumped into the primary loop. Look at temperature relationships. The 900 GPM common flow @45°F blends with the 2100 GPM @ 55°F to produce 3000 GPM @ 52°F. This is lower than the desired return water temperature of 55°F, which makes it impossible to fully load the “on-line” chillers and robs the plant of its rated capacity....low AT syndrome. CHILLER STAGING Maintaining the leaving-chilled-water-temperature set point is the primary abjective of chiller staging. At small part loads, the auxiliary power (cooling tower fans, condenser water pumps, and primary chilled water pumps) can become a very large fraction of thetotal energy consumption of the system; consequently, most chiller staging strategies take into consideration the total of chiller and auxiliary power. Chiller staging strategies require comparison of chiller capacity with cooling load. This can be done in a variety of ways. 1. Chilled water temperature leaving the evaporator indicates a capacity shortfall when it remains above set point for a specified length of time, but is not a goad indicator of excess capacity. 2. Ina primary/secondary system, bypass flow direction (indicated by temperature in the bypass) can indicate a capacity shortfall 3. Calculation of load trom measurements of flow and temperature can be useful both for deciding when to start or stop chillers 4. Measurement of current drawn by the compressor motor is also useful for controlling chiller starts and stops. 5. Models of chiller and chilled water plant operation can, in principle, be used off-line or in real time to support optimal control strategies. This is nat currently the norm, but may be the future direction of chilled water plant controls. Conceptually, the designer needs to determine the best combination of chillers that will meet the flow demand. This is often done by calculating the 8TU/n consumed. Instrumentation must be provided to determine: ‘Secondary supply water temperature. Secondary return water temperature, [T3 Secondary flow, Fs ‘The amount of coaling BTU/h produced is alsa valuable information. The necessary instrumentation is: Primary supply water temperature (chiller leaving), [7Primary return water temperature (chiller entering), [Tq Primary flaw (chiller flow), Fe PRINARY LOOP SECONDARY LOOP (productior) = Gistrbutior) I Secondary Pumps chiter3 chiler2 | | chilert D [re] Supply l | __] Piimary Pumps <7 Sor ry rq I I Retun How does one know when to take a chiller off-line? The traditional primary-secondary logic says to measure the flow and when primary flow exceeds secondary flow by the capacity of ane primary pump, shut down a pump and chiller. In actuality, systems with low AT never see this condition. Shutting dawn a primary pump will often lead to re-circulating flow through the de- coupler. How is bypass flow determined? This can be done relatively simply using temperature measurements at the bypass [T9] the retum temperature [T-, and mixed return temperature [T4] Since the chillec-water-flow rate in the primary loop is known to be a good approximation, the flaw rate through the bypass can be calculated using these temperatures. Altematively, a flow meter in the bypass line can be used to measure the excess primary flaw directlyThe simplest indicator of available chiller capacity is percent full load motor amperage, not because it's such a straightforward mea sure of available chiller capacity but because it's, generally available on the chiller starter panel General Practice In majority of plants, chiller capacity is staged in response to rising supply chilled-water temperature [Tj] and the chiller is staged off when fiow in the bypass exceeds the design flow of one chiller. When the on-line chillers can't hold the chilled water temperature [T_7 set point any longer, the chillers are fully loaded and another chiller should be turned on. With this method, chiller activation is controlled by monitoring the chiller's ability to achieve leaving chilled water set point temperature, nat by monitoring chilled water flow through a crossover pipe Recommended Practice Instead of staging in response to rising chilled water temperature [T_7], consider controlling the chiller through [TJ] sensor. As the load increases and more mixing occurs at the supply side of the de-coupler, the secandary temperature will rise further. As soon as this is detected by [Tj sensor, the chiller supply temperature [F j]is reset (lowered) automatically via building energy management system (BEMS) to maintain the secandary supply setpoint. This means that during some part of the day the chiller discharge temperature could be lower than the secandary controlled setpoint. When the true maximum capacity (100%) for the chiller is reached, it can da no mare work. At this point, the secondary chilled water temperature [T 2] will begin to rise above the desired setpoint. When the secondary actual temperature is 1°F above the secondary setpoint for five minutes, the BEMS will start the next chiller. [Note that the on-board chiller control panel is responsible for maintaining the temperature leaving the chiller machine (45°F in aur example above) and is NOT aware of the temperature in the secondary]The chiller manufacturer is usually best suited to provide the information and instrumentation to effectively stage and de-stage its product. CONTROL VALVES & ACTUATORS In a (cross flow) cooling cil, one wauld assume — simplistically — that when the load falls to say 50%, $0 would the flow. The performance of such a coil would be “Linear” Unfortunately, cross flaw coils do not have such characteristics, but instead, their performance is ‘Non Linear’; thus, at 50% flow, the coil capacity is stil 80% (and not 50%). Further, the flow required to produce 50% capacity Is less than 30%) Coll Characteristic al/ =i 2 % Flow rate Itis clear that the coil requires a flow that falls off steeply to begin with as the load falls from 100% load (valve in fully open position) but a flow that declines slowly as the valve nears its fully closed position. To achieve this, control valves are used, which closes the flow ‘fast’ to begin with and aniy ‘gradually’ later as the capacity approaches zero. The control valves functions are to vary flow properly through the water coil in response to a variety of building load conditions. Because of their critical nature, great care must be taken when selecting control valves so they perform properly. Control Valve Flow Characteristics: Generally, valves control the flow of fluids by an actuator, which moves a stem with an attached plug. The plug seats within the valve port and against t he valve seat with a composition disk or metal-to-metal seating. Based on the geometry of the plug, three distinct flow conditions can be developed.Quick Opening: When started from the closed position, a quick opening valve allows considerable amount of flow to p ass for small stem travel. As the stem moves towards the open position, the rate at which the flow is increased per movement of the stem is reduced in a nonlinear fashion. This characteristic is used in two-position or an/aft applications. Linear: Linear valves produce equal flow increments per equal stem travel throughout the travel range of the stem. T his characteristic is used on steam coll terminals and in the bypass port of three-way valves Equal percentage: This type of valve produces an exponential flow increase as the stem moves from the closed position to the open. The term equal percentage means that for equal increments of stem travel, the flow increases by an equal percentage. For example, in Figure below, if the valve is moved from 50 to 70% of full stroke, the percentage of full flow changes from 10 to 25%, an increase of 150%. Then, if the valve is maved from 80 to 100% of full stroke, the percentage of full flow changes from 40 to 100%, again, an Increase of 150%. This characteristic is recommended for contral on (hot and) chilled water terminals. ee! L+TH E * aucvopering [7 J oe ] £ oft |i Vy} . uncer 7 TH 2+ 2 oe or WA | joe Euatrecenage Full Valve Stem Travel % CONTROL VALVE FLOWThe combined coil heat transfer characteristics for a cooling coil with a equal percentage valve are shawn in figures below: Coil Characteristic Valve Characteristic Combined Characteristic 5 g £ # +a = = 8 x 4g 2 = 2 & Eg % Flow rate % Controller output % Controller output Extreme left shows the coll characteristic and middle shows the valve characteristic. As already discussed, the former depicts the inadequate sensitivity of coil capacity for flow reduction to begin with i.e., as the valve starts clasing and an improvement as the valve approaches the fully closed position Control Valve Sizing/Selection A pressure drop must exist across a control valve, if flow is to accur. The greater the drop. the greater the flaw at any fixed opening. The pressure drop across a valve also varies with the disc position — from minimum when fully open, to 100% of the system drop when fully closed. To size a valve property, it is necessary to know the full flow pressure drop acrass it. The pressure drop across a valve is the difference in pressure between the inlet and outlet under flow conditions. When it is specified by the engineer and the required flow is known, the selection of a valve is simplified. When this pressure drop is not known, it must be computed or assumed Ifthe pressure drop acrass the valve when fully open is not a large enough percentage of the total system drop, there will be little change in fluid flow until the valve actually closes, forcing the vaive's characteristic toward a quick opening form Itis important to realize that the flow characteristic for any particular valve, such as the linear characteristic is applicable only if the pressure drop remains nearly constant acrossthe valve for full stem travel. In most systems, however, itis impractical to take 100% of the system drop across the valve A good working rule is, "at maximum flaw, 25 to 50% of the total system pressure drop should be absorbed by the control valve.” Although this generally results in larger pump sizes, it should be pointed out that the initial equipment cost is offset by a reduction in control valve size, and results in improved controllability of the system. Reasonably good control can be accomplished with pressure drops of 15 to 30% of total system pressures. A drop of 15% can be used if the variation in flow is small Recommended Pressure Drops for Valve Sizing — Water With a differential pressure less than 20 psig, use a pressure drop equal to 5 psi With a differential pressure greater than 20 psig, use a pressure drop equal to 25% of total system pressure drop (maximum pump head), but not exceeding the maximum rating of the valve « Cv=Valve flow coefficient + Q=US. GPM with AP = 1 psi +S =Specific gravity of fluid relative to water @ 60°F «AP = P1—P2 atmaximum flow, psi + P1 Inlet pressure at maximum flow, psia (abs.) + P2 Outlet pressure at maximum flaw, psia (abs.)Valve Authority: The valve should have a pressure drop that is large enough to ensure that its operation will have necessary impact on flow variation (control). An index of this aspect of valve performance is: Valve AP at 100% AP ofthe branch circuit (in which the valve is operating) This is called “Valve Authority’. Its value should be 0.5 minimum Rangeability: The "Rangeability’ of the valve (the ratio of flow at fully open position and minimum flow of the call is likely to operate) should be not less than 50 to 1. This will ensure Satisfactory modulation down to 1/50 of full ow Two aspects of two-way control valve selection are particularly critical for variable-flow systems: valve size (Cv) and actuator size (shutoff capability) Proper sizing of control valves is critical in a two-way valve system, particularly when pumps are uncontrolled (riding their curves). Many designers feel that oversizing control valves is no longer a concer in modem systems with direct digital controls using PID control laops and variable speed drives to contral system pressure. This is certainly partly true, but no amount of control magic can compensate for a grossly oversized valve Oversized control valves cause the controller to “hunt,” alternately opening and closing the valve, aver- and under shooting the setpoint. The overall average flow is higher than desired, and thus delta-T is reduced Undersizing the actuator is another common problem. Valve/actuator combinations usually have two ratings: the close-off rating is the maximum differential pressure across the valve against which the valve and actuator can campletely close. The dynamic close-off pressure rating is the maximum differential pressure for modulating (as opposed to two- Position) applications; above this pressure, control through the entire stroke will no longer be smooth and the design tumdown ratio will not be achieved. Often valves are selected only to achieve the required close-off rating, but they cannot provide modulating duty under high differential pressures. The result is hunting and excess water being forcedthrough the coil. Thus the undersized valves may provide insufficient capacity while oversized valves provide poor control. In variable volume systems, the selected valve actuator must be capable of closing the valve against the maximum pump head pressure. In variable volume closed loop systems, all loads could be reduced causing the pump to ride back on the pump curve; as the pump rides back on the curve, the head being produced by the pump increases. The control valve actuator must be strong enough to continue modulating the valve closed as the pressure increases. In the worst case, this could be the "shutoff pressure” being praduced by the pump. Improper actuator sizing may result in some water passing through the valve and coil, which add to low return water temperatures. ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY / SECONDARY SYSTEM The following is a list of the advantages to implementing a primary-secondary system: 1. Constant Flow through Evaporator. The primary-secondary system maintains a constant flaw through the evaporator of the chiller even though secondary flaw varies. This eliminates the concem for chiller performance and inadvertent shutdowns. Thus, there's no possibility of freezing the chiller's evaporator in an upset condition or allowing evaporator CHW flaw to slip into the laminar flaw regian at low loads. As long as plant primary flow exceeds system flow, chiller pumps and system pumps behave as if they're decoupled. 2. Simplified Controls: Controls within a primary-secondary system are relatively simple and well established. Typical chiller controls packages do not have difficulty with the staging sequence for the chillers and responding to varying loads. 3. Past Experience: The primary-secondary system is a well established operational philosophy and plant personnel are familiar with its operation. In addition, this pumping ‘scheme has been proven reliable if operated property. 4. Divided Hydraulic Head: By dividing the total dynamic head between two hydraulically independent loops, the required motor size for each pump type (primary andsecondary) will be smaller when compared to a direct-primary system. This also reduces the risk that the system discharge pressure will exceed the design of equipment, piping, and valves in the buildings. DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY / SECONDARY SYSTEM The following is a list of the disadvantages to implementing a primary-secondary system: 1. Does nat resolve Low AT Syndrome: The primary-secondary system does not allow an increase in flow thraugh the evaporator above design and; therefore, does not adjust to chilled water return temperatures that are lower than design. In addition, this pumping scheme can further exacerbate the problem during off-peak conditions. As the cooling load decreases, the secondary pump VFDs will ramp down to a lower speed, thus allowing these pumps to produce less flow. The constant volume circulation pumps will then over pump the primary loop causing supply water to flow through the neutral bridge and mix with return water. This mixing lowers the return water temperature and deteriorates the system aT as described previously. 2. Capital investment The greater quantity of pumps and the langer piping runs associated with this pumping scheme can yield a higher capital investment when compared to the direct-primary system 3. Higher Operating and Energy Costs: The primary-secondary system uses both constant speed and variable speed pumps to circulate chilled water through the plant as well as the distribution system. Because the primary loop will aways have a constant flow, energy is wasted within this loop at off-peak loads. In addition, this pumping scheme does not allow adjustable flow through the chillers and is subject to the part load operational inefficiency described above. These features and the need for two sets of pumps will generally yield higher energy and operating costs per annum when compared to the direct-primary system 4. Requires More Plant Space: Two sets af pumps are needed to circulate chilled water through the chiller evaporator and the chilled water distribution system. This requiresmore floor space, mare spare parts, and results in higher capital costs and pump maintenance costs when compared to the direct-primary system. SCHEME #3 VARIABLE PRIMARY FLOW SCHEVE In a variable primary flaw (VPF) system, chilled water flow is allowed to vary thraughaut the loop, including the chiller evaporators. In this system, the secondary pumps are eliminated, the primary pumps provide variable flow to supply system demand to the extent tolerated by the chillers, and the decoupling bypass of the primary/secondary system has been replaced by a bypass with a normally closed control valve that opens only to maintain minimum flow through active chillers. The function of the bypass line VPF arrangement should not be confused with that of the de-coupler of primary/secandary arrangement. The bypass in this case is a smaller pipe sized for the minimum flaw of the largest chiller. It contains a normally closed control valve that madulates open only when the low flow limit is reached Primary Loop Secondary Loop (Production) (Dletibutlon) uly ichimer 3) fenimer 2 ah ak a Teva itt BO BO ad ime one, A ewnss ala pass " ! qT Hl Conmvotvane ne ™ Sensor il Rew Variable Primary Flow (VPF) SystemLike the variable secondary pumping in a primary-secondary system, the pumps in a typical VPF system operate to maintain a target differential pressure (Delta P) at a specific point in the system. This pressure difference tends to decrease when the terminals (air- handlers or fan-coils) two-way control valves open in respanse to increasing loads. To restore the Delta P across the system, the pump contraller increases the speed of the pump. Conversely, when the terminals control valves close in response to decreased coil loads, the pump controller slows the pump speed to maintain the target Delta P Meanwhile, the plant controller stages the chillers on and aff to match coaling capacity with system load. The pumps are normally sized to deliver 120% of the design low. If the return water temperature is high (ar AT is low) the variable speed pump increases the flow rate to the chillers thus increasing the load on the chillers. Advantages The following is a list of the advantages of VPF system: 1. VPF systems are not prane to low AT syndrome: + Neutral Bridge: The VPF systems do not include two hydraulically independent loops that are separated by a neutral bridge. As a result, the pump flow rate is better matched to the cooling load within the distribution system and the absence of a neutral bridge prevents mixing of supply and return water «Adjustable Chiller Flow: VPF controls permit flow through evaporators to be Increased above design value, making it possible to adjust to less than ideal chilled water return temperature. This maximizes the output of a given chiller and eliminates the need to start additional chillers and pumps prior to reaching nameplate capacity. The combination of using less equipment more efficiently yields savings to the owner/operator. 2. PF provides enhanced capacity’ When the outside wet bulb temperature is belaw the design value, as itis over 95 percent of the year, then cooler tower water will depress the chiller condensing temperature, giving each chiller additional capacity. At a 65°F enteringcondenser water temperature, for example, chiller full load capacity will increase at least 7 percent due to refrigerant cycle considerations and up to another 10 percent depending on where the compressor was selected on its compressor curve. If extra chilled water can be put through the chiller, this extra capacity can be tapped 3. Capital investment A VPF design uses fewer pumps and fewer piping connections than primary-secondary systems, which means fewer electrical lines and a smaller footprint for the plant. These factors reduce the initial cost of the chilled water system 4. Lower Operating and Energy Costs + Energy savings are possible because no excess flow recirculates from supply to return through decoupling lines or three-way valves. In theory, every bit of supply water, without any mixing, must pass through a load before retuming to the plant. + APF design displaces the small, inefficient, low-head primary pumps used in primary-secondary systems allowing selection of larger and far more efficient pumps. ‘+ Energy savings are also possible when conditions permit flaw to one or more chillers to exceed design flow. If outside wet bulb temperature is below the design value, as it is over 95 percent of the year, the condensing temperature will be also lower, giving each chiller additional capacity. if more water can be put through the chiller, this extra capacity can be tapped 5. Requires Less Plant Space’ Constant flow pumps serving a production loop are not needed because the primary pumps circulate the water through the chillers as well as the distribution system. This requires less floor space, fewer spare parts, and can result in lower capital costs and pump maintenance costs: The Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI) has conducted an extensive study that compared VPF system energy use with that of ather common system types including: constant flow/primary-anly chilled water systems; canstant primary flow/variable secondary flow chilled water systems; and primary/secondary chilled watersystems with a check valve installed in the de-coupler. According to the ARTI study results, VPF systems reduced the total annual plant energy by 3 to 8 percent first cost 4 to 6 percent, and life cycle cost by 3 to 5 percent relative to conventional constant primary flow/variable secondary flow chilled water systems DISTRIBUTED OR HEADER ARRANGEMENT OF PUMPS With distributed (tandem) disposition, flow through operating chillers will always change abruptly even though the pump has a VSD because no flaw will go through the starting pump or chiller until the pressure at the pump discharge exceeds the backpressure on its check valve caused by pumps serving the operating chillers. At that point, the check valve will suddenly open and flow will abruptly change through the starting pump and chiller, causing an abrupt change in flow through the operating chillers. \VPF chillers shall be piped to a common chilled water header with provisions to sequence chillers on-line to match the load requirements. The preferred scheme used in VPF- systems separates pump control from chiller control (Fig. below). It means the water distribution and circulation functions could be treated apart. A first appealing shape of such scheme is the prospective of implementing a flow supply contral based on only ane VSD, which allows some initial budget reductions. However, an isolation valve must be installed on each chiller inlet to avoid the flow circulation through an “off-line” chiller and also to modulate the flow through both during sequencingPrimary Loop {Production} SOR, Sibu Supply oad lcuanera) fener} Two way 2 Balancing wae VPF scheme with separated pump control and chiller sequencing VARIABLE PRIMARY FLOW DESIGN PRACTICE For many years, chiller manufacturer's encouraged HVAC engineers and cooling-plant, operators to keep constant water flow trough the chiller evaporator. The overriding concern was one of protection since reducing water flow faster than the chiller capacity control can accept could result in knocking it off line, requiring a manual reset to restart it Design Challenges Varying the water-flow rate through the chiller evaporator poses two control challenges Challenge #1 \VPF system design is constrained by the range af flow rate (tube velocities) permitted in the evaporator. While chiller manufacturers have been allowing adjustable flow through the chillers, upper and lower limits have been placed on the flow rates. The typical limits are ‘+ Low velocity limits of 3 ft/s to prevent laminar flow from occurring and also to keep. tubes clean.‘+ High velocity limits 10 ft/s to avoid tube erosion. The design tube velocity determines the range of flow that is permitted as a percentage of design flow rate. Measure (One benefit of VPF systems is reduced pumping energy. The velocity limitations on chillers pose restrictions on the energy savings the chiller pumps can achieve Itis important to select chillers that allow operation at low loads without bypass flow. Most, of the potential savings are realized by the time that the system flow rate decreases to 50 percent of design. The manufacturer's recommend a minimum evaporator-flaw limit of 60 percent for packaged chillers and 40 percent or less for configured chillers, Challenge #2: When plant operators desire to bring additional chillers online, the sudden drop in flow through the lead chiller may cause it to trip offline on low flow. Cansider a plant comprised of two identical parallel chillers with one chiller on line and fully loaded while the other is on standby with no flow through its evaporator. System load increases slighty causing leaving-chilled-water-temperature to rise and the plant controls bring the second chiller on line. This decreases the flow through the first chiller and if the decrease accurs rapidly due to fast opening of the isolation valve on the second chiller, the first chiller will be placed in condition of full refrigerant load at half chilled water flow, which effectively doubles the chilled water temperature difference. The chilled water temperature could plunge below the low limit before chiller controls are able to adapt to the new operating conditions forcing the chiller into a protective shutdown Measure ‘+ Select chillers and controllers suitable for large rate of chilled water flow variation. ‘+ Select slow acting isolation valves with linear characteristics