Lithium

Chapter K of
Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Economic and
Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply

Professional Paper 1802–K

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Periodic Table of Elements
1A 8A
1 2

hydrogen helium
1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

6.94 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

sodium magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 11B 12B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.79

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

cesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
(223) (226) (265) (268) (271) (270) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series*
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.2 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinide Series**
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
(227) 232 231 238 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

element names in blue are liquids at room temperature

element names in red are gases at room temperature
element names in black are solids at room temperature

Modified from Los Alamos National Laboratory Chemistry Division; available at http://periodic.lanl.gov/images/periodictable.pdf.

Cover.  Lithium-brine evaporating ponds at Clayton Valley, Nevada. The dark rectangular pond at the upper center of the image is
1.7 kilometers long. Photograph by Doc Searls/CC-BY-2.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chemetall_Foote_Lithium_Operation.jpg).
Lithium

By Dwight C. Bradley, Lisa L. Stillings, Brian W. Jaskula, LeeAnn Munk, and

Andrew D. McCauley

Chapter K of
Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Economic and
Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply
Edited by Klaus J. Schulz, John H. DeYoung, Jr., Robert R. Seal II, and Dwight C. Bradley

Professional Paper 1802–K

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior
RYAN K. ZINKE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

William H. Werkheiser, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2017

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living
resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit https://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS.
For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications,
visit https://store.usgs.gov/.

Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the
U.S. Government.

Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials
as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner.

Suggested citation:
Bradley, D.C., Stillings, L.L., Jaskula, B.W., Munk, LeeAnn, and McCauley, A.D., 2017, Lithium, chap. K of Schulz, K.J.,
DeYoung, J.H., Jr., Seal, R.R., II, and Bradley, D.C., eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States—Economic
and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. K1– K21,
https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802K.

ISSN 2330-7102 (online)

 iii

Contents
Abstract......................................................................................................................................................... K1
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. K1
Historical Overview............................................................................................................................ K1
Lithium as a Critical Element............................................................................................................. K2
Uses and Sources............................................................................................................................... K2
Geology.......................................................................................................................................................... K5
Geochemistry and Mineralogy......................................................................................................... K5
Deposit Types...................................................................................................................................... K5
Lithium-Cesium-Tantalum Pegmatite Deposits..................................................................... K8
Lithium-Enriched Granites........................................................................................................ K8
Lithium Brine Deposits in Closed Basins............................................................................... K8
Lithium in Other Brines........................................................................................................... K12
Lithium-Clay Deposits............................................................................................................. K12
Lithium-Zeolite Deposits......................................................................................................... K12
Resources and Production....................................................................................................................... K13
Production.......................................................................................................................................... K13
Reserves and Other Identified Resources.................................................................................... K13
Undiscovered Resources................................................................................................................ K13
Exploration for New Deposits.................................................................................................................. K14
Exploration for Lithium-Cesium-Tantalum Pegmatite Deposits................................................. K14
Exploration for Lithium-Brine Deposits in Closed Basins.......................................................... K14
Exploration for Lithium in Sedimentary Rocks (Clays and Zeolites)......................................... K14
Environmental Considerations................................................................................................................. K15
Sources and Fate in the Environment........................................................................................... K15
Mine Waste Characteristics........................................................................................................... K16
Human Health Concerns.................................................................................................................. K16
Ecological Health Concerns............................................................................................................ K16
Carbon Footprint............................................................................................................................... K16
Problems and Future Research............................................................................................................... K17
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................................... K17
References Cited....................................................................................................................................... K17
iv

Figures
K1.  Graph showing world lithium production from 1900 to 2007, by deposit type
and year........................................................................................................................................ K1
K2.  Pie chart showing major end uses of lithium as a percentage of world
consumption in 2013................................................................................................................... K2
K3.  Photographs showing some sources and uses of lithium................................................... K3
K4.  World map showing locations of selected lithium-cesium-tantalum pegmatites
and lithium granites.................................................................................................................... K6
K5.  World map showing locations of selected closed-basin lithium-brine,
lithium-enriched oilfield brine, geothermal brine, lithium-clay, and
lithium-zeolite deposits.............................................................................................................. K7
K6.  Histograms showing the number of lithium-cesium-tantalum pegmatites
formed per 50-million-year interval as a function of geologic time and the
age distribution of detrital zircon in modern sand as a function of time........................... K9
K7.  Schematic cross section showing the concentric arrangement of
lithium-cesium-tantalum pegmatites around a parental granite pluton.......................... K10
K8.  Conceptual ore-deposit model for lithium brine.................................................................. K11
K9.  Plots of lithium grade and tonnage for selected world deposits...................................... K13

Tables
K1.  Commercially and (or) scientifically important lithium-bearing minerals......................... K5
K2.  Lithium concentrations (in parts per million) in soils developed on various
types of bedrock....................................................................................................................... K15
 v

Conversion Factors
International System of Units to Inch/Pound
Multiply By To obtain
Length
angstrom (Å) (0.1 nanometer) 0.003937 microinch
angstrom (Å) (0.1 nanometer) 0.000003937 mil
micrometer (µm) [or micron] 0.03937 mil
millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)
centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)
meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft)
meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd)
kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)
Area
hectare (ha) 2.471 acre
square kilometer (km2) 247.1 acre
square meter (m2) 10.76 square foot (ft2)
square centimeter (cm2) 0.1550 square inch (ft2)
square kilometer (km2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)
Volume
milliliter (mL) 0.03381 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)
liter (L) 33.81402 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)
liter (L) 1.057 quart (qt)
liter (L) 0.2642 gallon (gal)
cubic meter (m3) 264.2 gallon (gal)
cubic centimeter (cm3) 0.06102 cubic inch (in3)
cubic meter (m3) 1.308 cubic yard (yd3)
cubic kilometer (km3) 0.2399 cubic mile (mi3)
Mass
microgram (μg) 0.00000003527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)
milligram (mg) 0.00003527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)
gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)
gram (g) 0.03215075 ounce, troy
kilogram (kg) 32.15075 ounce, troy
kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)
ton, metric (t) 1.102 ton, short [2,000 lb]
ton, metric (t) 0.9842 ton, long [2,240 lb]
Deposit grade
gram per metric ton (g/t) 0.0291667 ounce per short ton (2,000 lb) (oz/T)
Pressure
megapascal (MPa) 10 bar
gigapascal (GPa) 10,000 bar
Density
gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) 62.4220 pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
milligram per cubic meter (mg/m3) 0.00000006243 pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
Energy
joule (J) 0.0000002 kilowatthour (kWh)
joule (J) 6.241 × 1018 electronvolt (eV)
joule (J) 0.2388 calorie (cal)
kilojoule (kJ) 0.0002388 kilocalorie (kcal)
vi

International System of Units to Inch/Pound—Continued

Multiply By To obtain
Radioactivity
becquerel (Bq) 0.00002703 microcurie (μCi)
kilobecquerel (kBq) 0.02703 microcurie (μCi)
Electrical resistivity
ohm meter (Ω-m) 39.37 ohm inch (Ω-in.)
ohm-centimeter (Ω-cm) 0.3937 ohm inch (Ω-in.)
Thermal conductivity
watt per centimeter per degree 693.1798 International British thermal unit
Celsius (watt/cm °C) inch per hour per square foot per
degree Fahrenheit (Btu in/h ft2 °F)
watt per meter kelvin (W/m-K) 6.9318 International British thermal unit
inch per hour per square foot per
degree Fahrenheit (Btu in/h ft2 °F)

Inch/Pound to International System of Units

Length
mil 25.4 micrometer (µm) [or micron]
inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)
inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)
foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)
mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)
Volume
ounce, fluid (fl. oz) 29.57 milliliter (mL)
ounce, fluid (fl. oz) 0.02957 liter (L)
Mass
ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28,350,000 microgram
ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28,350 milligram
ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28.35 gram (g)
ounce, troy 31.10 348 gram (g)
ounce, troy 0.03110348 kilogram (kg)
pound, avoirdupois (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg)
ton, short (2,000 lb) 0.9072 ton, metric (t)
ton, long (2,240 lb) 1.016 ton, metric (t)
Deposit grade
ounce per short ton (2,000 lb) (oz/T) 34.285714 gram per metric ton (g/t)
Energy
kilowatthour (kWh) 3,600,000 joule (J)
electronvolt (eV) 1.602 × 10–19 joule (J)
Radioactivity
microcurie (μCi) 37,000 becquerel (Bq)
microcurie (μCi) 37 kilobecquerel (kBq)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:
°F = (1.8 × °C) + 32
Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to kelvin (K) as follows:
K = °C + 273.15
Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:
°C = (°F – 32) / 1.8
 vii

Datum
Unless otherwise stated, vertical and horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84). Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance
above the vertical datum.

Supplemental Information
Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (µS/cm
at 25 °C).
Concentrations of chemical constituents in soils and (or) sediment are given in milligrams per
kilogram (mg/kg), parts per million (ppm), or parts per billion (ppb).
Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in milligrams per liter (mg/L),
micrograms per liter (µg/L), nanogams per liter (ng/L), nanomoles per kilogram (nmol/kg),
parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt).
Concentrations of suspended particulates in water are given in micrograms per gram (µg/g),
milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), or femtograms per gram (fg/g).
Concentrations of chemicals in air are given in units of the mass of the chemical (milligrams,
micrograms, nanograms, or picograms) per volume of air (cubic meter).
Activities for radioactive constituents in air are given in microcuries per milliliter (μCi/mL).
Deposit grades are commonly given in percent, grams per metric ton (g/t)—which is equivalent
to parts per million (ppm)—or troy ounces per short ton (oz/T).
Geologic ages are expressed in mega-annum (Ma, million years before present, or 10 6 years ago)
or giga-annum (Ga, billion years before present, or 10 9 years ago).
For ranges of years, “to” and (or) the en dash (“–”) mean “up to and including.”

Concentration unit Equals

milligram per kilogram (mg/kg) part per million
microgram per gram (µg/g) part per million
microgram per kilogram (μg/kg) part per billion (109)

Equivalencies
part per million (ppm): 1 ppm = 1,000 ppb = 1,000,000 ppt = 0.0001 percent
part per billion (ppb): 0.001 ppm = 1 ppb = 1,000 ppt = 0.0000001 percent
part per trillion (ppt): 0.000001 ppm = 0.001 ppb = 1 ppt = 0.0000000001 percent

Metric system prefixes

tera- (T-) 1012 1 trillion
giga- (G-) 109 1 billion
mega- (M-) 106 1 million
kilo- (k-) 103 1 thousand
hecto- (h-) 102 1 hundred
deka- (da-) 10 1 ten
deci- (d-) 10–1 1 tenth
centi- (c-) 10–2 1 hundredth
milli- (m-) 10–3 1 thousandth
micro- (µ-) 10–6 1 millionth
nano- (n-) 10–9 1 billionth
pico- (p-) 10–12 1 trillionth
femto- (f-) 10–15 1 quadrillionth
atto- (a-) 10–18 1 quintillionth
viii

Abbreviations and Symbols

°C degree Celsius
g gram
HMIS Hazardous Materials Identification System
ISMI International Strategic Minerals Inventory
kg kilogram
km kilometer
km2 square kilometer
LC50 lethal concentration 50 (concentration that kills 50 percent of test population
within a given timeframe)
LCT lithium-cesium-tantalum
m meter
Ma mega-annum
mg milligram
mg/d milligram per day
mg/kg milligram per kilogram
mg/L milligram per liter
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
ppm part per million
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
Lithium

By Dwight C. Bradley, Lisa L. Stillings, Brian W. Jaskula, LeeAnn Munk, and Andrew D. McCauley

Abstract United States dominated the global supply (Norton, 1973). The

process of extracting lithium from brine was also first developed
Lithium, the lightest of all metals, is used in air treatment, in the United States. The earliest production of lithium from
batteries, ceramics, glass, metallurgy, pharmaceuticals, and brine took place in 1938 as a byproduct of sodium carbonate
polymers. Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are particularly production at Searles Lake, California. A larger lithium-brine
important in efforts to reduce global warming because they deposit at Clayton Valley, Nevada, began production in 1966.
make it possible to power cars and trucks from renewable Today, brine resources dominate the lithium industry.
sources of energy (for example, hydroelectric, solar, or In the 1970s, when the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
wind) instead of by burning fossil fuels. Today, lithium is published Professional Paper 820, “United States Mineral
extracted from brines that are pumped from beneath arid Resources” (Brobst and Pratt, 1973), lithium was a relatively
sedimentary basins and extracted from granitic pegmatite obscure mineral commodity that did not even warrant an
ores. The leading producer of lithium from brine is Chile, and entire chapter of its own (Norton, 1973). Since then, the global
the leading producer of lithium from pegmatites is Australia. resource picture for lithium has changed considerably. In
Other potential sources of lithium include clays, geothermal 1973, the United States was still the world’s leading lithium
brines, oilfield brines, and zeolites. Worldwide resources of producer; today, U.S. production lags far behind that of Chile,
lithium are estimated to be more than 39 million metric tons, Australia, and several other nations. Additionally, two new
which is enough to meet projected demand to the year 2100. classes of ore deposits—lithium clays and lithium zeolites—
The United States is not a major producer at present but has have been recognized. Between 1975 and 2005, world lithium
significant lithium resources. production increased by a factor of about five (fig. K1), and
more growth is anticipated.

30
Introduction
Lithium production, in thousand metric tons

Historical Overview 25

Lithium (from the Greek lithos, for stone) is the first

20
metal in the periodic table. It was recognized as an element in Brine
1817 when the Swedish chemist Johan Arfvedson analyzed
the mineral petalite. Useful amounts of lithium metal were first 15
isolated in 1855 by August Matthiessen and, independently,
by Robert Bunsen, after whom the Bunsen burner was named 10
(Emsley, 2011). By this time, lithium had been found in other
silicate minerals (lepidolite and spodumene) and had been Deposit type
detected in trace quantities in plants, seawater, spa waters, and 5 not specified
the human body (Emsley, 2011). In 1869, Dmitiri Mendeleev Pegmatite
correctly positioned it adjacent to the alkali metal sodium in 0
his then-revolutionary periodic table of elements. 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000
Petalite, lepidolite, and spodumene are found in granitic Year
pegmatites. The first significant lithium mining began in Figure K1.  Graph showing world lithium production from
1898 at the Etta pegmatite in South Dakota. In the early Lithium
1900 Figure
to 2007, K1 Add
by deposit typetoand
caption: Modified
year. The layersfrom
of theMohr
graph
1900s, other pegmatite mines in California, South Dakota, and others (2010)
are placed one above the other, forming a cumulative total.
and New Mexico also began lithium production, and the Modified from Mohr and others (2010).
K2   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

Many advances in understanding lithium geology

were spurred by the 1973 oil embargo. Lithium was—and Primary aluminum production
still is—seen as a strategic mineral commodity that could 1%
Primary batteries
contribute toward U.S. energy independence. At that time, 2% Other
the USGS launched a major research effort on lithium Polymer production uses
resources that lasted for several years and involved dozens 5% 9%
of researchers. Initial results were presented in a multichapter Air treatment
Ceramics
USGS Professional Paper (Vine, 1976), and final results 5%
and glass
were summarized by Vine (1980). After about 1980, national 35%
concerns about energy self-sufficiency ebbed, and studies Continuous casting
mold flux powders
in lithium-resource geology fell into neglect for more than a 6%
quarter century.
A recent revival of interest in lithium has been driven by Lubricating Rechargeable
batteries
the threat of global warming from the burning of fossil fuels, greases
8% 29%
combined with the recognition that a transition to electric and
hybrid vehicles, which are powered by lithium batteries, could
substantially reduce the Nation’s carbon footprint and its reli-
ance on foreign oil (U.S. Department of Energy, 2010). Recent
summaries of the global lithium resource picture include those Figure K2.  Pie chart showing major end uses of lithium as a
by Evans (2008, 2012, 2014), Yaksic and Tilton (2009), Mohr percentage
Lithium of world
Figure K2 consumption in 2013. Data are courtesy
and others (2010), Gruber and others (2011), and Kesler and of David Merriman, Roskill Information Services, Ltd., written
others (2012). commun., May 2014.
The addition of 0.1 to 4 percent lithium oxide (Li2O), to
Lithium as a Critical Element various glasses increases hardness and reduces thermal
expansion. A common application is in glass stovetops; where
Lithium has been listed as one of the critical or near- ordinary window-glass would shatter, lithium-bearing glass
critical elements in various recent studies based largely on its can withstand large temperature swings and rough use. In the
importance in green technologies. It was one of the 15 mineral ceramics industry, lithium is used to make porcelain enamels,
commodities studied by participating countries in the glazes, and tiles; as in glassmaking, a small amount of lithium
International Strategic Minerals Inventory (ISMI) of the 1980s lowers the melting temperature and reduces thermal expansion
and 1990s (Anstett and others, 1990). The National Research in the resulting ceramic product (Garrett, 2004).
Council (2008) concluded that lithium, although not critical Production of batteries, which currently rank second
at the time of the 2008 assessment, could potentially become among the end uses of lithium, will likely see increased
critical depending on the level of growth of new uses, such as production in the next few years as the production of electric
hybrid vehicle batteries. In the U.S. Department of Energy’s and hybrid vehicles increases. Production will result in
Critical Materials Strategy (2010), lithium is included as 1 increased capacity utilization of the vehicle battery plants that
of 16 key elements. The 2011 joint report of the American are currently being built worldwide. Battery manufacturing has
Physical Society Panel on Public Affairs and the Materials the largest growth potential of any sector of the lithium industry;
Research Society on energy-critical minerals included lithium several major automobile companies are developing lithium-ion
as 1 of 29 key elements for green technology. batteries (fig. K3H ). Demand for rechargeable lithium batteries
now exceeds that of rechargeable nonlithium batteries for use
Uses and Sources in cellular telephones, cordless tools, MP3 players, and portable
computers and tablets. Nonrechargeable lithium batteries are
Lithium has many uses. Worldwide lithium consumption used in calculators, cameras, and watches (Jaskula, 2013).
in 2013 by end use was estimated to be as follows (fig. K2): Other uses of lithium are not widely appreciated by
ceramics and glass, 35 percent; rechargeable batteries, consumers. Lithium is a minor but key ingredient in the
29 percent; lubricating greases, 8 percent; continuous casting electrolytic refining of aluminum. Lightweight lithium-aluminum
mold flux powders, 6 percent; air treatment, 5 percent; and alloys have applications in the aerospace industry. For example,
polymer production, 5 percent; primary batteries, 2 percent; the fuel tank of the NASA space shuttles used an aluminum-
primary aluminum production, 1 percent; and other uses, lithium alloy (Garrett, 2004). Lithium, as lithium stearate or
9 percent (Merriman, 2014). similar compounds, is widely used as a high-performance lubricant
Ceramics and glass are expected to continue to be the in automotive, aircraft, industrial, marine, and military applications
leading end uses for lithium for years to come. In glassmaking (Garrett, 2004). As of 1993, 60 percent of all industrial lubricants
(Garrett, 2004), lithium makes the process more economical contained lithium, typically at concentrations of 1 to 2 percent.
by reducing the melting point and decreasing viscosity. Lithium chloride and bromide are among the best available
 Introduction  K3

substances for absorbing water; thus, these salts are used in air The prices of lithium metal and lithium compounds are
conditioning systems to reduce humidity while simultaneously not published; however, approximate values can be gleaned
cooling the air. Since the 1940s, pharmaceuticals containing from a variety of industry sources. Battery-grade lithium
lithium compounds have been used to control bipolar disorder. carbonate is currently valued at between $6,500 and $7,000
Finally, the lighter of two lithium isotopes, 6Li, was used in the per metric ton. In 2010, Japan imported lithium metal valued
production of tritium (3H) after World War II by the U.S. Atomic at $33.36 per pound, or $73,546 per metric ton.
Energy Commission and later by the U.S. Department of Energy Lithium is the element of choice in the various
in the production of nuclear weapons (Garrett, 2004). applications listed above. Substitutes do exist, however, in
Lithium is traded in three forms: mineral concentrates, batteries, ceramics, greases, and manufactured glass. For
mineral compounds, and refined metal. Lithium minerals— example, calcium and aluminum soaps can substitute for
mainly spodumene, petalite, and lepidolite—are mined from stearates in greases; calcium, magnesium, mercury, and
pegmatites and are used mostly as feedstock for glasses and zinc can be used as anode materials in batteries; sodic and
ceramics. Most lithium compounds (for example, lithium potassic fluxes can substitute for lithium in ceramics and
carbonate, lithium chloride, and lithium hydroxide) are glass manufacturing; and composite materials of boron, glass,
obtained from brines. Lithium metal (fig. K3G) is obtained by or polymer fibers can be used in place of aluminum-lithium
electrolysis from lithium chloride. alloys (Jaskula, 2013).

A B

C D

Figure K3.  Photographs showing some sources and uses of lithium. A, Molds of giant spodumene crystals in the Etta
lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatite, Black Hills, South Dakota; note miner for scale. From Schaller (1916). B, Graphic
granite, which is an intergrowth of quartz and feldspar that is characteristic of pegmatites. This granite is part of the Havey
pegmatite in Maine. By Dwight C. Bradley. C, Elbaite, also known as watermelon tourmaline, which is a lithium-bearing
gemstone. In 1973, a single gem-filled pocket in a pegmatite in Maine produced about 2 metric tons of tourmaline that would
be valued today (for gems and mineral specimens) at about $40 million. This sample is from the Dunton Mine in Newry,
Maine. Courtesy of the Mineralogical & Geological Museum at Harvard University (speciman number MGMH 125525. Dunton
Mine, Newry, Maine. Copyright 2012. President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved). D, Salar de Atacama
in Chile, where lithium brines are pumped from the shallow subsurface. By Luca Galuzzi (www.galuzzi.it)/CC-BY-SA-2.5
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Miscanti_Lagoon_San_Pedro_de_Atacama_Chile_Luca_Galuzzi_2006.jpg).
K4   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

G H

Figure K3.—Continued  E, Lithium-brine evaporating ponds at Clayton Valley, Nevada. The dark rectangular pond at
the upper center of the image is 1.7 kilometers long. By Doc Searls/CC-BY-2.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Chemetall_Foote_Lithium_Operation.jpg). F, Drill core through a sequence of Pliocene-age lake sediments containing
lithium clay (hectorite) from Fish Lake Valley, Nev. (for location, see fig. K5, inset). Markers indicate depth in feet below
the ground surface. Hectorite is present in the tan and gray layers of siltstone and claystone. By Lisa L. Stillings. G, Lithium
metal is so light that it floats in oil, and so reactive that it cannot be stored in air or water. By W. Oelen/CC-BY-SA-3.0
(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALithium_element.jpg). H, View into a Tesla Model S® electric car showing the
lithium-ion battery covering much of the chassis. Various battery configurations in electric vehicles use between about
10 and 22 kilograms of lithium. By Oleg Alexandrov/CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tesla_Motors_
Model_S_base.JPG).
 Geology  K5

Geology Lithium minerals form only when rare combinations

of favorable factors line up. Most of the known lithium
Geochemistry and Mineralogy minerals are found in coarsely crystalline granites known
as lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites. In terms of
In most geologic settings, lithium is found only as a trace
lithium resources, the most important minerals are spodu-
element, measured in parts per million (ppm). Earth’s mantle
mene and petalite (both lithium aluminum silicates) and the
contains 1.6 ppm lithium and the oceanic crust contains
pink mica lepidolite (potassium lithium aluminum silicate).
4.3 ppm (Sun and McDonough, 1989). The upper continental
The main lithium mineral in sedimentary rocks is the clay
crust (that is, rocks typically at Earth’s surface on land)
hectorite. More information on lithium minerals is provided
contains an average of 20 ppm lithium (McLennan, 2001); at
in table K1.
this abundance, lithium ranks about 30th among the elements,
Lithium is extremely soluble. During weathering of
behind copper but ahead of lead, tin, and silver.
rocks, it tends to be removed in solution and carried to the
Lithium is classed as a large-ion lithophile element: as a
sea by rivers. Thus, lithium would be expected to have
cooling magma starts to crystallize minerals, lithium stays in
built up in the oceans in the same way that a buildup of
the remaining melt until near the end. Active plate tectonics
sodium has made the oceans salty. Yet, remarkably, seawater
over Earth’s history have concentrated lithium in the conti-
contains less than 1 ppm lithium. The likely explanation
nental crust through the partial melting of the mantle beneath
is that seawater lithium is scavenged in trace quantities by
mid-ocean ridges and volcanic arcs. The melt, or magma, rises
clay minerals and accumulates in sea-floor oozes.
and then cools to become new rock in Earth’s crust, bringing
much of the available lithium with it. Among the common
rock or sediment types, the highest lithium concentrations Deposit Types
are in shales (which average 66 ppm), deep-sea clays (which
average 57 ppm), and low-calcium granites (which average Present and potential sources of lithium worldwide are
40 ppm) (Faure, 1998 and references therein). These trace broken down by deposit type, as follows: closed-basin brines,
concentrations are insufficient for an ore deposit or even 58 percent; pegmatites (including lithium-enriched granites),
for the formation of minerals in which lithium is part of the 26 percent; lithium-clays (hectorite), 7 percent; and oilfield
chemical formula. When present only in trace concentrations brines, geothermal brines, and lithium-zeolites (jadarite),
such as these, lithium atoms substitute for other metals 3 percent each (Evans, 2012). Figures K4 and K5 show the
(typically magnesium) in common rock-forming minerals. worldwide distributions of lithium deposits.

Table K1.  Commercially and (or) scientifically important lithium-bearing minerals.

[Chemical compositions are from Barthelmy (2014)]

Lithium
Mineral name Chemical formula (weight Geologic setting
percent)
Amblygonite (Li,Na)Al(PO4)(F,OH) 3.44 Pegmatite intrusions in orogenic belts; solid solution with
montebrasite
Elbaite Na(Li,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 1.89 Tourmaline group. Pegmatite intrusions in orogenic belts.
Includes the gem form watermelon tourmaline
Eucryptite LiAlSiO4 5.51 Pegmatite intrusions in orogenic belts
Hectorite Na0.3(Mg,Li)3Si4O10(OH)2 0.54 Hydrothermal alteration of volcanic ash in arid, closed basins
Jadarite LiNaB3SiO7(OH) 3.38 Hydrothermal alteration of volcanic ash in arid, closed basins
Lepidolite K(Li,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10(F,OH)2 3.58 Pegmatite intrusions in orogenic belts
Montrebasite LiAl(PO4)(OH,F) 4.74 Pegmatite intrusions in orogenic belts
Petalite LiAlSi4O10 2.09 Pegmatite intrusions in orogenic belts
Spodumene LiAlSi2O6 3.73 Pegmatite intrusions in orogenic belts. Gem forms are triphane
(yellow), kunzite (pink), and hiddenite (green)
Zabuyelite Li2CO3 18.79 Evaporite mineral (rare)
 180° 135° 90° 45° 0° 45° 90° 135° 180°
80°

70°

60°
Big Whopper Lipovy Log
Whabouchi Zavatinskoe
Tanco
50°

Black Altai
Hills Covas de Barrosa Elba
40°

Kings Mountain Taghawlor Jiajika

San Diego
30°

Khnefissat
20°

10°
Kenticha
0°
Manono

10°
K6   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

Alto Ligonha
20°
Volta Grande Rubicon Bikita Sahany Valley Wodgina Pilgangoorla

30° EXPLANATION
Bald
LCT pegmatites Greenbushes Deans
40° Lithium-enriched granites

50°

60°

70°

80°

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Global 30 arc-second elevation data (1996) and from Natural Earth (2014); Robinson projection; World Geodetic System 1984 datum

Lithium Figure K4, world map of pegmatites

Figure K4. World map showing locations of selected lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites and lithium granites. The larger red squares indicate pegmatites
containing major lithium and (or) tantalum resources. Adapted from Bradley and others (2016).
 180° 135° 90° 45° 0° 45° 90° 135° 180°
80°

70°

60°

50°

40°
Jadar Basin
Taijanier Lake
Bigadiç
Zhabuye Lake DXC
30°
Smackover

20° OREGON IDAHO

Kings Valley
NEVADA UTAH
10°

CAL
Fish Lake Valley

IFO
Clayton Valley
0°

RNI
A
Searles
Lake ARIZONA
10° NEW
Hector MEXICO

20° Salton Sea

30°
EXPLANATION BOLIVIA
Lithium brines
40° Salar de Uyuni
Closed-basin
Oilfield PARAGUAY

CHIL
E
50° Geothermal Salar de Atacama
Lithium-enriched strata
60°
Lithium clays Salar del
Lithium zeolites Hombre Muerto
70° ARGENTINA

80°

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Global 30 arc-second elevation data (1996) and from Natural Earth (2014); Robinson projection; World Geodetic System 1984 datum

Lithium Figure K5, brine

Figure K5. World map showing locations of selected closed-basin lithium-brine, lithium-enriched oilfield brine, geothermal brine, lithium-clay, and lithium-zeolite
deposits. The locations of the closed-basin brines are from a tabulation by Munk and others (2016).
Geology  K7
K8   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

Lithium-Cesium-Tantalum Pegmatite Deposits LCT pegmatites can be dated using isotope geochro-
nology. The age is a function of the ratio of the abundances of
Granitic pegmatites are igneous rocks distinguished by an a radioactive isotope and its decay product. In pegmatites, the
extremely coarse but variable grain size and by other unique minerals columbite-tantalite, monazite, and zircon are dated
textures, particularly what are known as graphic intergrowths by exploiting the decay of uranium-238 to lead-206. LCT
(fig. K3B; London, 2008). Pegmatites are composed primarily pegmatites from six continents have now been dated (Bradley
of the major minerals in granite, namely quartz, albite (sodium and McCauley, 2013). The oldest one, which is located in
feldspar), potassium feldspar, and the white mica muscovite, Australia, formed at about 2,829 mega-annum (Ma, or million
plus smaller amounts of garnet, tourmaline, biotite, and years before present) and the youngest, in Italy, at about 7 Ma
apatite. In addition to the lithium minerals petalite, lepidolite, (McCauley and Bradley, 2014). The global age distribution is
and spodumene, LCT pegmatites may contain the cesium episodic, with a few peak times separated by long intervals of
ore mineral, pollucite; the tantalum ore mineral, columbite- few or no pegmatites (fig. K6). The age peaks at 2,638; 1,809;
tantalite; the beryllium ore mineral, beryl; and the tin ore 962; 485; 309; 274; and 97 Ma correspond to times when
mineral, cassiterite. More information on tantalum, beryllium, Earth’s continents were being assembled into super­continents
and tin resources in LCT pegmatites can be found in Foley and (Bradley, 2011).
others (this volume, chap. E), Schulz and others (this volume, Even the biggest LCT pegmatites are much smaller
chap. M), and Kamilli and others (this volume, chap. S). LCT than typical granitic plutons, which commonly have areas of
pegmatites may also yield gemstones and high-value museum greater than 10 square kilometers (km2 ). The Greenbushes
specimens of rare minerals. Gemstones include the beryl pegmatite in Western Australia, which is large for an LCT
varieties aquamarine, emerald, and heliodor; the lithium- pegmatite, is 3 kilometers (km) long and a few hundred meters
bearing tourmaline variety elbaite (“watermelon tourmaline”) across (Partington and others, 1995). On a regional scale,
(fig. K3C ); and the spodumene varieties hiddenite, kunzite, LCT pegmatites tend to occur in districts alongside fertile
and triphane. LCT pegmatites are also mined for feldspars, granites, with the highest concentration of lithium and other
muscovite, and ultrapure quartz. The diversity of mineral incompatible elements in the more distal pegmatites (fig. K7).
species in the most complex LCT pegmatites is impressive; Individual pegmatites take various shapes, ranging from
at the Tanco deposit in Manitoba, Canada, for example, tabular dikes and sills to irregular bodies.
105 minerals have been identified (London, 2008). LCT
pegmatites are famous among geologists and mineral collec-
tors for their huge crystals. The largest spodumene crystal yet Lithium-Enriched Granites
found is 14 meters (m) long (from South Dakota) (fig. K3A);
the largest beryl crystal, 18 m; and the largest potassium Some muscovite-bearing granites include zones that are
feldspar crystal, 49 m (Rickwood, 1981). These finds are all enriched in the elements lithium, tantalum, tin, and fluorine.
the more remarkable because pegmatites are believed to have At the Yichun Mine in Jiangxi Province, China, the top of a
crystallized in a matter of days to years (London, 2008). biotite-muscovite granite grades into muscovite granite and
The main producers of lithium from pegmatites are then into lepidolite granite, which has been mined for lithium
Australia, Brazil, China, Portugal, and Zimbabwe. The world and tantalum (Schwartz, 1992). Lithium-enriched granites are
has hundreds of known deposits (fig. K4), and some of these closely related to LCT pegmatites, and the two have not been
(for example, in Quebec, Canada) contain large reserves of distinguished from one another in recent global assessments of
lithium that have not been mined. The United States is not lithium resources (for example, Kunasz, 2006; Evans, 2008;
currently producing lithium from pegmatites, although large Yaksic and Tilton, 2009; Naumov and Naumova, 2010; and
reserves remain in the Kings Mountain pegmatite district in Gruber and others, 2011).
North Carolina. Other domestic deposits are too small to be
viable under current or likely market conditions. Kesler and
others (2012) estimated lithium resources for 20 of the world’s
Lithium Brine Deposits in Closed Basins
most important pegmatite deposits or districts. Closed-basin brine deposits contain an estimated
Bradley and McCauley (2013) and Bradley and others 58 percent of the world’s identified lithium resources (Evans,
(2017) have summarized tectonic factors in pegmatite genesis. 2012). Lithium brine deposits are accumulations of saline
LCT pegmatites are found in the metamorphic-igneous groundwater that are enriched in dissolved lithium. The loca-
hinterlands of orogenic belts and are a consequence of plate tions of the world’s major lithium brine deposits are shown on
convergence. Most LCT pegmatites formed during collision the map in figure K5. The producing deposits have average
between continents or microcontinents and are associated with lithium concentrations that range from 160 to 1,400 ppm and
aluminum-rich granites that originated by melting of estimated resources of 0.3 to 6.3 million metric tons of lithium
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. Dozens of pegmatites (Munk and others, 2016). The producing deposits are located
in the Appalachians formed during the protracted collision in Asia, North America, and South America, and lie within the
between Africa and North America that took place 370 million northern and arid latitudinal belts on either side of the equator.
to 275 million years ago. These deposits share a number of characteristics, including
 Geology  K9

A. Age distribution of LCT pegmatites the following: (a) an arid climate; (b) closed basin containing
10
a salt lake or salt flat; (c) tectonically driven subsidence; (d)
309 associated igneous or geothermal activity; (e) lithium-bearing
Number of LCT pegmatites

8
485 source rocks; (f) one or more adequate aquifers, to host the
1,809 brine reservoir; and (g) sufficient time to concentrate a brine.
6
Key aspects of the proposed lithium-brine deposit model are
4
274 2,638 shown in figure K8.
97 962 The lithium brine deposit in Clayton Valley, Nev., is a
2
well-studied example that can be used to highlight some of
the key characteristics of this kind of deposit. Lithium has
0 been produced from brine in Clayton Valley since the 1960s.
It is not a particularly notable basin—it has a relatively small
B. Age distribution of detrital zircons from modern river sands footprint of about 100 km2 and a total lithium resource of
1,200 about 0.3 million metric tons—but it is better understood
1,100 n= 21,655 than the rest.
1,000
Clayton Valley is one of about 150 basins in the Basin
Number of detrital zircons

900
800 and Range Province of the Western United States that formed
700 when the western 1,000 km of North America was profoundly
600 reshaped because of interactions with adjacent plates in the
500
400
Pacific Ocean. A computer animation of this process in avail-
300 able on the Internet (Atwater, 2011). In the past 15 million
200 years, Nevada has been stretched in an east-west direction
100
0
to about twice its former width. The basins are one of many
consequences of this process. The basins are relatively flat
C. Age distribution of lithium resources in pegmatites regions where the Earth’s former surface has subsided over
1.0 geologic time, and the resulting depressions have been
filled with sediment, typically hundreds to thousands of
Lithium, in million metric tons

0.8 meters thick.
The Basin and Range Province is dry. Its aridity is
0.6 partly owing to its position in the northerly of Earth’s two
low-latitude dry belts and partly to a double rain-shadow
0.4 cast by two of the highest mountain ranges in the contiguous
United States (the White Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, the
0.2
latter of which reaches 4,421 m, or 14,505 feet). The region
is so dry that most of the basins are closed; that is, surface
0
waters (mostly snowmelt) can flow in but not out. Inflowing
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
waters bring in dissolved calcium, magnesium, potassium,
Age, in million years before present
sodium, and less abundant elements, such as lithium. These
Phanero-
zoic Proterozoic Archean elements have built up over time, either in permanent lakes
(such as Utah’s Great Salt Lake) or in ephemeral lakes that
Figure K6.  A, K6
Histogram of the number of lithium- sometimes dry out completely, leaving a salar (salt pan or
Lithium Figure
cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites formed per playa) covered by evaporite minerals. Halite (sodium chloride,
50-million-year interval as a function of geologic time or common rock salt) is the best known of these minerals. As a
showing their episodic genesis (McCauley and Bradley, salt lake dries out, lithium behaves somewhat differently than
2013, 2014). B, Histogram showing the age distribution other dissolved metals because it is more soluble. Rather than
of detrital zircon in modern sand as a function of time. crystallizing an evaporite mineral, lithium remains in solution
Maxima are interpreted as times when supercontinents and ends up in a bitter-tasting residual brine. This brine is
were being assembled and minima as times when denser than fresh water and sinks into the subsurface where
they were together. LCT pegmatites are thus linked it collects in one or more aquifers (zones or layers of porous
to supercontinent assembly. From Voice and others and permeable rock or sediment). At Clayton Valley, lithium-
(2011). C, Histogram showing global lithium resource in enriched brine is pumped from six different aquifers that all lie
pegmatites per 100-million-year interval as a function within a few hundred meters of the surface.
of geologic time. Note the broad correspondence The lithium in Clayton Valley is thought to have come
between all three plots. Modified from McCauley from various sources; some of it was weathered from rocks
and Bradley (2014). or sediments by rain, snowmelt, or groundwater, and some
K10   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

EXPLANATION Metasedimentary
or meta-igneous
Pegmatite bodies with country rock
characteristic enrichments
Li, Be, Ta, Sn, Cs, Rb
Li, Be, Nb>Ta

lt
Be

Fau

complexity of zoning, and extent of replacement

Increasing fractionation, volatile enrichment,
alo
eh
tit
ma
eg
fp
it o
Lim

Rb
C s,
Sn,
,
Ta
Be, a
Li, b >T
,N
Be Pegmatitic granite
Be

Li,

Parental granite

NOT TO SCALE

Figure K7. 
Lithium Schematic
Figure K7 cross section showing the concentric arrangement of lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)
pegmatites (small purple, blue, and green bodies) around a parental granite pluton. In this model, common
pegmatites form near the parent, whereas pegmatites with enrichments in incompatible elements (indicated
by chemical symbols) and corresponding rare minerals form farther away. Modified from Galeschuk and
Vanstone (2005) and Trueman and Černý (1982). Be, beryllium; Cs, cesium; Li, lithium; Nb, niobium; Rb,
rubidium; Sn, tin; Ta, tantalum

was brought in by hydrothermal waters that rose from anoma- liquor” is pumped from the last pond to a chemical plant for
lously hot rocks below the basin (fig. K8). Before intense production of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide. A
pumping disrupted the groundwater system beneath Clayton more complete description of the extraction of lithium from
Valley, these hydrothermal waters came to the surface at two brine is provided in Garrett (2004).
hot springs. The same general conditions that made the Clayton
The arid climate needed to form the brine is also a key to Valley brines have created even larger deposits in the Andes
production, because the first step in the extraction of lithium Mountains of South America and in Tibet in central Asia
is solar evaporation. In Clayton Valley, brine carrying an (fig. K5). The world’s most significant lithium district is the
average of 160 ppm lithium is pumped to the surface and Salar de Atacama, on the Altiplano of Chile (fig. K3D), which
evaporated in a succession of nine artificial ponds that cover a is one of the driest places on Earth. The Salar de Atacama is a
total area of 16 km2 (fig. K3E ) (Garrett, 2004). In each pond huge salt flat that covers an area of about 2,100 km2, which is
in the chain, brine enters at one end, loses some of its water roughly two-thirds the size of Rhode Island. It is surrounded
during the ensuing weeks or months, and is drained or pumped by active volcanoes and cut by active faults. The salar is fed
from the other end into the next pond. Multiple ponds are by a combination of snowmelt from nearby mountains and
used so as to keep separate the various evaporite minerals that hydrothermal fluids from below. At an average of 1,400 ppm
crystallize out in sequence. It takes nearly 2 years to achieve lithium, the brine is far richer than at Clayton Valley. The
a concentrate that is both enriched in lithium (to 5,000 ppm) total reserve is more than 20 times greater, at an estimated
and depleted in other, more abundant, elements. This “mother 7.5 million metric tons of lithium.
 Geology  K11

Lithium delivered Potential sources of lithium in brine

in windblown dust
1. Older bedrock
2. Primary magmatic or hydrothermal fluids
3. Volcanic ash
4. Loess
4
Lith 5. Exhumed basin deposits (recycled lithium)
Lithium in airfall tuffs ium 1
from nearby volcano we 6. Regional groundwater flow
ath
ere
3 d fr
om
Lithium d old
elive er r
from con red in solution ock 1
nected b s Lithium sequestered around
asin hot springs in clays
6 Evaporative
concentration
of lithium
P
from recon 5 1
exh cent Salar with
um rate Evaporation
ed
bas d lithiu ponds lithium brine 6
ina m
l st
rata
Convecting 2
basinal brines Deep
groundwater
NO
TT Lithium delivered
OS
CA in magmatic 2
LE fluids

ted
Mechanisms for concentrating lithium in brines ec
a dv epth
r d
• Evaporation of water from brines a o at
a gm cks
• Hydrothermal fluids react with aquifer and liberate lithium M tr o
ho
EXPLANATION
Mechanisms for removing lithium from brine pool
• Brine spills out of basin Neogene volcano
• Brine leaks out from bottom of basin Salar
• Lithium minerals crystallize from saturated brine Proximal alluvial fan
• Lithium clays crystallize from hydrothermal fluids Other modern basin fill
• Lithium brines are trapped in fluid inclusions in halite Older basin fill, now exhumed
Bedrock, undifferentiated
Fault

Lithium Figure K8
Figure K8.  Conceptual ore-deposit model for lithium brine. An extensional basin is shown, but basins in active
contractional and strike-slip tectonic settings are also prospective, the requirement being that the basin is closed.
From Bradley and others (2013) and Munk and others (2016).
K12   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

Another notable deposit is the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia. Analysis of lithium-enriched clays from several occurrences in
With an estimated 9 million metric tons of lithium at an the Western United States revealed that they all show enrich-
average concentration of about 320 ppm (Jaskula, 2013), it is ments in magnesium, fluorine, and lithium—a combination
likely the largest accumulation of lithium in the world (Gruber attributed to hydrothermal processes (Stillings and Morissette,
and others, 2011). Despite its size, it is not yet in production. 2012). Hectorite (fig. K3F ), which is a member of the smectite
One difficulty is an abundance of dissolved magnesium, which family of clay minerals, appears to be the most widespread,
hampers the evaporative concentration of lithium by causing it but Stillings and Morissette (2012) also found lithium-
to precipitate prematurely as an impurity in magnesium salts. enriched clays of the illite family, as well as illite-smectite
The most noteworthy of several lithium brine systems mixtures. Hectorite is a silicate of sodium, magnesium, and
in China is at Zabuye Lake, Tibet. It is the only known lithium and contains about one-half percent lithium (table K1).
closed basin in which a lithium salt (specifically, Li2CO3, Lithium-clay deposits, prospects, and occurrences are shown
or zabuyelite) precipitates as part of the evaporite mineral in figure K5.
sequence, and the only basin in a recent global compilation The most significant lithium-clay resource so far
where volcanism or hydrothermal activity has not been discovered is the Kings Valley hectorite deposit, located
reported (Munk and others, 2016). The brines have an average within the McDermitt caldera complex, which is an extinct
concentration of 700 ppm and an estimated resource of about volcanic center in northern Nevada. The McDermitt area
1.5 million metric tons of lithium (Gruber and others, 2011). had extensive volcanism during the Miocene; at least five
collapsed vents and resurgent domes have been recognized
within the complex. The lithium clays occur in hydrothermally
Lithium in Other Brines altered, volcanic-derived sediments of lakes that occupied the
Deep oilfield brines may contain up to several hundreds caldera (Rytuba and Glanzman, 1979). Recovery of lithium
of parts per million lithium. Evans (2008) reported high by leaching the clay with sulfuric acid has proven feasible
tonnages of lithium contained in oilfield brines in Arkansas, (Eggleston and Hertel, 2008). The deposit is being developed
North Dakota, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming, with lithium for production, but lithium production has not yet begun
concentrations of up to 700 ppm. One of the best-known of (Western Lithium Corp., 2015).
the oilfield brines is contained in the Smackover Formation in Clays that happen to contain lithium have been mined in
the Gulf Coast area of the south-central United States (Collins, Arizona, California, and elsewhere in Nevada. These deposits
1976). In some places, the brine contains up to 692 milligrams were or are mined not for their lithium content but rather for
per liter (mg/L) lithium. The brine occupies pore space their physical properties, which make them good additives
in an approximately 200-m-thick limestone at depths of to, in order of value, drilling muds, paints, and cosmetics.
1,800 to 4,800 m. The brine has been interpreted to be trapped Hectorite gets its name from such a deposit at Hector, Calif.,
seawater that was subsequently hydrothermally enriched in where lake beds of volcanic ash were altered by hydrothermal
lithium and other trace elements (Garrett, 2004). fluids that came up along a fault zone (Ames and others,
Oilfield brines have two drawbacks as potential lithium 1958). At least two other deposits in the Southwestern
resources. First, they typically occur at much greater depths United States have been similarly interpreted (Norton, 1965;
(greater than 1 km) than closed-basin brines. Second, unless Wilkerson and others, 2001). In Turkey, the world-class
they happen to be located in an arid climate, recovery of Bigadiç borate deposit, which formed in the hydrothermally
lithium using the expedient and inexpensive method of solar altered sediments that fill a rift-related lacustrine basin,
evaporation will not be feasible (Bradley and others, 2013). contains associated hectorite (Helvaci and others, 2004).
Geothermal brines are another potential source of
lithium. These fluids traditionally derive their value from
their contained heat, which can be converted to mechanical
Lithium-Zeolite Deposits
energy—but some geothermal fluids contain anomalous The only documented lithium-zeolite deposit is from a
dissolved metals, including lithium. Reportedly, lithium is Neogene basin system in the Balkan region of Eastern Europe
now being recovered by Simbol, Inc. from a geothermal brine (fig. K5). Miocene-age lake beds in the Jadar basin include
in the Salton Sea area along the California-Mexico border oil shale, carbonate rocks, evaporites, and tuff (Obradović
(Simbol, Inc., 2013). and others, 1997). These strata have been authigenically
overgrown by massive layers of jadarite, which is a recently
recognized boron-lithium silicate mineral of the zeolite
Lithium-Clay Deposits family (Stanley and others, 2007). The jadarite layers are
A small subset of the world’s clay deposits is enriched in reportedly several meters thick. This single jadarite deposit
lithium. Lithium-bearing clay deposits contain an estimated contains an estimated 3 percent of the world’s lithium resource
7 percent of the world’s lithium resources (Evans, 2012). (Evans, 2012).
 Resources and Production   K13

Resources and Production long term. Lithium can be recycled indefinitely, whereas oil can
be used only once. Resources of lithium are expected to satisfy
Production demand into the next century (Evans, 2012).
Although current domestic lithium production is small,
Global annual production of lithium has been increasing the United States is endowed with a substantial lithium
since the mid-1900s; in 2012, it was about 37,000 metric tons resource. Gruber and others (2011) estimated the domestic
(fig. K1; Jaskula, 2013). The world has hundreds of lithium lithium resource to be about 10.2 million metric tons. This
deposits, prospects, and occurrences (figs. K4 and K5) but only includes the Kings Mountain pegmatite district in North
a few of them are currently producing. The present-day supply Carolina (5.9 million metric tons of lithium), the Kings
of lithium comes from pegmatite deposits and closed-basin Valley hectorite deposit in Nevada (2.0 million metric tons),
brines. The main pegmatite producers are Australia, Brazil, and various closed-basin, geothermal, and oilfield brines
China, Portugal, and Zimbabwe. The main brine producers are (2.3 million metric tons).
Argentina, Chile, China, and the United States. The various
other deposit types have potential as future contributors.
The United States imports most of the lithium that it Undiscovered Resources
consumes. In 2012, the country’s net import reliance was Exploration for lithium deposits has never been as intense
greater than 70 percent (Jaskula, 2013). as it has been for other metallic resources, such as gold and
copper, so it is likely that large, economically viable lithium
Reserves and Other Identified Resources deposits remain to be discovered. Now that a potentially very
large lithium battery market exists for hybrid and electric
Global lithium resources total more than 39 million metric vehicles, more exploration is being done, and new deposits
tons, which is nearly three thousand times current annual will likely be discovered. The USGS contributes to this effort
production. Of this resource, the USGS currently estimates by developing mineral deposit models, which provide a
there to be approximately 13 million metric tons of reserves; conceptual basis for modern mineral exploration. New models
that is, resources that are demonstrated (measured and indi- have been developed for both LCT pegmatites (Bradley and
cated categories) to be and are currently economically recover- McCauley, 2013; Bradley and others, (2017) and lithium brines
able. These figures have changed in recent years, and various (Bradley and others, 2013; Munk and others, 2016).
experts have reported a wide range of values based on some- Plots of grade versus tonnage are shown in figure K9
what different methods and assumptions (Gruber and others, for lithium in pegmatites and brines; these give an indication
2011). An important additional aspect of the global lithium of the sizes of deposits that might remain to be found. The
outlook is recycling, which was not figured into the above two parameters, deposit grade and deposit tonnage, vary
resource estimates. Lithium-ion battery recycling is expected across a wide range of values for most of the common lithium
to play a major role in the supply of lithium in the medium to deposit types.

A. Lithium resources in LCT pegmatites B. Lithium resources in closed-basin brines

10 10,000
Grade, in weight percent Li2O

Grade, in parts per million Li

Tanco Greenbushes Atacama

1,000

Whabouchi
1.0

Clayton Valley
100
Great Salt Lake

0.1 10
1 10 100 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
Deposit tonnage, in million metric tons of resource Deposit tonnage, in million metric tons of brine

Figure
LithiumK9. Plots
Figure K9 of lithium grade and tonnage for selected world deposits. These plots give an indication of the sizes
of deposits that might remain to be found for A, lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites, and B , closed-basin brines.
Data for the LCT pegmatites are from Bradley and others (2017), and data for the closed-basin brines are from Munk
and others (2016). Some of the deposits discussed in the text are labeled.
K14   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

Exploration for New Deposits critical factor; values range through an order of magnitude
from about 0 degrees Celsius (°C) to 23 °C (Munk and others,
Exploration for Lithium-Cesium-Tantalum 2016). Judging from the present-day population of basins, the
favorable zones lie between about 19° and 37° north or south
Pegmatite Deposits latitude (Bradley and others, 2013; Munk and others, 2016).
The search for new LCT pegmatite districts begins with Lithium-brine resources are found in a range of active tectonic
the knowledge that all LCT pegmatites were emplaced into settings, from extensional, to strike-slip, to contractional
orogenic belts (Bradley and McCauley, 2013). The global age (Bradley and others, 2013; Munk and others, 2016). All but
distribution (fig. K6) provides a first-order filter in the search one of the lithium-brine basins show evidence for elevated
for new LCT pegmatites in unexplored regions. The potential heat flow, as revealed by the presence of young volcanoes,
for giant deposits seems greatest in Archean (2,500 Ma hot springs, and (or) geothermal resources. Evidence of older
and older) collision zones. Most LCT pegmatites intruded hydrothermal activity is seen in several instances and should
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, typically at conditions be regarded as a favorable characteristic. For example, at
of medium pressure and medium to high temperatures Clayton Valley, some Miocene to Pliocene basinal deposits
(greenschist to amphibolite facies) (Černý, 1992). New were hydrothermally enriched in hectorite; this probably took
deposits are likely to be found within a few kilometers of a place a few million years ago, before the lithium-enriched
“fertile” granite, which generally are large enough (typically basinal strata were uplifted and exposed. Hectorite concen­
several square kilometers in area) to be known already from tration haloes have been reported from several basins that lack
routine geologic mapping. Fertile granites are identified lithium brines in the U.S. Basin and Range Province (Vine,
by the presence of distinctive minerals, such as muscovite, 1980). In such cases, a hectorite halo may be all that remains
tourmaline, and garnet; by anomalously high concentrations of a former brine system that has since leaked away. Like
of such trace elements as cesium, lithium, rubidium, tin, and lithium brines, borate deposits appear to be hybrids involving
tantalum; and by low concentrations of the major elements both hydrothermal and evaporative processes; their presence
calcium, iron, and magnesium (Selway and others, 2005). is a favorable indicator for lithium brines. Source rocks, such
Around a fertile granite, the more distal LCT pegmatites are as felsic, glassy tuffs that have abundant and readily leached
more likely to be enriched in lithium (fig. K7). Weathering lithium, are favorable indicators of a nearby lithium brine
of LCT pegmatites can result in both soil anomalies and deposit (Price and others, 2000).
indicator minerals. Smith and others (1987) demonstrated that
arsenic, beryllium, antimony, and tin form a 12-by-20-km Exploration for Lithium in Sedimentary Rocks
halo in lateritic soils around the Greenbushes pegmatite;
(Clays and Zeolites)
niobium, tantalum, and boron form a smaller, 1-by-5-km halo.
Cassiterite, tantalite, elbaite, and spessartine are sufficiently The depositional environments of deposits, prospects,
dense and durable to serve as heavy indicator minerals that and occurrences in the Basin and Range Province share the
can be found by panning unconsolidated sediments. following characteristics: they are all found in lake sediments,
the sediments contain ash or other volcanic materials, and
there is evidence of alteration by hydrothermal fluids (Asher-
Exploration for Lithium-Brine Deposits in Bolinder, 1982, 1991). Borate deposits share the same general
Closed Basins characteristics, and, accordingly, the presence of borates is a
favorable indication for lithium clays. In the Basin and Range
The most critical factor that determines if a sedimentary Province, borate deposits were extensively prospected in the
basin can accumulate lithium brine is whether or not the late 1800s and early 1900s, and many deposits and prospects
basin is closed. All the lithium-brine basins in figure K5 are were found. Lithium clays are not as obvious in these settings
closed, and all have a saline lake or a salar (that is, a salt flat as are the common borate minerals; significant lithium
or salt-encrusted depression). Closed basins form because of resources may thus have been overlooked.
tectonic processes, but they are maintained only where, over The lithium zeolites at Jadar, Serbia, compose the only
longer timespans, evaporation exceeds precipitation. If the known deposit of this type. Accordingly, exploration guide-
long-term rate of precipitation in a basin increases sufficiently, lines must be based on this occurrence, which formed in an
lake water will eventually overtop some point along the extensional tectonic regime and is hosted in Miocene-age lake
drainage divide and drain away, carrying with it any dissolved beds that include oil shale, carbonate rocks, evaporites, oil
lithium. Mean annual temperature does not appear to be a shale, and tuff (Obradović and others, 1997).
 Environmental Considerations  K15

Environmental Considerations in arid basins compared with 1.3 ppm from humid regions of
the United States (Bertrand, 1952, 1959). Cannon and others
Sources and Fate in the Environment (1975) reported that plants growing in hot-spring discharge
zones appear to have died from accumulation and precipitation
Lithium in the environment can be derived from both of evaporative salts; these “fossilized root crowns” of salt can
natural and anthropogenic sources. As noted already, lithium is contain 1,000 ppm lithium.
present in trace quantities in most rocks and natural waters and Being a highly soluble element, lithium is commonly
is a major component only in certain rare pegmatite minerals, found as a dissolved species in both groundwater and surface
clays, zeolites, and brines. Potential anthropogenic lithium water. This property makes lithium useful as a conservative
sources include mine wastes, and after disposal, the wide tracer in hydrogeological studies (Bencala and others, 1990).
range of manufactured products. There is evidence, however, that lithium may be removed
In soils, lithium is found in detrital and authigenic from solution through sorption onto suspended clays. For
minerals and, to a lesser extent, in the organic fraction example, in Saline Valley, Calif., 98 percent of lithium is lost
(Heier and Billings, 1978; Ribas, 1991; Schrauzer, 2002). from solution during surface flow from the spring to the playa
Its concentration depends upon the parent rock (table K2); (Lombardi, 1963). Lithium substitutes readily for magnesium
a study of Scottish soils shows the highest lithium concen­ in the clay structure because of the similar ionic radii of
trations are found in soils that develop over claystones and the two elements, and this isomorphic substitution is likely
metamorphosed felsic rocks. The top 10 centimeters of a soil responsible for the affinity of lithium for clays. Plant uptake
profile can be poorer in lithium than lower layers because is another mechanism by which lithium can be removed from
lithium is leached by weathering solutions and can be solution, especially soil solution. There is a much greater
incorporated into underlying clay minerals (Mitchell, 1964; uptake of lithium by plants in acid soils, as acidity increases
Ribas, 1991). Shacklette and others (1973) observed that soils the solubility of metals (Schrauzer, 2002; Lenntech, 2007).
from the Western United States are more enriched in lithium The use of lithium batteries is anticipated to increase
than are those in the Eastern United States, with mean values in the future in response to the increasing demand for
of 23.3 ppm lithium and 17.3 ppm lithium, respectively. electric vehicles. The increased use of lithium in batteries is
Cannon and others (1975) found a difference between the in turn expected to result in increased recycling of lithium
lithium contents of sediments in hydrologically open and from batteries. Recent press reports of explosions and fires
closed basins in the Basin and Range Province of California associated with lithium batteries (for example, Mouawad and
and Nevada. In open basins, the lithium concentrations are Drew, 2013) could cause concern about lithium recycling.
relatively low, ranging from 0 to 150 ppm. In contrast, the Spent lithium batteries contain virtually no lithium metal,
range of lithium concentrations in hydrologically closed basins however, because it has all been converted to lithium
is 30 to 2,000 ppm, and lacustrine clays have a median value oxide by the time the battery stops working (National
of 700 ppm lithium. The difference is owing to hydrological Electrical Manufacturers Association, 2001). Lithium oxide
flow patterns; in open basins, dissolved salts are continually is unreactive; unlike lithium metal, it does not produce
carried off by outflowing waters. hydrogen gas upon exposure to water, and it does not catch
Although lithium is not required for the growth of plants, fire. Both HMIS (Hazardous Materials Identification System)
they are known to assimilate it, typically in the range of and NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) give it a
0.2 to 30 ppm (Aral and Vecchio-Sadus, 2008). More extreme “0” rating for flammability and physical (reactivity) hazard
values have also been reported; for example, matrimony risks (Alpha Aesar, 2012; Sigma Aldrich, 2014). It is a
vine (Lycium barbarum) from Arizona contained 1,120 ppm health hazard (a “3” rating by HMIS and NFPA) because
lithium (dry weight) (Sievers and Canon, 1973). A study of it is corrosive and can cause serious eye and skin damage
plants from 20 basins in Nevada and California demonstrated upon contact. Disposal of spent batteries in a modern
that native plants grown in arid basins absorb more lithium municipal solid waste facility is not likely to present a lithium
than those in more humid regions. Cannon and others (1975) hazard, however. Lithium oxide is slightly to moderately
reported median lithium concentrations of 22.8 ppm (dry soluble—a maximum of 6.67 g of Li2O can dissolve in
weight) from Magnoliopsida (also known as dicotyledons) 100 g of water (H2O) at 0 oC (ESPI Metals, 1993).

Table K2.  Lithium concentrations (in parts per million) in soils developed on various types of bedrock.
[Sources: Mitchell (1964), as reported in Heier and Billings (1978)]

Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary

Olivine gabbro Andesite Granite Serpentinite Quartzite Granitic gneiss Quartz mica schist Shale Sandstone
30 50 7 30 15 70 200 60 20
K16   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

Mine Waste Characteristics condition with lithium is unknown but undoubtedly is in the
millions. A typical dosage is 1,800 mg/d of lithium carbonate
Mine-waste characteristics vary with the type of lithium (Drugs.com, 2013).
deposit. Only two types of deposits—pegmatites and closed- Lithium can be toxic. In fact, the United States banned the
basin brines—have produced mine wastes. use of medicinal lithium between 1949 and 1970 for this reason
The mining history of lithium pegmatites may affect the (Strobusch and Jefferson, 1980). Aral and Vecchio-Sadus
mineralogy of tailings and waste piles that remain. Tin was (2008) summarized the various harmful effects and noted that
the original target of mining at Kings Mountain (Kesler, 1942, a dose of 5 g of lithium can be fatal to humans. No lithium
1955, 1961), suggesting that lithium-bearing minerals may poisoning has been reported from industrial applications,
still remain in dumps from that era. Mineral processing of the however (Aral and Vecchio-Sadus, 2008).
pegmatite minerals involved crushing, wet grinding, sieving,
gravity concentration, flotation, and collection with fatty acid
amines. Tailings were discharged to storage ponds (Garrett, Ecological Health Concerns
2004) that likely contain some lithium. In 1969, mineral
processing was changed to improve the recovery of lithium. Lithium affects metabolism, neuronal communication,
The new process involved calcining (heating) the spodumene and cell proliferation in many organisms in addition to
concentrate after collection, then leaching the calcine with hot humans. It disturbs the development of invertebrates (Léonard
water. Yet even with this newer process, all the lithium still and others, 1995), and, in rats, it has been reported to reduce
was not recovered. the number in a litter and the weight of the offspring and to
Another source of lithium to waste and tailings piles can cause incomplete ossification (Domingo, 1994). One of several
be through dissolution of the lithium minerals in the grinding useful endpoints used in toxicity tests is the concen­tration that
and sieving steps of processing. For example, spodumene is leads to 50 percent mortality (lethal concentration 50, or LC50 )
fairly insoluble in water and dilute acids, but a small amount after exposure to a substance for a certain amount of time.
of dissolution has been observed during ore processing and For earthworms exposed to soil containing lithium, the LC50
concentration (Aral and Vecchio-Sadus, 2008). The dissolved value was 70 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) after 7 weeks
lithium will be transported with the processing water and may of exposure (Fischer and Molnár, 1997). The sensitivity of
concentrate in tailings ponds that have concentrations ranging fish to lithium was measured in a series of 96-hour tests,
up to 13 ppm. which revealed an LC50 value that ranged from 13 mg/L for
The production of lithium by evaporation of closed-basin fathead minnows to greater than 100 mg/L for other fish
brines produces various evaporite minerals in the sequence of species. Lithium concentrations of 1.2 mg/L immobilized the
ponds. Details vary among the deposits owing to differences tiny crustacean Daphnia magna in 64 hours, and a dose of
in brine chemistry. Precipitates at Clayton Valley include 1.7 mg/L of lithium prevented the formation of embryos in
clay, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, hydrated magnesia, fish eggs (Kszos and Stewart, 2003).
potassium-sodium sulfate, and potassium-sodium chloride
(Garrett, 2004).
Carbon Footprint
Human Health Concerns Lithium’s potential importance to the world’s carbon
budget derives from its use in lightweight, rechargeable
Lithium is not considered an essential element for life, car batteries. Over the course of a hypothetical lifetime of
but it is present in most organisms in trace quantities (Léonard 150,000 miles (240,000 km), today’s average gasoline-
and others, 1995; Lenntech, 2007). The normal human intake powered car will produce about 63,450 kilograms of carbon
is about 2 milligrams per day (mg/d) (Léonard and others, dioxide based on values from the U.S. Environmental
1995), and the human body contains about 7 milligrams (mg). Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality
Ingested lithium is absorbed from the intestines and excreted (2011). This greenhouse gas will go directly from the tailpipe
through the kidneys, and the half-life in the body is about to the atmosphere, where it will contribute to global warming;
24 hours (Freeman and Freeman, 2006; Aral and Vecchio- some of it will later end up dissolved in seawater, where it will
Sadus, 2008). contribute to further ocean acidification, harming or killing
In the realm of human health, lithium is best known as fish and shellfish. The carbon dioxide output of an electric
the leading treatment for the debilitating symptoms of bipolar car depends largely on the means of charging its battery, but
disorder. Modern use of lithium compounds for this purpose in all cases—even if the electricity comes from a coal-fired
dates from pioneering work after World War II in Australia powerplant—the output of carbon dioxide is lower than for a
by John Cade (Mitchell and Hadzi-Pavlovic, 2000). About gasoline-powered car (Notter and others, 2010). In the best-
4 percent of people—or nearly 300 million out of the present case scenario, where the battery is recharged from renewable
world population—will suffer from bipolar disorder at some hydroelectric, wind, tidal, or solar power, the carbon dioxide
point in their lives (Ketter, 2010). The number who treat the output (beyond infrastructure costs) is negligible.
 References Cited  K17

Problems and Future Research References Cited

As is the case for most of the critical elements, lithium Note: All Web links listed were active as of the access date but may no
longer be available.
resources have not been as thoroughly studied as some
conventional metallic resources, such as copper and lead.
Basic research on the better-known lithium deposit types Alpha Aesar, 2012, Lithium oxide: Alpha Aesar safety data
(pegmatites and brines) as well as on the newer deposit types sheet, stock number 41832, review date August 16, 2012,
(clays and zeolites) would help identify new resources and 4 p., accessed July 10, 2014, at http://www.alfa.com/
could ensure that a transition from fossil fuels to renewable content/msds/USA/41832.pdf.
energy sources is not limited by the supply of lithium. American Physical Society Panel on Public Affairs and the
For LCT pegmatites, the overarching question is why Materials Research Society, 2011, Energy critical elements—
some orogenic belts are well-endowed with these deposits, Securing materials for emerging technologies: Washington,
whereas other seemingly similar belts are not? The connec- D.C., American Physical Society, 28 p. 19 p. plus 2 appen-
tions between LCT pegmatites and tectonics have yet to be dixes. [Also available at http://www.aps.org/policy/reports/
unraveled at the level of detail that would aid in exploration. popa-reports/upload/elementsreport.pdf.]
Although most LCT pegmatites are found in orogenic belts
that formed during continental collision, there is no obvious Ames, L.L., Jr., Sand, L.B., and Goldich, S.S., 1958, A
explanation for why particular pegmatites formed where and contribution on the Hector, California, bentonite deposit:
when they did. To address this problem would require tight Economic Geology, v. 53, p. 22–37. [Also available
geochronology for the pegmatite, for the orogenic belt in at http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.53.1.22.]
which it occurs, and for any associated sedimentary basins.
Such an effort is now technologically possible. Anstett, T.F., Krauss, U.H., Ober, J.A., and Schmidt, H.W.,
A similar question applies to lithium brines—Why have 1990, International strategic minerals inventory summary
these deposits formed in only a small subset of closed basins report—Lithium: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 930–I,
in arid regions? In the U.S. Basin and Range Province, for 28 p. [Also available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/
example, about 150 basins share the same basic characteris- cir930I.]
tics, but only a few have lithium brines. Another key question
Aral, Hal, and Vecchio-Sadus, Angelica, 2008, Toxicity of
involves the timescale of lithium-brine genesis—Are lithium-
lithium to humans and the environment—A literature
enriched brines like fossil fuels, or are they renewable on short
review: Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, v. 70,
time scales?
no. 3, p. 349–356. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/
Lithium-clay (hectorite) and lithium-zeolite (jadarite) 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2008.02.026.]
deposits have not been systematically studied. Mineral-deposit
models would be useful to guide exploration efforts for both Asher-Bolinder, Sigrid, 1982, Lithium-rich clays, in
types. Lithium-clay deposits, which can be studied at the Erickson, R.L., ed., Characteristics of mineral deposit
surface, are also of interest as potential examples of fossil occurrences: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
lithium-brine systems that once operated at depth. Report 82–795, p. 225–229.
Lithium is neither an ecological nor a human health
concern when it is present at ambient conditions. As global Asher-Bolinder, Sigrid, 1991, Descriptive model of lithium
lithium consumption rises during the next few decades, in smectites of closed basins, in Orris, G.J., and Bliss, J.D.,
however, environmental issues related to the production, eds., Some industrial mineral deposit models—Descriptive
routine daily use, and disposal of lithium products will deposit models: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
warrant additional research. Report 91–11–A, p. 11–12. [Also available at
http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/ofr9111A.]

Atwater, Tanya, 2011, Northeast Pacific and western North

Acknowledgments American plate tectonic history, animation: Santa Barbara,
Calif., University of California, Santa Barbara, accessed
We would like to thank technical reviewers Nora Foley September 16, 2013, at http://emvc.geol.ucsb.edu/2_infopgs/
and Klaus Schulz and volume editor John DeYoung for IP4WNACal/bNEPacWNoAmer.html.
suggestions that significantly improved the manuscript.
Keith Labay helped create the deposit location maps and Barthelmy, David, 2014, Mineralogy database: Webmineral
Suzanne Nicholson provided additional editorial comments database, accessed April 14, 2014, at http://webmineral.com.
after the technical review was complete.
K18   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States— Lithium

Bencala, K.E., McKnight, D.M., and Zellweger, G.W., 1990, Collins, A.G., 1976, Lithium abundances in oil field waters, in
Characterization of transport in an acidic and metal-rich Vine, J.D., ed., Lithium resources and requirements by the
mountain stream based on a lithium tracer injection and year 2000: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1005,
simulations of transient storage: Water Resources Research, p. 116 –123. [Also available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/
v. 26, no. 5, p. 989–1000. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/ publication/pp1005.]
10.1029/WR026i005p00989.]
Domingo, J.L., 1994, Metal-induced developmental toxicity
Bertrand, Didier, 1952, Sur la répartition du lithium chez in mammals—A review: Journal of Toxicology and
les Phanérogames [The distribution of lithium in phanero- Environmental Health, v. 42, no. 2, p. 123–41.
gams]: Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de
l’Académie des Sciences [Weekly Reports of the Meetings Drugs.com, 2013, Lithium: Accessed May 9, 2014, at
of the Academy of Sciences], v. 234, January–June, http://www.drugs.com/pro/lithium.html - i4i_section_id_
p. 2102–2104. bd99c041-bd36-49a6-aad5-6fe469a6bd06.
Bertrand, Didier, 1959, Nouvelles recherches sur la réparti- Eggleston, Ted, and Hertel, Mark, 2008, Kings Valley lithium
tion du lithium chez les Phanérogames [New investigations project, Nevada, USA, NI 43–101 technical report, prepared
of the distribution of lithium in phanerogams]: Comptes for Western Lithium Canada Corp., Project no. 160237
Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Académie des [Filing date January 21, 2009]: Phoenix, Ariz., AMEC E&C
Sciences [Weekly Reports of the Meetings of the Academy Services Inc., December 15, variously paged, accessed
of Sciences], v. 249, July–September, p. 787–788. November 5, 2015, at http://www.sedar.com.
Bradley, D.C., 2011, Secular trends in the geologic record
and the supercontinent cycle: Earth-Science Reviews, Emsley, John, 2011, Nature’s building blocks—An A–Z guide
v. 108, nos. 1–2, p. 16–33. [Also available to the elements: Oxford, Oxford University Press, 538 p.
at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.05.003.]
ESPI Metals, 1993, Material safety data sheet for lithium
Bradley, Dwight, and McCauley, Andrew, 2013, A preliminary oxide: ESPI Metals Material Safety Data Sheet. CAS
deposit model for lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegma- number 12057–24–8, accessed July 10, 2014, at
tites: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2013–1008, http://www.espimetals.com/index.php/msds/650-lithium-oxide.
7 p. [Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1008/.]
Evans, R.K., 2008, An abundance of lithium: Raleigh, N.C.,
Bradley, D.C., McCauley, A.D., and Stillings, L.L., 2017, North Carolina State University, accessed February 2012, at
Mineral-deposit model for lithium-cesium-tantalum peg- http://www.che.ncsu.edu/ILEET/phevs/lithium-availability/
matites: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations An_Abundance_of_Lithium.pdf.
Report 2010–5070–O.
Evans, R.K., 2012, An overabundance of lithium?: Lithium
Bradley, D.C., Munk, LeeAnn, Jochens, Hillary, Hynek, Scott, Supply & Markets Conference, 4th, Buenos Aires, Argen-
and Labay, Keith, 2013, A preliminary deposit model tina, January 23–25, 2012, Presentation, unpaginated.
for lithium brines: U.S. Geological Survey Open-
File Report 2013–1006, 6 p. [Also available at Evans, R.K., 2014, Lithium, chap. 10 of Gunn, Gus, ed.,
http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/ofr20131006.] Critical metals handbook: Hoboken, N.J., Wiley, p. 230 –260.
Brobst, D.A., and Pratt, W.P., eds., 1973, United States
Faure, Gunter, 1998, Principles and applications of geo­
mineral resources: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
chemistry—A comprehensive textbook for geology
Paper 820, 722 p. [Also available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/
students: Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall, 600 p.
publication/pp820.]

Cannon, H.L., Harms, T.F., and Hamilton, J.C., 1975, Fischer, Ernö, and Molnár, László, 1997, Growth and repro-
Lithium in unconsolidated sediments and plants of the duction of Eisenia fetida (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae) in
Basin and Range Province, southern California and Nevada: semi-natural soil containing various metal chlorides: Soil
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 918, 23 p. [Also Biology and Biochemistry, v. 29, nos. 3– 4, p. 667– 670.
available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/pp918.] [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0038-
0717(96)00193-9.]
Černý, P, 1992, Geochemical and petrogenetic features of
mineralization in rare-element granitic pegmatites in the Freeman, M.P., and Freeman, S.A., 2006, Lithium—Clinical
light of current research: Applied Geochemistry, v. 7, no. 5, considerations in internal medicine: The American Journal
p. 393–416. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ of Medicine, v. 119, no. 6, p. 478– 481. [Also available at
0883-2927(92)90002-K.] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.11.003.]
 References Cited  K19

Galeschuk, C.R., and Vanstone, P.J., 2005, Exploration for Kszos, L.A., and Stewart, A.J., 2003, Review of lithium in
buried rare element pegmatites in the Bernic Lake region of the aquatic environment—Distribution in the United States,
southeastern Manitoba, in Linnen, R.L., and Samson, I.M., toxicity and case example of groundwater contamination:
eds., Rare-element geochemistry and mineral deposits: St. Ecotoxicology, v. 12, no. 5, p. 439–447. [Also available
Johns, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, Geological at http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1026112507664.]
Association of Canada, Short Course Notes, v. 17, p. 159–173.
Kunasz, I.A., 2006, Lithium resources, in Kogel, J.E.,
Garrett, D.E., 2004, Handbook of lithium and natural calcium Trivedi, N.C., Barker, J.M., and Krukowski, S.T., eds.,
chloride (1st ed.): Boston, Mass., Elsevier, 476 p. Industrial minerals and rocks—Commodities, markets,
and uses (7th ed.): Littleton, Colo., Society for Mining,
Gruber, P.W., Medina, P.A., Keoleian, G.A., Kesler, S.E., Metallurgy and Exploration, p. 599–614.
Everson, M.P., and Wallington, T.J., 2011, Global lithium
availability—A constraint for electric vehicles?: Journal of Lenntech, 2007, Lithium and water—Reaction mechanisms,
Industrial Ecology, v. 15, no. 5, p. 760 –775. [Also available environmental impact and health effects: Delft, South Hol-
at http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00359.x.] land, Netherlands, Lenntech, accessed September 16, 2013,
at http://www.lenntech.com/elements-and-water/lithium-
Heier, K.S., and Billings, G.K., 1978, Lithium, in Wedepohl, K.H., and-water.htm.
ed., Handbook of geochemistry, v. 2, pt. 1: Berlin, West
Germany, Springer-Verlag, p. 3–A–1 to 3–A–7. Léonard, A.J., Hantson, P.E., and Gerber, G.B., 1995,
Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of lithium
Helvaci, Cahit, Mordogon, Hasan, Çolak, Mümtaz, and compounds: Mutation Research/Reviews in Genetic
Gündogan, Ibrahim, 2004, Presence and distribution Toxicology, v. 339, no. 3, p. 131–137. [Also available
of lithium in borate deposits and some recent lake at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1110(95)90007-1.]
waters of west-central Turkey: International Geology
Review, v. 46, no. 2, p. 177–190. [Also available at Lombardi, O.W., 1963, Observations on the distribution of
http://dx.doi.org/10.2747/0020-6814.46.2.177.] chemical elements in the terrestrial saline deposits of
Saline Valley, California: China Lake, Calif., U.S. Naval
Jaskula, B.W., 2013, Lithium: U.S. Geological Survey Ordnance Test Station, 42 p.
Mineral Commodity Summaries 2013, p. 94–95, accessed
May 9, 2014, at https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/ London, David, 2008, Pegmatites: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada,
commodity/lithium/mcs-2013-lithi.pdf. Mineralogical Association of Canada, Canadian Mineralo-
gist Special Publication, v. 10, 347 p., CD–ROM included.
Kesler, S.E., Gruber, P.W., Medina, P.A., Keoleian, G.A.,
Everson, M.P., and Wallington, T.J., 2012, Global lithium McCauley, A., and Bradley, D., 2013, The secular distribution
resources—Relative importance of pegmatite, brine and of granitic pegmatites and rare-metal pegmatites [abs.], in
other deposits: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 48, October, PEG2013—The 6th International Symposium on Granitic
p. 55– 69. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ Pegmatites, Attitash, N.H., 2013, Contributions: New
j.oregeorev.2012.05.006.] Orleans, La., Rubellite Press, p. 92–93. [Also available at
http://pegmatology.uno.edu/news_files/PEG2013_Abstract_
Kesler, T.L., 1942, The tin-spodumene belt of the Carolinas, a Volume.pdf.]
preliminary report: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 936–J,
p. 245–269, 5 plates. [Also available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/ McCauley, Andrew, and Bradley, D.C., 2014, The global
publication/b936J.] age distribution of granitic pegmatites: The Canadian
Mineralogist, v. 52, no. 2, p. 183 –190. [Also available
Kesler, T.L., 1955, The Kings Mountain area, in Russell, R.J., at http://dx.doi.org/10.3749/canmin.52.2.183.]
ed., Guides to southeastern geology: New York, N.Y.,
Geological Society of America, p. 374–387, sketch maps. McLennan, S.M., 2001, Relationships between the trace
element composition of sedimentary rocks and upper
Kesler, T.L., 1961, Exploration of the Kings Mountain continental crust: Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems,
pegmatites: Mining Engineering, v. 13, no. 9, September, v. 2, no. 4, 24 p. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/
p. 1063–1068. 10.1029/2000GC000109.]

Ketter, T.A., 2010, Diagnostic features, prevalence, and impact Merriman, David, 2014, More motion, less e-motion—Is
of bipolar disorder [abs.]: The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 2014 the year lithium regains its traction?: Sixth annual
v. 71, no. 6, p. e14. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/ Lithium Supply & Markets Conference, Montreal, Quebec,
JCP.8125tx11c.] Canada, May 20–22 2014, Presentation.
K20   Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Lithium

Mitchell, P.B., and Hadzi-Pavlovic, Dusan, 2000, Lithium Notter, D.A., Gauch, Marcel, Widmer, Rolf, Wäger, Patrick,
treatment for bipolar disorder: Bulletin of the World Health Stamp, Anna, Zah, Rainer, and Althaus, H.-J., 2010,
Organization, v. 78, no. 4, p. 515–517. Contribution of Li-ion batteries to the environmental
impact of electric vehicles: Environmental Science and
Mitchell, R.L., 1964, Trace elements in soils, chap. 8 of Technology, v. 44, no. 17, p. 6550 –6556. [Also available
Bear, F.E., ed., Chemistry of the soil (2d ed.): New York, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es903729a.]
N.Y., Reinhold, p. 320–368.
Obradović, Jelena, Djurdjević-Colson, Jelena, and Vasić,
Mohr, Steve, Mudd, Gavin, and Giurco, Damien, 2010, Nebojša, 1997, Phytogenic lacustrine sedimentation—
Lithium resources and production—A critical global Oil shales in Neogene from Serbia, Yugoslavia: Journal
assessment: Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, CSIRO of Paleolimnology, v. 18, no. 4, p. 351–364. [Also available
Minerals Down Under Flagship, Cluster report 1.4, October, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007907109399.]
99 p. [Also available at https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/
files/Mohretal2010lithiumresourcesandproduction.pdf.] Partington, G.A., McNaughton, N.J., and Williams, I.S., 1995,
A review of the geology, mineralization, and geochronology
Mouawad, Jad, and Drew, Christopher, 2013, Praised but of the Greenbushes pegmatite, Western Australia:
fire prone, battery fails test in 787: The New York Times, Economic Geology, v. 90, p. 616 – 635. [Also available
January 17, p. A1, accessed September 16, 2013, at at http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.90.3.616.]
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/18/business/inside-
the-787-an-unsettling-risk-for-boeing.html. Price, J.G., Lechler, P.J., Lear, M.B., and Giles, T.F., 2000,
Possible volcanic source of lithium in brines in Clayton
Munk, L.A., Hynek, S.A., Bradley, D.C., Boutt, D.F., Labay, K., Valley, Nevada, in Cluer, J.K., Price, J.G., Struhsacker, E.M.,
and Jochens, H., 2016, Lithium brines—A global perspective: Hardyman, R.F., and Morris, C.L., eds., Geology and ore
Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 18, p. 339–365. deposits 2000—The Great Basin and beyond—Symposium
proceedings: Reno, Nev., Geological Society of Nevada,
National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 2001, Spent p. 241–248.
consumer lithium batteries and the environment: National
Electrical Manufacturers Association, March, 1 p., accessed Ribas, Bartholomé, 1991, Lithium, chap. 17 of  Merian, Ernest,
September 16, 2013, at http://www.nema.org/Policy/ and Clarkson, T.W., eds., Metals and their compounds in
Environmental-Stewardship/Documents/SpentConsumer_ the environment— Occurrence, analysis, and biological
Lithium_Batteries_and_the_Environment.pdf. rele­vance: New York, N.Y., VCH Publishers, v. 2,
p. 1015–1023.
National Research Council, 2008, Minerals, critical minerals,
Rickwood, P.C., 1981, The largest crystals: American
and the U.S. economy: Washington, D.C., National Acad-
Mineralogist, v. 66, nos. 9–10, p. 885–907.
emies Press, 245 p. [Also available at http://www.nap.edu/
catalog/12034/minerals-critical-minerals-and-the-us-economy.] Rytuba, J.J., and Glanzman, R.K., 1979, Relation of mercury,
uranium, and lithium to the McDermitt caldera complex,
Natural Earth, 2014, Small scale data: Natural Earth map Nevada-Oregon: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology,
dataset, scale 1:110,000,000, accessed June 23, 2014, Papers on Mineral Deposits of Western North America,
at http://www.naturalearthdata.com. Report 33, p. 109 –117. [Also available at
Naumov, A.V., and Naumova, M.A., 2010, Modern state http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70043142.]
of the world lithium market: Russian Journal of Non- Schaller, W.T., 1916, Mineralogic notes, series 3:
Ferrous Metals, v. 51, no. 4, p. 324–330. [Also available U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 610, 164 p., 5 pls. [Also
at http://dx.doi.org/10.3103/S1067821210040127.] available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/b610.]
Norton, J.J., 1965, Lithium-bearing bentonite deposit, Yavapai Schrauzer, G.N., 2002, Lithium—Occurrence, dietary intakes,
County, Arizona, chap. D of  Geological Survey Research nutritional essentiality: Journal of the American College
1965: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 525–D, of Nutrition, v. 21, no. 1, p. 14–21. [Also available at
p. D163–D166, accessed May 1, 2014, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2002.10719188.]
pp/0525-D/report.pdf.
Schwartz, M.O., 1992, Geochemical criteria for
Norton, J.J., 1973, Lithium, cesium, and rubidium—The distinguishing magmatic and metasomatic albite-
rare alkali metals, in Brobst, D.A., and Pratt, W.P., eds., enrichment in granitoids—Examples from the Ta-Li granite
United States mineral resources: U.S. Geological Survey Yichun (China) and the Sn-W deposit, Tikus (Indonesia):
Professional Paper 820, p. 365–378. [Also available at Mineralium Deposita, v. 27, no. 2, p. 101–108. [Also
http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/pp820.] available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00197092.]
 References Cited  K21

Selway, J.B., Breaks, F.W., and Tindle, A.G., 2005, A Trueman, D.L., and Černý, Petr, 1982, Exploration for rare-
review of rare-element (Li-Cs-Ta) pegmatite exploration element granitic pegmatites, in Cerný, P., ed., Granitic
techniques for the Superior Province, Canada, and large pegmatites in science and industry: Winnipeg, Manitoba,
worldwide tantalum deposits: Exploration and Mining Canada, Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short
Geology, v. 14, nos. 1– 4, p. 1–30. [Also available at Course Handbook, no. 8, p. 463–493.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsemg.14.1-4.1.]
U.S. Department of Energy, 2010, Critical materials strategy:
Shacklette, H.T., Boerngen, J.G., Cahill, J.P., and Rahill, R.L., Washington D.C., U.S. Department of Energy, 166 p. [Also
1973, Lithium in surficial materials of the conterminous available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/piprod/
United States and partial data on cadmium: U.S. Geological documents/cms_dec_17_full_web.pdf.]
Survey Circular 673, 8 p. [Also available at http://pubs.
er.usgs.gov/publication/cir673.] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transpor­
tation and Air Quality, 2011, Greenhouse gas emissions
Sievers, M.L., and Canon, H.L., 1973, Disease patterns of from a typical passenger vehicle: Washington, D.C.,
Pima Indians of the Gila River Indian Reservation of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Trans-
Arizona in relation to the geo-chemical environment [abs.]: portation and Air Quality, EPA–420–F–11–041, 5 p.
Univ. of Missouri Symposium on Trace Elements in [Also available at http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/
Environmental Health, v. 7, p. 57–61. P100CZFN.PDF?Dockey=P100CZFN.PDF.]
Sigma-Aldrich, 2014, Lithium oxide (ver. 4.4): Sigma-Aldrich U.S. Geological Survey, 1996, Global 30 arc-second elevation
Material Safety Data Sheet, product number 374725, (GTOPO30): Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey data-
revision date June 28, 2014, accessed July 10, 2014, set (digital elevation model), accessed June 23, 2014, at
at http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/safety-center.html. https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/GTOPO30.
Simbol, Inc., 2013, Who we are: Pleasanton, Calif., Simbol, Inc.,
Vine, J.D., ed., 1976, Lithium resources and requirements
accessed May 9, 2014, at http://www.simbolmaterials.com/
by the year 2000: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
who_we_are.htm.
Paper 1005, 162 p.
Smith, R.E., Perdrix, J.L., and Davis, J.M., 1987, Dispersion
Vine, J.D., 1980, Where on earth is all the lithium? with a
into pisolitic laterite from the Greenbushes mineralized
section on Uranium isotope studies, Fish Lake Valley,
Sn-Ta pegmatite system, Western Australia: Journal of
Nevada, by J.R. Dooley, Jr.: U.S. Geological Survey
Geochemical Exploration, v. 28, nos. 1–3, p. 251–265.
Open-File Report 80–1234, 107 p. [Also available at
[Also available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0375-
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1980/1234/report.pdf.]
6742(87)90051-3.]

Stanley, C.J., Jones, G. C., Rumsey, M.S., Blake, Christopher, Voice, P.R., Kowalewski, M., and Eriksson, K.A., 2011,
Roberts, A.C., Stirling, J.A.R., Carpenter, G.J.C., Quantifying the timing and rate of crustal evolution—
Whitfield, P.S., Grice, J.D., and Lepage, Yvon, 2007, Global compilation of radiometrically dated detrital zircon
Jadarite, LiNaSiB3O7(OH), a new mineral species from the grains: Journal of Geology, v. 119, no. 2, p. 109–126.
Jadar basin, Serbia: European Journal of Mineralogy, v. 19,
Western Lithium Corp., 2015, [Untitled company
no. 4, p. 575–580. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/
report]: accessed September 22, 2015, at
10.1127/0935-1221/2007/0019-1741.]
http://www.westernlithium.com/wp-content/
Stillings, L.L., and Morissette, C.L., 2012, Lithium clays uploads/2015/01/WLCMERGESEPT2015e.pdf.
in sediments from closed-basin, evaporative lakes in the
Southwestern United States: Abstracts with Programs— Wilkerson, G., Vredenburgh, L., Serenko, T.J., and Eyde, T.H.,
Geological Society of America, v. 44, no. 7, p. 210. 2001, The Franklin Wells hectorite deposit, Inyo County,
California, in Reynolds, R.E., ed., The changing face of
Strobusch, A.D., and Jefferson, J.W., 1980, The checkered the east Mojave Desert and Abstracts from the 2001 Desert
history of lithium in medicine: Pharmacy in History, Symposium: Fullerton, Calif., Desert Studies Consortium,
v. 22, no. 2, p. 72–76. California State University, p. 61–64.

Sun, S.-S., and McDonough, W.F., 1989, Chemical and Yaksic, Andrés, and Tilton, J.E., 2009, Using the cumulative
isotopic systematics of oceanic basalts—Implications for availability curve to assess the threat of mineral depletion—
mantle composition and processes: Geological Society The case of lithium: Resources Policy, v. 34, no. 4,
Special Publications, v. 42, p. 313–345. [Also available p. 185–194. [Also available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
at http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1989.042.01.19.] j.resourpol.2009.05.002.]
For more information concerning this report,
please contact:
Mineral Resources Program Coordinator
U.S. Geological Survey
913 National Center
Reston, VA 20192
Telephone: 703– 648– 6100
Fax: 703– 648– 6057
Email: minerals@usgs.gov
Home page: https://minerals.usgs.gov

Prepared by the USGS Science Publishing Network

Reston Publishing Service Center
   Edited by J.C. Ishee and Stokely J. Klasovsky
   Illustrations Caryl J. Wipperfurth
   Layout by Caryl J. Wipperfurth and Cathy Y. Knutson
   Posting by Angela E. Hall
Bradley and others—Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Lithium—Professional Paper 1802–K

https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802K
ISSN 2330-7102 (online)