Handbook of Intelligent Vehicles

Azim Eskandarian (Ed.)

Handbook of Intelligent
Vehicles

With 627 Figures and 81 Tables

Editor
Azim Eskandarian
Center for Intelligent Systems Research
The George Washington University
801 22nd Street, NW, Phillips Hall 630
Washington, DC 20052
USA

ISBN 978-0-85729-084-7 e-ISBN 978-0-85729-085-4

DOI 10.1007/978-0-85729-085-4
ISBN Bundle 978-0-85729-086-1
Springer London Dordrecht Heidelberg New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011942207

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 To my family for their love and understanding.
With special thanks to my sons, Saba and Kia for their dedicated assistance
and unceasing support.
Preface

Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) are defined as systems that use computers, controls,
communications, and various automation technologies in order to enhance safety,
throughput, and efficiency of transportation while reducing energy consumption and
environmental impact. Although the scope of ITS is multimodal, road surface transporta-
tion has a major emphasis. Intelligent vehicles are obviously an integral part of ITS.
Although the term ‘‘intelligent’’ is loosely defined in this context, it refers to incorporating
a certain level of machine intelligence in the operation of a vehicle. The advancement of
electronics, sensors, microprocessors, software, and embedded and electromechanical
systems has enabled a significant level of automatic and autonomous functions in vehicles.
Some of these functions are totally transparent to the driver and are triggered automatically,
whereas others support the driver in the form of a driver assistance system.
The vehicle interacts with the driver, environment, and infrastructure. In intelligent
vehicles, these interactions are augmented by the use of sensing, information exchange,
and actuation of various primary or secondary driving tasks. These cover a broad range
of functions from simple information exchanges to complex autonomous functions.
The following are a few simple examples of existing systems or prototypes which improve
the safety and efficiency of driving. A warning for an icy road or fog zone ahead enhances
safety by providing timely information to the driver. This requires appropriate capacity to
sense the environment by an ITS system and proper infrastructure to vehicle communi-
cations. In another example, a vehicle can sense the hazardous situation at hand and react
automatically by enhancing the braking (e.g., in BAS) or traction and stability control to
maintain its safe intended course within a lane. A radar- or vision-based collision
avoidance system can sense obstacles ahead and prevent an imminent crash by automat-
ically braking when the driver fails to do so. Vehicles’ energy consumption can be
improved by increased knowledge of terrain and some intelligent shifting of transmission,
or even through optimized trip planning using a smart navigation system. At another
extreme, driverless vehicles can be driven autonomously to complete an entire trip from
origin to destination while avoiding obstacles and obeying traffic laws.
Intelligent vehicles, as has been shown, cover a large and diverse range of technologies
that span from dynamics of vehicles to information, communications, electronics,
automation, human factors, etc. As such, research, development, and design of intelligent
vehicles requires expertise and knowledge of various disciplines. Fortunately there are
resources available within different scientific journals, conferences, and engineering
professional societies that cover some aspects of intelligent vehicles, but they are very
much field focused. For example, some journals cover control systems or vehicular
dynamics. Other journals focus on communications or human factors, etc. Among
engineering societies, IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and
viii Preface

SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) have specific divisions, conferences, and trans-
actions that cover intelligent transportation systems and intelligent vehicles. There are also
a few other journals dedicated to this topic. However, the scientific articles are typically
focused on very specific problems and do not necessarily provide a broader picture or
comprehensive coverage of large topics such as ‘‘intelligent vehicles.’’ There has been a lot
of progress in the development of intelligent vehicles. Many systems are already on the
market as high-end options in vehicles, and many other prototypes have been demon-
strated in laboratory settings. Meanwhile, the development of intelligent vehicles is
progressing rapidly. As consumers, intelligent vehicles, whether at their present state or
at a future more autonomous state, affect our mobility and touch our everyday lives. Thus
it is imperative that the cognizant scientific community provides the knowledge base and
resources necessary for further developments.
Due to the diversity of technologies involved in intelligent vehicles, there aren’t any
up-to-date books or references that provide the necessary coverage of this interesting
topic. This handbook is intended to cover this gap. It should also be noted that due to the
proprietary nature of developments in the industry, there is very little material in open
literature with in-depth coverage of the science and methods underlying actual
implemented technologies. An international team of editors and authors, each
a recognized authority in his/her respective field of specialty, has been gathered to write
about the most up-to-date topics concerning intelligent vehicles. Most authors of this
handbook have conducted state-of-the-art research in each topic presented and hence
provide the latest discoveries and methods.
The handbook is organized in an appropriate format to cover both the depth and
breadth of this subject in 11 sections. Each section includes multiple chapters to cover
each subject area. To the best of the editors’ knowledge, there are no other current
resources with this depth and breadth available on the subject of intelligent vehicles.
This handbook serves vehicle engineers, scientists, researchers, students, and technical
managers who are interested in the study, design, and development of intelligent vehicles.
It is hoped that this handbook will serve the engineering, R&D, and academic community
as a prominent resource for the foreseeable future. It is also hoped that it will be accepted
by colleagues and students, helping them in their independent investigation of the topic.

Azim Eskandarian
Washington, DC, USA
January 2012
Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all Section Editors for their extensive efforts, dedication, flexibility,
and valuable feedback in shaping and organizing this handbook. Each one of them is truly
a distinguished expert in his/her field of specialty. In addition to their editorial services,
many of them also authored or co-authored chapters, and thus added so much value to
this Handbook.
My gratitude is especially extended to all authors for their contributions. They have
selected and written some of the best material in their respective fields of specializations,
unmatched anywhere in contemporary literature. The substance of their contributions
has made this Handbook a truly unique resource for all readers.
I also would like to extend my sincere appreciations to all editorial and administrative
staff at Springer for their hard work, steadfastness, and dedication to support authors and
editors and for keeping production on schedule. Their diligent and unyielding efforts have
made the timely production of this Handbook possible.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Springer-Verlag London Ltd. for approaching
us to undertake this voluminous but worthy project.
With earnest hope that this Handbook will serve the R&D and engineering commu-
nity well.

Azim Eskandarian
Editor-in-Chief
Biography

Dr. Azim Eskandarian, D.Sc.

Professor of Engineering and Applied Science
Director, Center for Intelligent Systems Research and
GW Transportation Safety and Security Area of
Excellence Program
School of Engineering and Applied Science
The George Washington University
Washington, DC, USA
eska@gwu.edu

Azim Eskandarian is a Professor of Engineering and Applied Science at The George

Washington University (GWU). He is the founding director of the Center for Intelligent
Systems Research (CISR) since 1996 and the director of the interdepartmental
“Transportation Safety and Security” program, a major Area of Excellence at the university.
Dr. Eskandarian co-founded the National Crash Analysis Center (NCAC) in 1992
and served as its Director from 1998 to 2002. He has almost three decades of R&D and
engineering design experience in Dynamic Systems, Controls, Intelligent Systems, and
Applied and Computational Mechanics, with applications in automotive engineering,
transportation safety, intelligent vehicles, and robotics.
As Director of the CISR, his research had focused on intelligent vehicle systems for the
future automotive and transportation safety and efficiency. He established four new
research laboratories including a car- and a truck-driving simulator. His publications in
the IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems are among the highest cited
articles. He also served as General Chair of the 14th International IEEE Intelligent
Transportation Systems Conference 2011.
Dr. Eskandarian’s pedagogical efforts have been instrumental in the establishment of a
new and unique graduate program of study in “Transportation Safety” at GWU since
1994. Prior to joining GWU, Dr. Eskandarian was an assistant professor at Pennsylvania
State University, York Campus. Before academia, he held engineering and project man-
agement positions in the defense industry (1983–1989).
Dr. Eskandarian is the author of over 135 articles, a book, and three edited volumes.
He has been elected to the Board of Governors of IEEE ITS society twice since 2007 and
was invited to the IEEE Committee on Transportation and Aerospace Policy in 2009. He is
also active in the ASME Automotive and Transportation Systems Technical Committee of
xii Biography

Dynamic Systems and Control Division. He is the associate editor and editorial board
member of five journals (including IEEE Transactions on ITS and IMech E. Journal of
Multi-body Dynamics). In 2011, he was awarded the Distinguished Researcher Award of the
GWU School of Engineering and Applied Science.
Dr. Eskandarian has served on several committees, boards, and review panels includ-
ing DOT/NHTSA, NSF, NAC, TRB, and Canadian Centers of Excellence, and Canada
Foundation for Innovation, and consulted for industry and government. He has been a
member of ASME, IEEE, SAE, ITS America, and Sigma XI (2000–2003) professional
society, and Tau Beta Pi and PI Tau Sigma Engineering Honor societies. He received his
B.S. (with honors), M.S., and D.Sc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from GWU,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and GWU, respectively.
List of Section Editors

Bart Van Arem Werner Huber

Delft University of Technology BMW Group
Delft Munich
The Netherlands Germany

Azim Eskandarian Alberto Broggi

The George Washington University Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Ashburn, VA dell’Informazione
USA Università di Parma
Parma
Italy
Ernst Pucher
Institute for Powertrains and Automotive
Klaus Kompass
Technology
BMW Group
Vienna University of Technology
Munich
Vienna
Germany
Austria
Scott Andrews
Alfred Pruckner Cogenia Partners, LLC
BMW Research and Development Petaluma, CA
Munich USA
Germany
Christian Laugier
Ralf Stroph Renault
BMW Research and Development S.A.S.
Munich Guyancourt
Germany France

Peter Pfeffer Michael Parent

Hochschule München Scientific Adviser
Munich INRIA/IMARA
Germany Rocquencourt
France
Peter Handel
Signal Processing Lab
ACCESS Linnaeus Center
Royal Institute of Technology
Sweden
Table of Contents

List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

Volume 1

1 Introduction to Intelligent Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Azim Eskandarian

Section 1 Overview of Intelligent Vehicle Systems and

Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Bart Van Arem

2 A Strategic Approach to Intelligent Functions in Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Bart van Arem

3 Sensing and Actuation in Intelligent Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Angelos Amditis . Panagiotis Lytrivis . Evangelia Portouli

4 Situational Awareness in Intelligent Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Zoltán Papp

5 Hierarchical, Intelligent and Automatic Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Bart De Schutter . Jeroen Ploeg . Lakshmi Dhevi Baskar . Gerrit Naus . Henk Nijmeijer

6 Behavioral Adaptation and Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Marieke H. Martens . Gunnar D. Jenssen

7 Simulation Approaches to Intelligent Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Bart van Arem . Martijn van Noort . Bart Netten

Section 2 Vehicle Longitudinal and Lateral Control

Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Azim Eskandarian

8 Vehicle Longitudinal Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Jihua Huang
xvi Table of Contents

9 Adaptive and Cooperative Cruise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Fanping Bu . Ching-Yao Chan

10 Vehicle Lateral and Steering Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Damoon Soudbakhsh . Azim Eskandarian

Section 3 Special Vehicular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Ernst Pucher, Alfred Pruckner, Ralf Stroph and Peter Pfeffer

11 Drive-By-Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Alfred Pruckner . Ralf Stroph . Peter Pfeffer

12 Energy and Powertrain Systems in Intelligent Automobiles . . . . . . . . . 283

Ernst Pucher . Luis Cachón . Wolfgang Hable

Section 4 Positioning, Navigation, and Trajectory

Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Peter Handel

13 Global Navigation Satellite Systems: An Enabler for In-Vehicle

Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
John-Olof Nilsson . Dave Zachariah . Isaac Skog

14 Enhancing Vehicle Positioning Data Through Map-Matching . . . . . . . . 343

Mohammed A. Quddus . Nagendra R. Velaga

15 Situational Awareness and Road Prediction for Trajectory

Control Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Christian Lundquist . Thomas B. Schön . Fredrik Gustafsson

16 Navigation and Tracking of Road-Bound Vehicles Using

Map Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Fredrik Gustafsson . Umut Orguner . Thomas B. Schön . Per Skoglar .
Rickard Karlsson

17 State-of-the-Art In-Car Navigation: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

Isaac Skog . Peter Händel

18 Evolution of in-car Navigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Koichi Nagaki
 Table of Contents xvii

Section 5 Driver Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Azim Eskandarian

19 Fundamentals of Driver Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

Azim Eskandarian

20 Driver Behavior Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Samer Hamdar

21 Using Naturalistic Driving Research to Design, Test and Evaluate

Driver Assistance Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Gregory M. Fitch . Richard J. Hanowski

22 Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

Jeremy J. Blum . Azim Eskandarian . Stephen A. Arhin

Section 6 Safety and Comfort Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603

Werner Huber and Klaus Kompass

23 Safety and Comfort Systems: Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . 605

Klaus Kompass . Werner Huber . Thomas Helmer

24 Adaptive Cruise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

Hermann Winner

25 Forward Collision Warning and Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

Markus Maurer

26 Lane Departure and Lane Keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689

Jens E. Gayko

27 Integral Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709

Klaus Kompass . Christian Domsch . Ronald E. Kates

28 Lane Change Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

Arne Bartels . Marc-Michael Meinecke . Simon Steinmeyer

29 Steering and Evasion Assist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759

Thao Dang . Jens Desens . Uwe Franke . Dariu Gavrila . Lorenz Schäfers .
Walter Ziegler
xviii Table of Contents

Volume 2

30 Proactive Pedestrian Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785

Stefan Schramm . Franz Roth . Johann Stoll . Ulrich Widmann

31 Parking Assist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

Michael Seiter . Hans-Jörg Mathony . Peter Knoll

32 Post-crash Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865

Jeffrey S. Augenstein . George T. Bahouth

33 Map Data for ADAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

John Craig

Section 7 Drowsy and Fatigued Driver Detection,

Monitoring, Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Azim Eskandarian

34 Advances in Drowsy Driver Assistance Systems Through

Data Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Darrell S. Bowman . William A. Schaudt . Richard J. Hanowski

35 Drowsy Driver Posture, Facial, and Eye Monitoring Methods . . . . . . . . 913

Jixu Chen . Qiang Ji

36 Drowsy and Fatigued Driving Problem Significance and Detection

Based on Driver Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
Azim Eskandarian . Ali Mortazavi . Riaz Akbar Sayed

37 Drowsy and Fatigued Driver Warning, Counter Measures,

and Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
Riaz Akbar Sayed . Azim Eskandarian . Ali Mortazavi

Section 8 Vision-based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997

Alberto Broggi

38 Image Processing for Vehicular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999

Massimo Bertozzi

39 Camera Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011

Paolo Grisleri
 Table of Contents xix

40 Perception Tasks: Lane Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

Luca Mazzei . Paolo Zani

41 Perception Tasks: Obstacle Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033

Stefano Debattisti

42 Perception Tasks: Traffic Sign Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043

Pier Paolo Porta

43 Vision-Based ACC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061

Matteo Panciroli

44 Vision-Based Blind Spot Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071

Elena Cardarelli

Section 9 Vehicular Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 1089

Scott Andrews

45 Vehicular Communications Requirements and Challenges . . . . . . . . . 1091

Scott Andrews

46 Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I)

Communications and Cooperative Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
Scott Andrews

47 Probes and Intelligent Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145

Christopher Wilson

48 Threat Model, Authentication, and Key Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173

Stan Pietrowicz

49 Security, Privacy, Identifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217

William Whyte

Section 10 Fully Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269

Christian Laugier

50 Autonomous Driving: Context and State-of-the-Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271

Javier Ibañez-Guzmán . Christian Laugier . John-David Yoder . Sebastian Thrun

51 Modeling and Learning Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311

Dizan Vasquez . Christian Laugier
xx Table of Contents

52 Vision and IMU Data Fusion: Closed-Form Determination of the

Absolute Scale, Speed, and Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335
Agostino Martinelli . Roland Siegwart

53 Vision-Based Topological Navigation: An Implicit Solution to

Loop Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355
Youcef Mezouar . Jonathan Courbon . Philippe Martinet

54 Awareness of Road Scene Participants for Autonomous Driving . . . . . 1383

Anna Petrovskaya . Mathias Perrollaz . Luciano Oliveira . Luciano Spinello .
Rudolph Triebel . Alexandros Makris . John D. Yoder . Christian Laugier .
Urbano Nunes . Pierre Bessiere

55 Iterative Motion Planning and Safety Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433

Thierry Fraichard . Thomas M. Howard

56 Risk Based Navigation Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459

Anne Spalanzani . Jorge Rios-Martinez . Christian Laugier . Sukhan Lee

57 Probabilistic Vehicle Motion Modeling and Risk Estimation . . . . . . . . 1479

Christopher Tay . Kamel Mekhnacha . Christian Laugier

Section 11 A Look to the Future of Intelligent Vehicles . . . . 1517

Michael Parent

58 Legal Issues of Driver Assistance Systems and Autonomous

Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519
Tom Michael Gasser

59 Intelligent Vehicle Potential and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537

Claude Laurgeau

60 Applications and Market Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1553

Michel Parent

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1575