Boiler and Steam Basics/Ohio Special Boiler

ARTICLES
● Boiler Efficiencies

● Steaming Rate

● Boiler Blowdown Considerations

DEFINITIONS

PROPERTIES OF SATURATED WATER AND STEAM

CONVERSION FACTORS

BOILER EFFICIENCIES

Introduction The efficiency of a boiler should be an

important part of a purchase evaluation since the annual
cost of fuel can easily be 2 to 3 times the installed cost
of the equipment. Therefore, a difference in efficiency
and the resultant difference in fuel cost can easily offset
a difference in installed cost. In many cases, the fuel
savings in the first year alone can exceed a difference in
installed cost and, of course, fuel savings are on-going ?
year after year, after year.

While it is important to consider efficiency in an equipment purchase, it is equally important to understand

efficiency to the point that the purchaser can be assured that values are being compared on an apples-to-
apples basis. The subject of efficiency for a boiler is rather complex when all of the elements that affect
efficiency are considered and a complete thermodynamic analysis is performed. Fortunately, it is not
necessary to understand the process in detail, but a basic understanding of the terms can help ensure a good
apples-to-apples efficiency evaluations. These factors are discussed in the context of the discussion
on efficiency terms.
Efficiency Terms
There are several terms used to qualify efficiency when used in the context of a boiler. These include, simply
efficiency, boiler efficiency, thermal efficiency, combustion efficiency and fuel-to-steam efficiency.

The terms, Efficiency and Boiler Efficiency, by themselves are, essentially, meaningless since they must be
qualified in order to understand their significance.

In general, the term, Thermal Efficiency refers to the efficiency of a thermal process. This is as opposed to
Mechanical Efficiency ? the efficiency of a mechanical process. When used in conjunction with boilers,
Thermal Efficiency sometimes refers to the efficiency of the heat exchanger. In any event, this term is not
significant for purposes of comparing one boiler, or steam generator, to another. While the thermal efficiency
of the heat exchanger is an important factor, its importance lies in its contribution to the Fuel-to-
Steam Efficiency.

While the terms Efficiency and Thermal Efficiency are not meaningful for comparing one boiler to
another, the terms Combustion Efficiency and Fuel-to-Steam Efficiency are. Of these, Fuel-to-
Steam Efficiency is the most significant but is difficult to measure or calculate in real world situations.
Therefore, Combustion Efficiency that can be easily computed using a combustion gas analyzer
is, frequently, used for performance comparison purposes.

Combustion Efficiency equals the total heat released in combustion, minus the heat lost in the stack gases,

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divided by the total heat released. For example, if 1000 BTU/Hr are released in combustion and 180 BTU/Hr
are lost in the stack, then the combustion efficiency is 82%: (1000 ? 180)/1000 = 0.82 or 82%.

Fuel-to-Steam efficiency is the most important because it is a measure of the energy that is converted to
steam and that is, after all, the reason a user installs a steam boiler ? to produce steam. Fuel-to-Steam
efficiency is equal to combustion efficiency less the percent of heat losses through radiation and convection.
For example, as in the example above, 20 BTU/Hr are lost to convection and radiation then the convection
and radiation losses are 2%: 20/1000 = .02 or 2%. If the combustion efficiency for this same case is
82% then the Fuel-to-Steam efficiency is 80%: 82% - 2% = 80%.

(Note: When comparing efficiencies it is important to know if the efficiency is based on the High Heat
Value (HHV) or Low Heat Value (LHV) of the fuel. Both are essentially "correct" but comparing an
efficiency based on HHV to one based on LHV would not be correct. In the United States boiler efficiencies
are, typically, based on the HHV. In Europe they are, typically, based on the LHV and result in a higher
value than when based on HHV. The general relationship is: Efficiency based on LHV = Efficiency based on
HHV X 1.11 for natural gas and X 1.06 for diesel fuel oil.)

Operating Efficiency
Each of the terms discussed, above, refer to the efficiency of a boiler when operating at a fixed condition. For
instance, at 100% load, with specified air and feedwater temperatures, etc. These efficiencies are,
unquestionably, important but there are operational factors that affect the annual fuel bill and can have an
affect that may be greater than the difference of a point or two in the efficiency of the equipment when, for
instance, operating at 100%. These factors are discussed on the Fuel Savings page.

The Boiler Blowdown Considerations article provides further information on the topic of blowdown and how
it can affect operating efficiency.

STEAMING RATE

The Steaming Rate (the rate at which a boiler produces steam, normally expressed in terms of Lbs/Hr or
Kg/Hr) is an item that is frequently misunderstood and such a misunderstanding can lead to the purchase of
the wrong size boiler. It is, therefore, essential that the Steaming Rate be qualified when selecting a boiler
size. The three common Steaming Rate terms are:

● From and at 212 ºF (100 °C)Steaming Rate

● Gross Steaming Rate
● Net Steaming Rate

From and at 212 ºF (100 °C) is the Steaming Rate for a boiler producing steam, at the outlet flange, at
212 ºF (100 °C), and 0 PSIG, with feedwater at the inlet flange at 212 ºF (100 °C) and 0 PSIG. This is the
most common steaming rate term and is used most often in brochures, etc. when steaming rate information
is provided. One Boiler Horsepower (BHP) is, by definition, equivalent to 34.5 pounds of steam per hour,
from and at 212 ºF (100 °C).

Gross Steaming Rate is the rate at which a boiler produces steam, at the outlet flange, based on
application specific feedwater conditions at the inlet flange and application specific steam conditions. The
Gross Steaming Rate, typically, differs from the From and at 212 ºF (100 °C) Steaming Rate because
both the feedwater inlet and the steam conditions are different than 212 ºF (100 °C) and 0 PSIG. A typical
application may, for instance, have feedwater at 190 ºF and produce saturated steam at 100 PSIG (338
ºF). Since the inlet temperature is less than 212 ºF (100 °C) and the outlet temperature is greater than 212
ºF (100 °C), the amount of heat needed to produce a pound of steam, at these conditions, is greater than
the amount needed to produce a pound of steam with inlet and outlet temperatures of 212 ºF (100 °C).
The Gross Steaming Rate is, therefore, frequently, less that the From and at 212 ºF (100 °C). It
may, however, actually be greater, if the feedwater receiver is a pressurized deaerator that heats the
feedwater to a temperature above 212 ºF (100 °C), for instance, 230 ºF.

Net Steaming Rate is the steaming rate at which a boiler produces steam, to your plant or process and,
thus, is the most important steaming rate to consider. Net steaming rate, differs from Gross Steaming Rate
in that it takes into account the amount of steam needed to heat the feedwater in the feedwater receiver
(deaerator or hotwell): specifically, the Net Steaming Rate equals the Gross Steaming Rate minus
the steaming rate to the feedwater receiver. Except for some very unusual applications, the Net Steaming
Rate is less than the Gross or From and at 212 ºF (100 °C) Steaming Rate.

Take, for example, a 100 BHP boiler operating with 100% make-up water at 60 ºF and producing steam at
125 PSIG. In this case, the From and at 212 ºF (100 °C) Steaming rate is 3,450 Lbs/Hr but the
Net Steaming Rate is only 2874 Lbs/hr - 17% less than the From and at 212 ºF (100 °C) Steaming Rate.

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The effect of feedwater heating is applicable in all applications and, thus, should always be considered.
There is another factor that has an effect and can be significant in some applications. That factor is
the amount of "blowdown" that is required in order for the boiler to operate effectively. In this
case, "blowdown", refers to the amount of water that must be removed from the boiler system, on a
regular basis, in order to control the level of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the boiler. Water that is removed
to control TDS has been heated and the amount of energy needed to heat this water reduces the amount of
energy that is available to produce steam. (See the Blowdown Considerations article).

In summary, users should be certain to qualify steaming rates when using them to define the size of a boiler.
Boiler Horsepower is a specific term and no further information is needed to select the size of a boiler.
However, if a steaming rate is used to specify boiler size then the steaming rate must be qualified -
From and at 212 ºF (100 °C), Gross, or Net pounds, or KG, per hour.

BOILER BLOWDOWN CONSIDERATONS

Boilers require periodic blowdown in order to maintain effective operation, provide for good equipment life,
and reduce maintenance time and expense. "Blowdown? refers to the removal of boiler water in order to
maintain an acceptable level of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). Blowdown has an economic impact because the
water that is removed has been heated and chemically treated and the energy used to heat this water comes
from the fuel burned in the boiler. In most cases, blowdown with a Clayton Steam Generator is significantly
less than with conventional boilers and this reduction results in significant fuel savings.

Blowing down is the process of removing boiler water that has a maximum acceptable level of concentration.
The water that is blown down is replaced by make-up water that has a much lower TDS level. This dilutes,
or lowers, the concentration in the boiler water. The higher the TDS level in the blow down water the lower
the amount of water that must be removed.

The amount of water that must be blown down for any given application depends upon:

● The TDS level in the make-up water ? the higher the level the greater the amount of blowdown.
● The amount of make-up water vs. the amount of condensate returned ? the greater the percent of
make-up the greater the amount of blowdown.
● The maximum acceptable TDS level in the boiler water ? the lower the level the greater the amount of
blowdown.
● The TDS in the blowdown water ? the higher the TDS, the lower the amount of blowdown.
● The average load level for the boiler (BHP or lbs. of steam per hour).

As can be seen from the above, applications with high make-up levels, high TDS in the make-up water and
extended operation at high load levels result in high levels of blowdown.
The TDS of the blowdown water is significant because the higher the TDS, the lower the volume of water that
must be removed.

Clayton Steam Generators provide a fuel savings, from reduced blowdown, because of two factors:

● First, since the Steam Generator is a forced circulation boiler it can tolerate relatively high TDS levels in
the feedwater ? as high as 8550 ppm.
● Second, water that is blown down is separator trap return water that has been concentrated to 4 to 5
times that of the feedwater level.
(See How We Make Steam for an explanation of the Clayton system and trap return water.)

Considering these two factors, blowdown water for a Clayton Steam Generator, typically, has a concentration
of 24,000 to 40,000 ppm. That compares to values for conventional boilers in the range of 2,500 to 3,500
ppm. Since our blowdown water has TDS concentrations that are 7 to 16 times higher than conventional
boilers, the volume of blowdown water with Clayton is 1/16 to 1/7 that of a conventional boiler. As will be
shown, this can amount to a major savings in fuel cost.

In addition to the factors that determine the volume of blowdown water, the economic impact, depends upon:

● The temperature of the condensate and make-up water ? the lower the temperatures the greater the
economic impact.
● The steam pressure ? the higher the pressure, and thus the temperature, the greater the economic
impact.
● The cost of fuel ? obviously, the higher the fuel cost the greater the economic impact.
● The number of hours of operation.
● The efficiency of the boiler.
● The cost of chemicals.
● The cost of water.

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● The cost of disposal of blowdown water.

These savings can be illustrated by the following example:

Make-up Water TDS Level 300 ppm

Make-up water temperature: 60 Degrees F
% of Make-up: 100%
Blowdown TDS level in conventional
3000 ppm
boiler:
TDS level in Clayton feedwater: 6500 ppm
Average boiler load: 300 BHP
Boiler Efficiency: 80%
Steam Pressure 125 PSIG
Hours of operation per day: 16 hours per day
312 days per
Days of operation per year:
year
$4.00 per
Cost of natural gas:
MMBTU

In this case, the savings in blowdown, is 860 lbs. of water per hour, which equates to annual savings, based
on the assumptions shown, of nearly $6,400. This could easily represent greater than 6% of the installed
cost of the new equipment and, most importantly, these savings are ongoing.

As noted, savings with a Clayton Steam Generator that result from reduced blowdown can be significant.
These savings are application dependent. Please contact us if you would like an estimate for your application.

DEFINITIONS

Boiler Horsepower (BHP)- The amount of energy needed to produce 34.5 pounds of steam, per hour, at
a pressure and temperature of 0 Psig and 212 ºF, with feedwater at 0 Psig and 212 ºF. This is equivalent to
33,475 BTU/Hr or 8430 Kcal/Hr.

Calorie (C) - The amount of heat required, at a pressure of one atmosphere, to raise the temperature of
one gram of water one degree Celsius.

Enthalpy (H or h) - Thermodynamically, Enthalpy is defined as the sum of the internal energy of a body and
the product of its volume multiplied by its pressure. For the sake of boiler calculations, Enthalpy can be
defined as the amount of heat in a fluid, usually expressed as BTU/Lb or Kcal/Gram. In these cases, Enthalpy
is considered to be zero at 32 ºF (0 ºC).

From and at 212 ºF - A term used to qualify the amount of steam produced by a boiler (see the article on
Steaming Rate). The qualification indicates that the amount of steam produced is at a pressure of 0 Psig and
212 ºF, with feedwater at 0 Psig and 212 ºF.

Gross Steaming Rate - the amount of steam produced by a boiler at the outlet flange of the boiler. This is the
amount of steam produced before steam is removed to heat the water in the feedwater receiver (deaerator
or hotwell).

Heat of Vaporization - (for boiler calculation purposes) the amount of heat required to convert water, at
saturated conditions, to vapor (steam) at the same saturated conditions. Same as Latent Heat.

Latent Heat - See Heat of Vaporization.

Net Steaming Rate - The amount of steam produced, by a boiler, after blow-down and after steam is
used for heating the water in the feedwater receiver (dearator or hotwell).

Saturated Liquid - Liquid that is at a Saturated Pressure at Temperature.

Saturated Steam - Steam (Vapor) that is at a Saturated Pressure and Temperature.

Saturated Vapor - Vapor that is at a Saturated Pressure and Temperature.Saturated Water - See Saturated

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Liquid.

Saturation Pressure - The pressure at which saturation takes place at a given temperature.

Saturation Temperature Sensible Heat - The heat (Enthalpy), usually expressed as BTU/Lb or Cal/G, in a
liquid.

Specific Heat - The amount of heat (Enthalpy) required to raise the temperature of one unit of mass,
one degree. Usually expressed as BTU/LB/ºF or Cal/Kg/ºC.

Steaming Rate - The rate, usually expressed in Lbs/Hr or KG/Hr, at which a boiler produces steam. (See
the Steaming Rate article.)

Sub-cooled Liquid - A liquid that is at a temperature or pressure below the saturation temperature and
pressure.

Superheat - The extra heat imparted to a vapor (steam)in heating it from a dry saturated condition. Also
the corresponding rise in temperature.

PROPERTIES OF SATURATED WATER AND STEAM

Saturated Enthalpy Specific Volume

Conditions BTU/LB Cu. Ft. / Lb
Pressure Temp Water Vaporization Vapor Water Vapor
PSIG Deg F Hf Hfg Hg Vf Vg
0 212.0 180.3 970.0 1150.3 0.01672 26.7990
5 227.2 195.6 960.5 1156.1 0.01683 20.8300
10 239.4 208.0 952.6 1160.6 0.01692 16.4910
15 249.8 218.5 945.7 1164.2 0.01700 13.8780
20 258.8 227.6 939.7 1167.3 0.01708 11.9660
30 274.0 243.1 929.1 1172.2 0.01721 9.4597
40 286.7 256.1 919.9 1176.0 0.01733 7.8261
50 297.7 267.3 911.9 1179.2 0.01743 6.6830
60 307.3 277.3 904.6 1181.9 0.01753 5.8369
70 316.0 286.2 897.9 1184.1 0.01761 5.1845
80 323.9 294.4 891.7 1186.1 0.01770 4.6656
90 331.2 301.9 885.9 1187.8 0.01778 4.2326
100 337.9 308.9 880.5 1189.4 0.01785 3.8911
110 344.2 315.5 875.3 1190.8 0.01792 3.5941
120 350.0 321.7 870.3 1192.0 0.01799 3.3397
130 355.6 327.5 865.7 1193.2 0.01806 3.1193
140 360.9 333.1 861.1 1194.2 0.01812 2.9266
150 365.9 338.4 856.7 1195.1 0.01816 2.7563
160 370.6 343.4 852.6 1196.0 0.01824 2.6050
170 375.2 348.3 848.5 1196.8 0.01830 2.4694
180 379.6 353.0 844.5 1197.5 0.01835 2.3473
190 383.8 357.5 841.5 1198.9 0.08141 2.2368
200 387.8 361.8 837.6 1199.4 0.01847 2.1361
210 391.7 366.0 834.0 1200.0 0.01852 2.0442
220 395.4 370.1 830.5 1200.5 0.01857 1.9598
230 399.1 374.0 826.9 1200.9 0.01863 1.8820
240 402.6 377.8 823.5 1201.3 0.01868 1.8102
250 406.0 381.5 820.2 1201.7 0.01873 1.7436
260 409.4 385.2 816.9 1202.1 0.01878 1.6816
270 412.6 388.7 813.7 1202.4 0.01882 1.6239
280 415.7 392.1 810.6 1202.7 0.01887 1.5700
290 418.8 395.5 807.5 1203.0 0.01892 1.5194
300 421.8 398.8 804.4 1203.2 0.01896 1.4720
310 424.7 402.0 801.4 1203.4 0.01901 1.4274
320 427.5 405.2 798.5 1203.6 0.01905 1.3854
330 430.3 408.2 795.6 1203.8 0.01910 1.3457
340 433.0 411.3 792.7 1204.0 0.01914 1.3084
350 435.7 414.2 789.9 1204.1 0.01919 1.2729
360 438.3 417.1 787.1 1204.2 0.01923 1.2392
370 440.8 420.0 784.3 1204.3 1.01927 1.2071
380 443.3 422.8 781.6 1204.4 0.01931 1.1767
390 445.7 425.5 778.7 1204.2 0.01936 1.1477
400 448.2 427.9 776.3 1204.2 0.01940 1.1200
410 450.5 430.6 773.7 1204.3 0.01944 1.0936

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420 452.8 433.2 771.1 1204.3 0.01948 1.0684

430 455.1 435.8 768.5 1204.3 0.01985 1.0443
440 457.3 438.3 766.0 1204.3 0.01956 1.0212
450 459.5 440.8 763.5 1204.3 0.01961 0.9990
500 470.0 452.8 751.3 1204.1 0.01970 0.9278
600 488.8 474.6 728.3 1202.9 0.02010 0.7698
700 503.2 491.9 708.5 1200.4 0.02050 0.6554
800 517.6 509.3 688.6 1197.9 0.02090 0.5687
900 532.0 526.6 668.8 1195.4 0.02120 0.5006
1000 544.6 542.4 649.4 1191.8 0.02160 0.4456

CONVERSION FACTORS

To Convert To Multiply by
Atmospheres Bars 1.01325
Pounds-force/sq in 14.696
Boiler Horsepower (BHP) BTU/hr 33,475
Kcal/hr 8435.6
Kw 9.9805
Horsepower (mech) 13.155
BTU Cal, g 251.996
Foot pound-force 777.649
Kg-force meters 107.514
Kw-Hours 0.000292875
BTT/Hr Calorie, kg/gram 0.5555
Foot pound-force/lb 777.649
Calories, g BTU/hr 0.003.971
Foot pound-force 3.08596
Gram-force cm 42664.9
Joules 4.184
Kg-force meters 0.42665
Centimeters Inches 0.3937
Cm of HG O deg C Atmospheres 0.01316
Bars 0.01333
pound-force/sq in 0.1934
Cu Centimeters Cu ft 3.51E-05
Cu inches 0.06102
Cu Feet Cu centimeters 28316.8
Cu meters 0.02832
Cu ft/pound Cu cm/gram 92.428
Cu ft/sec Cu cm/sec 28316.8
Liters/min 1699.01
Cu feet Cu meters 35.3147
Cu feet of water at 32 deg F Pounds 62.4
Degrees Centigrade Degrees Fahrenheit F = [C X (1/8)] + 32
Degrees Fahrenheit Degrees Centigrade C= (F-32) X 0.555
Dynes Gram-force 0.0010197
Joules/meter 1.00E-06
Pound force 2.25E-06
Feet Centimeters 30.48
Meters 0.3048
Gallons (Brit) Gallons (US liq) 1.2009
Liters/min 4.546
Gallons (US liq) Gallons (Brit) 0.83267
Gallons (US) of water at 60 deg F Pounds 8.337
Grains of hardness per gallon Parts/million 17.117
Inches of water at 39.2 deg F Pound-force/sq in 0.03613
Inches Centimeters 2.54
Kilograms Pounds (avdp) 2.2046
Kilogram-force/sq cm Pounds-force/sq in 14.223
Kilowatts BTU/Hr 3414.4
Liters Cu cm 1000
Cu feet 0.03531
Cubic inches 61.0237
Gallons (US liq) 0.26417
Meters Feet 3.28094
Inches 39.3701
Yards 1.0936
Parts/million Grains/Gal (US liq) 0.05842
Pound-force/sq in Atmospheres 0.06805
Bars 0.06895

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Kg-force/sq cm 0.07031
Pounds of water at 32 deg F Cu feet 0.01602
Tons (metric) Kilograms 1000
Pounds (advp) 2205
Tonnes Kilograms 1000
Tons-refrigeration BTU/hr 12000
Watts BTU/hr 3.41214
Zoll (Switzerland) Centimeters 3

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