INTRODUCTION

In recent time, new ideas on the meaning of an educated person, the changes
in the traditional language learning system, and educators' mounting
apprehension about their roles in the learning and teaching process have been
predominantly significant (Benson & Toogood, 2001). The increase of
ideologies on the information age, globalization, and the knowledge-based
economy have resulted to educational authorities becoming more open to
autonomy-related thoughts than before (Benson, 2001). Humanistic
expectations brought about by political turmoil and culture clashes of Europe in
the late 1960s have caused early academic experiments related to autonomy
(Gremmo and Riley, cited in Benson, 2006). This resulted to the development
of independent, self-directed learning.

In presenting the concepts of learner autonomy, I will first define learner

autonomy, as presented by the different researches from when it was first
identified. These will include the definitions from Holec, Benson, Smith, and
Little. Along with the definitions, I will present a brief history of how the
concept has been formed. I will then show how the theoretical concepts are
involved with learner autonomy, especially on the application of these in the
Chilean context. I will highlight the idea that in learning a new language, such
as English, the students do not need to adapt or absorb the culture of the
Native English Speakers; I will also define the roles of the educator and the
learner in class. Although the roles may vary for each educational institution. I
will also present the typical characteristics of an autonomous learner, as well
as the strategies by which a teacher may promote learner autonomy in class.
Cognitive and metacognitive strategies can be undertaken to improve learner
autonomy in class.

DEFINITION OF LEARNER
AUTONOMY
Holec first published "Autonomy in foreign language learning" in 1979, where
he defined learner autonomy as the "ability to take charge of one's own
learning," (1981: 3) Since then it has become a main concern in the recent
history of language teaching (Benson, 2001; Dam, 1995; Holec, 1981; Little,
1991; Palfreyman & Smith, 2005). Learner autonomy, as stated by Allwright
(1988 in Benson, 2007) has long been associated with a drastic restructuring
of language pedagogy, involving the dismissal of the traditional classroom and
the beginning of completely new systems of working. The focus therefore of
language teaching has shifted from the emphasis on methodology to emphasis
on the learners. The flourishing of self-access centres and development of
computer-based methods of teaching, learning, and learner-based approach
schemes have realized Allwright's (1988 in Benson, 2007) "radical
restructuring of language pedagogy" that many language educators must learn
to accept.

Benson (2007) states that the traditional language classroom and courses
methods have undergone deconstruction worldwide which has underlined the
recent and growing interest in learner autonomy. The innovations that focus
more on the learners through learner autonomy have unavoidably become a
thrilling concept in foreign language learning over the last three decades.

Here are a few popular definitions of learner autonomy: Autonomy is an

acclimatizing skill that allows learners to build up supportive structures within
themselves rather than to have these erected around them (Trim, 1976, cited
in Esch, 1996); the ability to take charge of one's own learning (Holec, 1981);
a faculty for disconnection, crucial consideration, decision-making and
self-regulating action (Little, 1990); the condition where an individual is
completely responsible for all the choices concerned with his learning and the
process involved in carrying out those decisions (Dickinson, 1993); the
willingness to take control of an individual's own learning based on his own
needs and purposes (Dam, 1995); and the acknowledgment of the rights of
students inside educational systems (Benson, 2001).

On the other hand, Learner autonomy could not be defined exactly; this
difficulty arises from two basic postulations: that there are degrees of
autonomy (Nunan, 1997: 172) and that the characteristics of autonomous
learners are various, such as the students' age, progression of learning and
their own perception of what their immediate learning needs are (Little, 1991:
4).

To this day, the definition of learner autonomy by Holec (1981) is that which
is widely used and cited. However, his definition only presents what the skills of
autonomous learners are and not how they are able to learn autonomously.
Dickinson (1993) has presented learner autonomy as a situation; whereas all
other definitions refer to learner autonomy as an ability or skill. Little (2007)
states that learner autonomy is more of a matter of learners doing things not
alone but for themselves.

After reviewing all these definitions, I understand the term of learner

autonomy not as learning or teaching method, but as a reflection and analysis
of the students' own learning process.

THEORETICAL CONCEPTS OF
LEARNER AUTONOMY
The proposal that learners have the authority and right to learn for themselves
is noted as an important element in learner autonomy (Smith, 2008). The
basis of learner autonomy, therefore is that if students are concerned in
decision-making processes about their own language aptitude, they are apt to
be more eager about learning (Littlejohn, 1985) resulting in a more focused
and purposeful group of students (Little, 1991). Chan (2001: 506) has
presented evidence that "increasing the level of learner control will increase the
level of self-determination, thereby increasing overall motivation in the
development of learner authority." It is therefore the responsibility of the
teacher in facilitating a classroom environment where autonomy is
acknowledged (Barfield, 2001)

Huang (2005: 205) presented crucial issues regarding learner autonomy.

These are: autonomy should be analyzed from several standpoints, such as
technological, psychological, socio-cultural and political. Learner autonomy is a
multidimensional capacity which could "take different forms for different
individuals and even for the same individual in different contexts or at
different times" (Benson, 2001: 47). Autonomy has different degrees (Nunan,
1996). The improvement of autonomy shows collaboration and
interdependence instead of learners working alone (Little, 1996).

Benson (2006) noted the need for learner autonomy for innovations that have
become astonishingly significant over the last thirty years, leading to an
increasing amount of awareness to learner autonomy. This shows that learner
autonomy must be recognized as an important component in EFL ( English as
a Foreingn Language) settings. In EFL there has been a transfer of focus from
the teacher to the student; from focus on how to improve teaching methods to
an inclusive concern on how individual students would go through their
learning effectively (Gremmo & Riley, 1995). Language teaching has adapted
a more communicative approach, being more learner-centred (Yang, 1998).
On the other hand, English language teachers struggle with methods of
promoting or encouraging learner autonomy in the classroom (Littlewood,
1997). As a result of this, teachers have to gain autonomous skills from
professional trainings in order for them to be able to take a positive attitude
towards developing learner autonomy in their students.

Principles of Learner Autonomy in

Chilean Context
Education, as mentioned by Dewey (2001), is the manner by which the
continuity of an individual, a society, culture, religion and norms is ensured.
The procedures of education entail authoritative as well as self-governing
systems that require continuous harmonizing and evaluation on the side of the
educator. Progressive - or liberal - education encourages the freedom of
involvement and knowledge-sharing. It is an educator's duty, therefore, to
progressively organize topics in a way that reflects the student's background,
by affording to them learning experiences that would facilitate, rather than
suppress, the student's opportunity for future growth, increasing that
student's possible involvement in the society in the future. (Dewey, 2001)
Chile is a country located at South America, bordering the South Pacific Ocean
and is between Argentina and Peru. Languages spoken in Chile include Spanish
(official), Mapudungun and English and German taught as foreign languages .
(South America: Chile, 2011)

Smith (1976) posited that in acquiring an international language, students do

not need to adapt or internalize the cultural norms of English native language
speakers, ownership of an international language becomes 'denationalized'; and
the educational goal of teaching English is to enable the learners to share their
own concepts and cultures to others.

McKay (2003) has further presented implications in teaching EFL in the

setting of Chile: the cultural content of EFL resources should not be restricted
to native English-speaking cultures. Chilean cultural content should be used in
teaching English to preserve the Chilean culture in the young. The balance
between knowing the proper use of English and having an idea about the
socio-cultural background of the students must be considered in teaching
English effectively. Finally, the importance of bilingual teachers of English
needs to be recognised, since they are the facilitators of effective autonomous
learning methods, having the knowledge of the educational system and culture
of the learners, making them culturally connected. Because of this strength,
continuing education regarding English teaching methods and professional
development must be held constantly.

Cultural Issues Preventing

Autonomous Learning in Chilean
Students
Taking a closer look at the educational systems in Chile, State schools and its
students are in social risk. Motivating students to attend school is a problem as
there is a low attendance to classes. Each class has 38 to 45 students. The
students do not show interest in class, and have a negative attitude to learning
English in particular and learning in general. The parents do not show support
for the English or other learning programs. As for the teachers, we have to
endure 44 hours of working per week, lack of enough language and learning
materials such as books, dictionaries, technological and audio-visual resources.
In addition to this, because of the remote location of the country, the average
Chilean English learners would not have enough resources to travel and visit
countries that speak in English.

IMPORTANCE OF AUTONOMY IN
THE CURRICULUM AND EFL
SETTINGS
Learner autonomy in the setting of EFL would improve metacognitive
awareness on the following aspects: learner's self-awareness, learning process
awareness, subject matter awareness and a deeper social awareness. The
autonomy in class would eventually lead to a more autonomous and improved
quality of life within the classroom environment. (Chuck, 2004)

The Characteristics of an
Autonomous Learner
Breen and Mann (1997) have listed the expected standards of autonomous
language learners: Autonomous learners see understand what they need to
learn, how they will learn this, and acknowledge the resources available as
something they can take control of. They present an authentic relationship
with the language they are learning and present a genuine desire to learn it.
They have a positive sense of self that is not undermined by any actual or
implicit undesirable assessments of themselves or their output. They are able to
pause and reflect upon their current learning activities and make decisions
about what learning steps to take next. They are alert and adaptable to change
and resourceful. They have the capacity to learn regardless of the environment
they are in; they engage and make use of the environment they find
themselves in strategically. They can balance the strategic meeting of their
own needs and respond to the requirements and wants of other group
members.

Omaggio, (as cited in Wenden 1988), has a shorter description of autonomous

learners:

Autonomous learners have insights into their learning methods and schemes;

take a vigorous attitude to the learning task at hand;

are eager to take risks, i.e., to connect in the target language at all costs;

are good guessers;

attend to method as well as to content, that is, place significance on exactitude

as well as appropriacy;

advance the target language into a distinct reference system and are prepared
to review and scrap hypotheses and rules that do not relate; and

have a broad-minded and outward approach to the target language.

The autonomous learner takes on a proactive part in the learning process,

producing ideas and availing himself of learning prospects, rather than merely
responding to different incitements of the educator. This falls within the
theory of constructivism. Learning to the autonomous learner is the result of
self-initiated interaction with his society, with the world.

It would be sound to conclude that autonomous learners are good language

learners as well, however, it would be nice to know that the premise behind
capacity in autonomous learners is that they are not autonomous at all times.
Motivational and affective factors, such as mood, psychological and
environmental factors affect a learner's aptitude (McKay, 2003).

Promoting Learner Autonomy in

Classrooms
Promoting learner activities, especially in the EFL setting is gaining
importance. Brajcich (2000) has presented different useful methods in
promoting learner autonomy:
1. Encourage students to be inter-reliant and to work cooperatively; the less
students rely on their educator, the more autonomy is being established.

2. Request students to maintain a journal of their learning experiences.

Through practice, they may become extra mindful of their learning
inclinations and start to decide on new techniques of becoming more
autonomous learners.

3. Clarify teacher/student roles from the start. Probing students to give their
views on the issue of roles could be advantageous.

4. Advance slowly from interdependence to independence. Offer the students

time to change to new learning tactics and do not anticipate too much too
soon.

5. Provide to the students tasks to do outside the classroom. Such tasks may
intensify the motivation to learn.

6. Give the students non-classroom responsibilities to accomplish (taking roll,

writing instructions, notices, etc. on the board for the teacher)

7. Let the students plan lessons or materials to be used in class.

8. Teach students on how to utilize the school's resource centres: school library,
language lab, and others.

9. Highlight the significance of peer-editing, improvements, and follow-up

questioning in the classroom.

10. Embolden the students to use only English in class. Tell the students that
this is an opportunity for them to use only English, and few opportunities like
this exist for them. Part of the role of the language educator is to generate an
atmosphere where students sense they should communicate in the objective
language and feel at ease in doing so.

11. Stress fluency instead of exactitude.

12. Nonetheless, do tolerate the students using reference books, such as

dictionaries in class.

There are different ways a teacher can motivate and facilitate autonomous
learning through learner training in class. It must be kept in mind, though that
improving autonomous learning abilities is not about making students work
independently; instead it should assist the students in developing skills that
would convert the students into becoming good learners, taking responsibility
for learning and be able to apply these skills into any new learning situation
(Mynard and Sorflaten 2003). Learner autonomy does not appear
unexpectedly from the learner but is developed from the learner's
communication with the society with which he belongs (Cotterall, 1999).
Teachers and educators therefore have to be patient and allow the
development of autonomous learning in their students. They should enable the
time-dependent process for learners to know how to be responsible for their
own education through methods and techniques.

Working with Chilean students has made me realize that learner autonomy;
especially in EFL is really an important aspect in the educational process. I
would like to encourage the students to learn English through leisure, social
integration, and work. This would be initiated through variations in their
learning strategies that would include activities as grammar translation, direct
or natural method of teaching, situational approach, the audio-lingual method,
communicative approach, total physical response, topic-driven methods,
intercultural language learning and task-based learning activities. Based on
Scharle and Szabo's Learner Autonomy (2000), I would use the following
learning strategies which can simply be carried out in the classroom setting:

Activities to raise awareness: Here I will present new perspectives and

understanding to the students and support them in getting the inner process
of their learning to the conscious level of their thinking. Most of the activities at
this stage are somewhat strongly controlled, assuming that the students are
not yet very responsible and need to be told what to do. This would include
collecting information about the current level of English knowledge the
students have, and laying out plans for them towards a certain goal, such as
reading comprehension. Examples of these activities would be giving out
translation quizzes (Spanish to English), easy grammar and vocabulary quizzes,
or even crossword puzzles.

Begin changing attitudes: This is where the skills learned at the previous stage
would be practiced. This slow process requires practice and patience from both
parties while undergoing the understanding to practising new roles and habits.
Students with less sense of responsibility in general need more consideration
and tolerance. Many of the activities at this stage are repeatable and they tend
to allow more room for learner initiative. Examples of such activities would be
the students sharing personal experiences which would motivate their use of
adjectives and descriptions. For example, letting the students write an essay
about an event - such as "My Christmas Experience."

Transferring roles to the learner: This entails a significant transformation in

classroom management, making it the most challenging phase for the educator.
The activities are loosely structured, giving a considerable amount of freedom
to the students in accomplishing tasks, or even in deciding about tasks. An
example would be facilitating a series of reports from the students and allow a
question and answer portion. This would motivate the students to share their
ideas in the language being learned.

CONCLUSION
Learner autonomy in this day and age is a needed approach in producing
productive members of society (Holec, 1981). Learner autonomy in the
Chilean context is still not widely practiced. Factors that result to this include
shortages of teaching and learning resources, lack of motivation of students to
learn which could be the result of poor parental concern, large populations per
class, overworked educators and the lack of professional development
programs of the educators. There is an increasing need for autonomy learning
with the changing scenario of EFL brought about by globalization and
advancements in technology such as the internet. These have broadened the
scope and the needs of the students in their educational aspects. Finally it
would be nice to suggest incorporating new methods of EFL by making use of
technology and technology-based tools, such as the internet, or
computer-based programs and self-accessed language learning centres.
(Alvarez, Pitarch, & Monferref). This would not only encourage the use of the
new language but also the knowledge of the young students in using new
technology. In addition to this, learners are given more options in determining
their progression through the English lesson thus giving them the chance to
self-evaluate and then plan for their future studying needs.

Overall, as an educator, I would like the experience of learning English to be an

exciting, memorable and at the same time motivating for my student. Despite
the current and future challenges I may face in this undertaking, I would still
pursue this, simply because raising awareness for autonomous language
learning in the Chilean students would in a way motivate them to learn the
foreign language, English. It is clear that learners need to get strategies to
develop autonomy and it is here where teachers start to play an important
role inside and outside the classroom. They have to equip students with the
appropriate learning strategies to foster autonomy. Within the Chilean
educational system would be quiet difficult to leave the students alone in this
hard task , since they are accustomed to more traditional teacher - centred
curriculum.
The Use of Technology for Learner Autonomy in Language Classrooms

Hyun-Ju Kim, Dankook University

Back to the Link front page

Introduction

Learner autonomy is often defined as learners’ ability to take control of their own learning
(Holec, 1981). However, the development of learner autonomy is widely varied depending on
teachers’ roles and overall classroom environment. In other words, if teachers have different
knowledge or perspectives regarding learner autonomy or different abilities to implement a
system rich in student choice and self-directedness, the impact on learner autonomy would
be different. Beliefs are ‘mental constructions of experience’ that guide a person’s behavior
(Sigel, 1985). Such beliefs are formed either through personal experiences or influences from
other people (Wenden, 1991). Then, depending on the belief systems, teachers may or may
not provide a climate that promotes learner autonomy. Therefore, there is a pressing need to
ascertain language teacher beliefs about learner autonomy. In response, this paper seeks to
examine a comprehensive view of English teachers on learner autonomy in language
classrooms, focusing on how teachers’ beliefs about learner autonomy affect their
expectations of learner’s involvement in the language classroom.

The Use of Technology and Learner Autonomy

Learners can control their learning processes as much as possible and can become quite
independent of teachers when they work with computers. Jones (2001) states that teachers
play a great role in developing learner autonomy in Computer-Assisted Language Learning
(CALL). For example, students formulate their tasks independently without teachers’ detailed
instruction (Toyoda, 2001) and they often reflect on their and their interlocutors’ responses
through Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) (Shield, Weininger & Davies, 1999).

According to Kohonen (2001), making choices about learning contents and processes,
reflecting on their learning process and being aware of their achievements and discovering
new needs are the essential parts of developing learner autonomy. In a word, to develop
learner autonomy, it is crucial for learners to have opportunities to reflect on what they have
done and how they achieve their personal learning goals. CMC is a good way for them to
reflect on their learning processes. In addition, the continuous interaction between teachers
and learners will also provide teachers with opportunities to reflect on their own teaching and
to be aware of what is in their students’ minds. Writing journals or diaries can also be used for
this purpose (Carroll, 1994). Learners can easily keep a record of their individual reflections
on their learning experiences in a computer.

Technology has often been used for repetitive practice for language learning with authentic
audio and video texts. The practice of pronunciation, spelling, and grammar are popular
examples of using technology as a tool for language learning. Research that examines the
perspectives of teachers often investigates the impact of using technology broadly on
language learning rather than focusing on aspects of learner autonomy. In addition, few
studies employed quantitative measures to statistically triangulate qualitatively discovered
teachers’ beliefs; in order to fully capture the various perceptions of teachers about learner
autonomy, especially with the issue of using technology to promote it.

Method
The subjects in the study were 128 English teachers (107 females and 21 males) in high
schools from various areas in Korea. A few subjects (n=12; 9.4%) have been teaching
English for more than 20 years, some (n=60; 46.9%) less than 10 years, and the others
(n=56; 43.7%) have been teaching English for 10 to 20 years. Subjects’ responses were
analyzed descriptively by calculating percentages and mean scores in order to determine the
answers to the research questions about teachers’ perspectives on learner autonomy, the
degree of contributions of learner autonomy in L2 learning, their beliefs on the role of
technology in promoting learner autonomy, and the desirability and feasibility of learner
autonomy in language classrooms.

Findings

The first section of the questionnaire item asked for teachers’ opinions about the degree of
their students’ learner autonomy. Interestingly, 38.3% of the participants disagreed that
their students have a fair degree of learner autonomy and half of them (50.0%) agreed that
they are providing their students the opportunities for learner autonomy. This result reveals
that although many teachers believe their students are not autonomous learners, they
provide opportunities/activities to their students for the development of learner autonomy in
language classrooms. The second section of the questionnaire asked about the use of
technology in language classrooms. The results show that the majority valued using
technology (internet: 71.9%; e-portfolio: 76.5%; e-journal/e-diaries: 89.1%; online
dictionary: 85.9%; Youtube: 81.3%; digital books: 68.8%; computer-mediated
communication: 82.8%) on promoting learner autonomy. It must be noted that there was no
one (0.0%) who responded “disagree” to the effectiveness of students’ e-journal/e-diaries on
promoting learner autonomy, reflecting the teachers’ strong beliefs that writing
e-journal/e-diaries helps their students build learner autonomy successfully.

Conclusions

All behaviors are governed by beliefs and experience and if the teachers have positive beliefs
about learner autonomy they would spend more time promoting it in their instructions. In
addition, it is obvious that the key source of support for learners’ autonomy in the classroom
is the teacher (Nosratinia & Zaker, 2014). Based on the results of this study asking teachers’
perspectives on their students’ levels of learner autonomy, it was shown that their positive
perspectives affected their beliefs about the desirability and feasibility of learner autonomy in
language classrooms. If the teachers consider their students to be autonomous, then they
tend to believe that it is possible for learners to be involved in decision making, especially for
classroom activities or topics.

There seems to be no disagreement among teachers about the idea that learner autonomy is
a dynamic and motivating factor that influences learning foreign/second languages and that
it is not about learning in isolation. Among many of the areas of research on learner
autonomy, this research examines teachers’ beliefs about learner autonomy and concludes
that what language teachers believe is closely related to learner autonomy practices.

Implications

First, teachers should put more effort into developing learner autonomy in order to help their
students to improve language proficiency. If the school has obstacles that hinder teachers
from developing learner autonomy in classrooms, they could provide certain tasks or
activities that the students can work on outside of the classroom.

Second, teachers should provide various activities to motivate students to learn a language,
which affect the development of learner autonomy. Although there was no cause-effect
relationship between motivation and learner autonomy, it was found that teachers believed
that more motivated students are more autonomous and that more autonomous students are
more motivated in language learning. Therefore, teachers should bring interesting tasks that
students can be involved in voluntarily.

Third, teachers generally believe using technology in the classroom is a positive factor that
helps students to be autonomous learners. Therefore, teachers should provide various ways
to apply technology in language classrooms. For example, teachers might ask students to
write e-journals or e-diaries as homework, or let them use the internet for certain
project-based activities. These various activities, in and out of classrooms, would improve the
motivation to learn and develop learner autonomy. It is uncertain which would be achieved
first, but it is clear that there is a close relationship between motivation and learner autonomy.
However, further research on this issue should be conducted in the future.

Finally, it is important that students are involved in classroom activities such as making
decisions about the course topics or activities. Teachers and researchers should keep in mind
that any teaching method intended to promote learner autonomy will immediately impact
language learning. This awareness is a necessary condition of successful language learning
and at the same time for learner autonomy.

Definisi teknologi

1. DEFINITION:

What Is Technology? Technology is a body of knowledge devoted to

creating tools, processing actions and extracting of materials. The term
‘Technology” is wide and everyone has their own way of understanding the
meaning of technology. We use technology to accomplish various tasks in
our daily lives, in brief; we can describe technology as products, processes
or organizations. We use technology to extend our abilities, and that makes
people as the most important part of any technological system.

Technology is also an application of science to solve a problem. But what

you have to know is that technology and science are different subjects which
work hand-in-hand to accomplish a specific task or solve a particular
problem

Teknologi ini dapat diketahui melalui barang-barang, benda-benda, atau alat-alat yang berhasil
dibuat oleh manusia untuk memudahkan dan menggampangkan realisasi hidupnya di dalam
dunia. Hal mana juga memperlihatkan tentang wujud dari karya cipta dan karya seni (Yunani
techne) manusia selaku homo technicus. Dari sini muncullah istilah “teknologi”, yang berarti
ilmu yang mempelajari tentang “techne” manusia. Tetapi pemahaman seperti itu baru
memperlihatkan satu segi saja dari kandungan kata “teknologi”. Teknologi sebenarnya lebih
dari sekedar penciptaan barang, benda atau alat dari manusia selaku homo technicus atau
homo faber. Teknologi bahkan telah menjadi suatu sistem atau struktur dalam eksistensi
manusia di dalam dunia. Teknologi bukan lagi sekedar sebagai suatu hasil dari daya cipta yang
ada dalam kemampuan dan keunggulan manusia, tetapi ia bahkan telah menjadi suatu
“dayapencipta” yang berdiri di luar kemampuan manusia, yang pada gilirannya kemudian
membentuk dan menciptakan suatu komunitas manusia yang lain.

Teknologi adalah penggunaan pengetahuan ilmiah untuk meningkatkan cara untuk melakukan
sesuatu. Misalnya dengan menggunakan pengetahuan ilmiah untuk menciptakan mesin atau
perangkat untuk membuat hal-hal agar suatu pekerjaan mudah untuk dilakukan.

Teknologi telah mempengaruhi masyarakat dan lingkungan dalam berbagai hal. Di kalangan
masyarakat, teknologi telah membantu mengembangkan ekonomi yang lebih maju (termasuk
ekonomi global saat ini).

Pengertian Teknologi sebenarnya berasal dari kata Bahasa Perancis yaitu “La Teknique“ yang
dapat diartikan dengan ”Semua proses yang dilaksanakan dalam upaya untuk mewujudkan
sesuatu secara rasional”. Dalam hal ini yang dimaksudkan dengan sesuatu tersebut dapat saja
berupa benda atau konsep, pembatasan cara yaitu secara rasional adalah penting sekali
dipahami disini sedemikian pembuatan atau pewujudan sesuatu tersebut dapat dilaksana kan
secara berulang (repetisi).

Penggunaan istilah 'teknologi' (bahasa Inggris: technology) telah berubah secara signifikan
lebih dari 200 tahun terakhir. Sebelum abad ke-20, istilah ini tidaklah lazim dalam bahasa
Inggris, dan biasanya merujuk pada penggambaran atau pengkajian seni terapan.[1] Istilah ini
seringkali dihubungkan dengan pendidikan teknik, seperti di Institut Teknologi Massachusetts
(didirikan pada tahun 1861). Istilah technology mulai menonjol pada abad ke -20 seiring dengan
bergulirnya Revolusi Industri Kedua. Pengertian technology berubah pada permulaan abad
ke-20 ketika para ilmuwan sosial Amerika, dimulai oleh Thorstein Veblen, menerjemahkan
gagasan-gagasan dari konsep Jerman, Technik, menjadi technology. Dalam bahasa Jerman dan
bahasa-bahasa Eropa lainnya, perbedaan hadir di antara Technik dan Technologie yang saat itu
justru nihil dalam bahasa Inggris, karena kedua-dua istilah itu biasa diterjemahkan sebagai
technology.

Pada dasawarsa 1930-an, technology tidak hanya merujuk pada 'pengkajian' seni-seni industri,
tetapi juga pada seni-seni industri itu sendiri. Pada tahun 1937, seorang sosiolog Amerika, Read
Bain, menulis bahwa technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments,
housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce
and use them ("teknologi meliputi semua alat, mesin, aparat, perkakas, senjata, perumahan,
pakaian, peranti pengangkut/pemindah dan pengomunikasi, dan keterampilan yang
memungkinkan kita menghasilkan semua itu").
Definisi yang diajukan Bain masih lazim dipakai oleh kaum terpelajar hingga saat ini, terkhusus
ilmuwan sosial. Tetapi ada juga definisi yang sama menonjolnya, yakni definisi teknologi
sebagai sains terapan, khususnya di kalangan para ilmuwan, d an insinyur, meskipun sebagian
besar ilmuwan sosial yang mempelajari teknologi menolak definisi ini. Yang lebih baru, para
kaum terpelajar telah meminjam dari para filsuf Eropa, technique, untuk memperluas makna
technology ke berbagai macam bentuk nalar instrumental, seperti dalam karya Foucault
tentang techniques de soi, yang diterjemahkan sebagai technologies of the self atau teknologi
diri.

Kamus-kamus, dan para sarjana telah memberikan berbagai macam definisi. Kamus
Merriam-Webster memberikan definisi "technology" sebagai the practical application of
knowledge especially in a particular area (terapan praktis pengetahuan, khususnya dalam
ruang lingkup tertentu) dan a capability given by the practical application of knowledge
(kemampuan yang diberikan oleh terapan praktis pengetahuan). Ursula Franklin, dalam
karyanya dari tahun 1989, kuliah "Real World of Technology", memberikan definisi lain konsep
ini; yakni practice, the way we do things around here (praktis, cara kita memperbuat ini semua
di sekitaran sini). Istilah ini seringkali digunakan untuk mengimplikasikan suatu lapangan
teknologi tertentu, atau untuk merujuk teknologi tinggi atau sekadar elektronik konsumen,
bukannya teknologi secara keseluruhan. Bernard Stiegler, dalam Technics and Time, 1,
mendefinisikan technology dalam dua cara: sebagai the pursuit of life by means other than life
(pencarian kehidupan, dalam artian lebih dari sekadar hidup), dan sebagai organized inorganic
matter (zat-zat anorganik yang tersusun rapi).
Secara umum, teknologi dapat didefinisikan sebagai entitas, benda maupun tak benda yang
diciptakan secara terpadu melalui perbuatan, dan pemikiran untuk mencapai suatu nilai. Dalam
penggunaan ini, teknologi merujuk pada alat, dan mesin yang dapat digunakan untuk
menyelesaikan masalah-masalah di dunia nyata. Ia adalah istilah yang mencakupi banyak hal,
dapat juga meliputi alat-alat sederhana, seperti linggis atau sendok kayu, atau mesin-mesin
yang rumit, seperti stasiun luar angkasa atau pemercepat partikel. Alat, dan mesin tidak mesti
berwujud benda; teknologi virtual, seperti perangkat lunak dan metode bisnis, juga termasuk
ke dalam definisi teknologi ini.
Kata "teknologi" juga digunakan untuk merujuk sekumpulan teknik-teknik. Dalam konteks ini, ia
adalah keadaan pengetahuan manusia saat ini tentang bagaimana cara untuk memadukan
sumber-sumber, guna menghasilkan produk-produk yang dikehendaki, menyelesaikan masalah,
memenuhi kebutuhan, atau memuaskan keinginan; ia meliputi metode teknis, keterampilan,
proses, teknik, perangkat, dan bahan mentah. Ketika dipadukan dengan istilah lain, seperti
"teknologi medis" atau "teknologi luar angkasa", ia merujuk pada keadaan pengetahuan, dan
perangkat disiplin pengetahuan masing-masing. "Teknologi state-of-the-art" (teknologi
termutakhir, sekaligus tercanggih) merujuk pada teknologi tinggi yang tersedia bagi
kemanusiaan di ranah manapun.

Teknologi dapat dipandang sebagai kegiatan yang membentuk atau mengubah kebudayaan.
Selain itu, teknologi adalah terapan matematika, sains, dan berbagai seni u ntuk faedah
kehidupan seperti yang dikenal saat ini. Sebuah contoh modern adalah bangkitnya teknologi
komunikasi, yang memperkecil hambatan bagi interaksi sesama manusia, dan sebagai hasilnya,
telah membantu melahirkan sub-sub kebudayaan baru; bangkitnya budaya dunia maya yang
berbasis pada perkembangan Internet dan komputer. Tidak semua teknologi memperbaiki
budaya dalam cara yang kreatif; teknologi dapat juga membantu mempermudah penindasan
politik dan peperangan melalui alat seperti pistol atau bedil. Se bagai suatu kegiatan budaya,
teknologi memangsa ilmu dan rekayasa, yang masing-masing memformalkan beberapa aspek
kerja keras teknologis.

Bozeman, B. (2000). Technology Transfer and Public Policy: A Review of

Research and Theory. Research Policy, 29,

627-655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(99)00093-1

Defining the Concepts of Technology and Technology Transfer: A Literature

Analysis (PDF Download Available). Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318015152_Defining_the_Conce
pts_of_Technology_and_Technology_Transfer_A_Literature_Analysis
[accessed Feb 20 2018].

Lovell, S. A. (1998). Technology Transfer: Testing a Theoretical Model

of the Human, Machine, Mission,
Management and Medium Components. Unpublished Msc. thesis. Cranfield:
College of Aeronautics, Cranfield

University.

Defining the Concepts of Technology and Technology Transfer: A Literature

Analysis (PDF Download Available). Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318015152_Defining_the_Conce
pts_of_Technology_and_Technology_Transfer_A_Literature_Analysis
[accessed Feb 20 2018].

Teknologi maklumat dan komunikasi (ICT) sering dikaitkan dengan era

penggunaan digital dalam aktiviti manusia untuk memudahkan komunikasi
ataupun menjalankan tugas masing-masing. Gates (1996) dalam
bukunya ’Jalan Di Hadapan’ telah menegaskan betapa pentingnya teknologi
digital dalam mengubah hidup kita.

Menurut beliau, kita sedang menuju arah satu revolusi baru dan merentasi
ambang teknologi yang akan mengubah cara hidup kita membeli belah, bekerja,
belajar dan berkomunikasi antara satu sama lain.

Hasil daripada penggunaan teknologi ini masyarakat Malaysia telah dapat

mencapai maklumat di serata dunia dengan pantas dan mudah. Umpamanya
internet merupakan teknologi yang terdapat dalam bidang teknologi
maklumat yang dapat menyediakan pelbagai maklumat terkini pada setiap
saat kepada pengguna. Hasil daripada perkembangan ini, masyarakat kini
dikenali sebagai ’Post Industrial Advanced Industrial Society’. Ini
bermakna masyarakat hari ini bukan sekadar bergantung kepada buruh, tanah,
modal, usahawan, maklumat dan R & D, malah juga kepada teknologi dan ilmu
(Muhammad Shafie, 1997).

Perkembangan dan perubahan-perubahan teknologi sangat pesat pada era globalisasi.Pada era ini,
semua orang dituntut untuk mengikuti perkembangan teknologi. Gaptek adalah salah satu julukan
untuk orang yang tidak dapat mengikuti perkembangan teknologi pada era globalisasi. Maka pada
perusahaan/instansi selalu mengikuti perubahan dan perkembangan teknologi, bahkah pada
sekolah dasar, menengah pun mengikuti perkembangan teknologi.
Perkembangan dalam bidang teknologi mengubah cara manusia belajar
(Naismith, Lonsdale, Vavoula, & Sharples, 2004; Ting, 2007). Proses
pembelajaran kini melampaui ruang fizikal bilik darjah (Kukulska-Hulme
& Traxler, 2005) bersifat globalisasi dan sepanjang hayat (Sharples,
2000)