Design of Seaplanes
Design of Seaplanes
Design of Seaplanes
Figure C3-1: A Lake LA-250 Renegade, shown here during climb after T-O, is a popular option for amphibious
aircraft. The large deflected flap on the horizontal tail is a hydraulically actuated trim tab used for slow speed
operations only. It trims out the thrust effect of the highly mounted piston-propeller, improving its handling.
(Photo by Phil Rademacher)
Additional operational issues include the maintenance of a rigorous corrosion protection necessary to ensure the
longevity of the airframe and susceptibility to dings and damage to the hull as it slams into waves or floating
debris, or when sliding up on a sandy beach, or banging against a dock. This requires a sturdy hull and for that
reason, seaplanes are heavier than conventional aircraft. Moreover, as discussed later, the hull must also feature
as specific shape for operations on water. Unfortunately, this shape is not aerodynamically efficient. Therefore,
seaplanes also generate more drag and, thus, have both lower rate-of-climb and cruising speed than conventional
aircraft of same power.
The term seaplane is used for an airplane designed to operate from water. Generally, there are three kinds of
seaplanes; floatplanes, flying boats, and amphibians. A floatplane is effectively a landplane that has had its landing
gear removed and replaced with pontoons that are partially submerged floats (see Figure C3-2). Such floats place
the fuselage well above the water surface. A flying boat is a type of seaplane in which the occupants and freight is
carried inside a fuselage specifically designed to function as a hull for operation on the water. For this reason they
are also called hull seaplanes. An amphibian is an aircraft that features a hull-type fuselage for water operations
and retractable landing gear to allow landings to be made on land (see Figure C3-3). Generally, floatplanes are
2
thought to be easier to dock than hull-type seaplanes , as their wings sit higher and they don’t have sponsons that
tend to interfere with docking operations.
While the methods presented in this appendix mostly pertain to the design of classical seaplanes, the reader
should be aware of other methodologies to T-O and land. A good example of a different approach is the LISA
Akoya, a twin-seat amphibious LSA, which uses hydrofoils rather than conventional hull design. This method vastly
reduces the drag of the configuration, allowing it to climb and cruise faster than otherwise possible.
A number of GA and homebuilt seaplanes that the aspiring designer should be aware of and inspect for good and
bad ideas are presented in Table C3-2.
The first result of interest is the apparent weight of objects submerged in a liquid. Mathematically, this can be
written as follows:
The second result of interest is the buoyancy force, Fbuoy also denoted by , which can be estimated from:
Fbuoy W g V (C3-2)
This leads to the third result of interest; floating tendency as shown below:
Fnet mg W gV (C3-3)
If Fnet >0 the object will sink (weight greater than buoyancy). If Fnet <0 the object will float (weight less than
buoyancy). The expression can be used to estimate volume for any watercraft (including seaplanes), as well as
balloons and airships. When the volume is filled with a different type of gas, such as in the case of Helium balloons
or airships, the expression must include the effect of the gas, i.e.:
Note that the density of the fluid used to displace the heavier fluid will depend on its pressure inside the volume.
The greater the pressure, the greater is the density. This can be estimated using the Ideal Gas Law, repeated here
for convenience:
p
(C3-5)
RT
Where p is the pressure of the corresponding gas, R is the specific gas constant, which is 1716 ft∙lb f/(slug∙°R) or
287.058 J/(kg∙K) for air, and T is the temperature of the gas.
The fourth result of interest is hydrostatic weighing, which allows the density of an object or a liquid to be
determined by measuring its weight in and out of the liquid. This can be done without a prior knowledge of its
volume. This is achieved using the following expression.
Where; Win air and Win liquid = Weight of object measured in air and in liquid
object = Mass density of the object.
liquid = Mass density of the liquid.
Hull Speed
All bodies that move in water generate substantially greater hydrodynamic drag than they do in less viscous fluids
such as air. In accordance with the Archimedes Principle, a body, entirely or partially, immersed in a fluid
experiences a force of buoyancy equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. In order to move, this fluid must be
forced out of the way. This creates water waves that emanate from its bow and stern and are, sensibly, called bow
and stern waves.
As an example, and as is revealed by observing actual boats, the length of these waves is initially only a fraction of
the length of the hull. However, with an increased speed, they grow in length. At a specific speed, called the hull
3
speed, the wavelength equals the length of the hull . This is accompanied by a substantial increase in the
hydrodynamic drag because the hull pitches up as it attempts to ride on top of the bow wave. If not correctly
shaped, this inflicts a serious hurdle for further acceleration of the hull, often making the hull speed the maximum
speed that can achieved (see a schematic of the condition in Figure C3-4).
Speedboats circumvent the hull speed problem by shaping the hull with a flat plane that allows hydrodynamic lift
to be generated. This lift is known as hydroplaning and partially lifts the boat out of the water, reducing the
magnitude of the wave system and, thus, the drag. This allows speedboats to accelerate to speeds well above their
hull speed. Similar hull geometry is designed into a seaplane or the floats of a float plane to allow it to accelerate
to liftoff speed. A formula to calculate the hull speed of a vessel is presented below in interest of completeness,
but its derivation is beyond the scope of this text.
Where Khull 1.3 to 1.5 knots/ft or 4.5 to 5.0 km/(h∙ft ) with the hull water length in ft or m, respectively. The hull
½ ½
of a seaplane is shaped not unlike that of a speedboat to generate a large hydrodynamic lift even as the vehicle
moves relatively slowly in water. The lift is created as the hull deflects water downward. Once a certain speed is
Figure C3-4: A schematic showing a hull moving in water with the bow and stern waves coinciding, constituting
hull speed.
The primary difference between the hull of the seaplane and a speedboat is that the seaplane features a
discontinuity in the bottom hull, not present in speedboats. This discontinuity is called a step (see Figure C3-11)
and does two things: (1) Once the aircraft begins to hydroplane, the surface area in contact with the water reduces
substantially, further reducing the hydrodynamic drag, and (2) once near liftoff speed it allows the airplane to
rotate. Pilots call it to “get onto the step” when the aircraft begins to hydroplane. Selected details from the lower
surface of a seaplane is shown in Figure C3-11 and discussed below.
Hydrostatic Stability
Hydrostatic stability refers to the tendency of a floating vessel to return to its at-rest attitude, once forcibly tilted
one way or the other. Any such vessel must have hydrostatic stability about two axes; the longitudinal and
transverse (see Figure C3-5). The former refers to the axis along its length (from stern to bow) and the latter to an
axis normal to the former, as shown in the figure. Both are normal to a vertical axis that goes through the Center of
Gravity (CG) of the vessel. The CG has already been discussed at length and it is assumed here that the reader is
familiar with methods to determine it.
Center of Buoyancy
Before proceeding further, a couple of concepts must
be defined. The Center of Buoyancy (CB) is the centroid
of the hydrostatic pressure force acting on the
submerged part of a vessel. Determining the location
of the CB is a fundamental problem that must be
solved before a vessel can be declared stable or
unstable. The CB of any planar cross-section can be
found using the expression below, where the terms are
defined in Figure C3-6. The location of the Center of
Buoyancy is found from:
Figure C3-5: A basic floating vessel configuration.
EXAMPLE C3-1:
Find the CB of the cross-sectional area in Figure C3-9.
SOLUTION:
We can see that we only need to apply Equation (C3-8) to one half
of the geometry, thanks to its symmetry. We can also see that
when z = 0, then y = 5 and when z = -10, then y = 0. This means
that the equation for the side of the area is simply y = (z/2 + 5).
Inserting these into Equation (C3-8) yields:
zCB
10
10
A derivation of Equation (C3-10) is provided in Reference 4. Note that the relation holds as long as has a
sufficiently small value. The second area moment, Izz, is taken about the z-axis and only includes the part of the
body that is submerged.
The intersection of a vertical line drawn through the CB and the rotated line that goes through the CG is the
metacenter (again, see Figure C3-8). If the metacenter is above the CG, its value is positive. This means the vessel
has a tendency to right itself and return to its at-rest attitude. Conversely, a negative metacenter implies the vessel
is unstable and will rotate until it finds another stable orientation. For the operators of unstable ships and
seaplanes, this pretty much means upside down; a highly undesirable orientation. Figure C3-8 should help the
reader visualize that once a certain tilt angle is achieved, the arm denoted by y may begin to shorten again. This
means that once a certain tilt angle is achieved, the metacenter will end up below the CG; the vessel has become
unstable.
zz hCB hMC
I zz I
Shift distance of CB: y W (C3-11)
W V
y I I
Metacentric height: hMC hCB zz hCB W zz hCB (C3-12)
V W
Values for the constant K are given in Table C3-3. The metacentric height for a flying boat with wingtip floats, such
as the 35000 lbf Consolidated PBY-5 Catalina should be around 32.7 ft. The value for a 2690 lb f Lake LA-4-200
Buccaneer should be around 13.9 ft.
6
Diehl is also the author of NACA TN-183 , in which a number of results of interest to the designer of seaplanes are
presented. The reference suggests that for single or twin float seaplanes, the transverse and longitudinal
metacentric heights should be designed to match the following values:
0.2679 W02 3
Recommended spacing for twin floats: s (C3-16)
LB
The units are in ft and the value for K from Table C3-3 is 1.4. Similarly, a recommended float length (L) which
results in satisfactory static stability can be estimated using Equation (C3-13) with Equation (C3-15), given the
beam (B). The resulting expression is shown below:
13
K
Recommended floats length: L 0.7809W 0
49
nB (C3-17)
SOLUTION:
(a) The maximum buoyancy force is the
weight of the water the vessel can displace
– in other words; the density of water
3
(62.5 lbf/ft ) times the volume, denoted by
V , of the vessel. This is calculated as
follows: Figure C3-9: A hypothetical vessel used for Example C3-2.
(b) By inspection, the transverse CB is at the plane of symmetry at the coordinates yCB , zCB 1,0.5 ft. The x-
coordinate of the longitudinal CB, on the other hand, has the same coordinates as the centroid of the combined
rectangular and triangular regions in the x-y plane. Taking advantage of the simplicity of the geometry, this can be
calculated as follows (where the subscript 1 refers to the rectangular area and 2 to the triangular one). Note that
the centroid of the rectangle is located at xC1 = 2 ft and the triangular one at xC2 = 4+3/3 = 5 ft:
xCB
xC1 A1 xC2 A2
2 2 4 5 12 2 3 31 2.82 ft
A1 A2 83 11
Therefore, when fully submerged, the CB is located at: xCB , yCB , zCB 2.82,1,0.5 ft
(c) Due to the simplicity of the geometry, it is easy to
see that the draft is W/Fmax = 300/687.5 = 0.436 ft (i.e.
the bottom 0.436 ft will be submerged). Note that this
means that the CB has a different location in space
(here it is about ½ of 0.436 ft).
The distance between the CG and the CB, hCB, can be obtained by inspection and is given by:
0.436
hCB 0.75 0.532 ft
2
Therefore, the metacentric height of the transverse metacenter can be found as follows, using Equation (C3-12):
hCB 62.5
I zz 0.2907
hMC 0.532 0.471 ft
W 300
The vessel is transversely unstable– the CG is too high above the CB.
(e) Finally, determine the longitudinal metacenter. First, calculate the second area moment again, this time using
the length of the vessel (along the x-axis) as the value of h. Again, the cross-section in the plane-of-symmetry is
rectangular, so Izz is easily determined as it was in part (d):
bh3 0.436 73
I zz 12.46 ft 4
12 12
The metacentric height of the longitudinal metacenter is determined as shown below, again using Equation (C3-
12):
hCB 62.5
I zz 12.46
hMC 0.532 2.064 ft
W 300
As one would expect, the longitudinal metacenter is well above the CG, so the vessel is longitudinally stable.
The term f varies depending on surface quality. For surfaces ranging from 2 to 20 ft in length, it can be taken to be
0.012 to 0.010 for smooth surfaces, 0.0231 to 0.0137 for surface quality resembling fine grit sandpaper, 0.0257 to
0.0152 for medium grit sandpaper, and 0.0314 to 0.168 for coarse type sandpaper. It is acceptable to interpolate
linearly for most applications. The term n is usually close to 2, so assuming n = 2 is accurate enough for most
applications. This way, the coefficient of frictional resistance for a smooth 10 ft long surface can be estimated
using a parametric representation as shown below:
Therefore, a 10 ft long surface of 20 ft² wetted area moving at 30 knots will generate 0.011 x 20 x 30² = 198 lb f of
resistance.
Consider Figure C3-11, which shows a number of features that are present on seaplane hulls. The hull always
features a keel to help guide the vehicle along a straight line by resisting motion to the sides. As stated earlier, a
step is the discontinuity in the bottom of the hull that reduces hydrodynamic drag and allows the airplane to
rotate. It does so by introducing a layer of air between the wake and the rearstep. Sometimes the keel features a
short but structurally robust plate, called a skeg, which extends a few inches beyond the step. Its purpose is to
prevent the plane from tipping back onto the tail when sitting on floats on land. It is more commonly present on
floatplanes. A chine refers to the seam where the side of the hull joins the bottom. Its purpose is to direct the
water spray away from the hull and contribute to hydrodynamic lift. Between the keel and chine are structural
members called sister keelson. Their purpose is to add strength to the hull and provide additional guidance
tendency similar to that provided by the keel. Sister keelsons can often be found on floats, where they allow the
airplane to sit on the floats on land. The spray rails are mounted along the chines to reduce the amount of water
spray that can hit the propeller. Water spray can be very destructive to a propeller – in particular at high RPMs.
Figure C3-12 shows a floatplane and identifies typical components of the floats. The forward and aft spreader bars
ensure the floats do not separate during water operations. They tend to react the separation force in tension. The
system of struts transfer water loads into the fuselage hard points. The floats must feature retractable water
rudders to allow the pilot to control the airplane in water. They must be retractable, because they get in the way of
advanced operation on water, such as when approaching a dock by reversing in strong wind and other docking
8
operations .
Landing a seaplane can be tricky and the technique depends on the condition of the surface of the water.
Generally, pilots have to contend with three types of water conditions; a normal rippled water, glassy or mirror-like
water, and rough water. Each calls for dissimilar landing technique, again, emphasizing the need for specialized
pilot training. For instance, and contrary to intuition, the glassy landing is challenging because the pilot cannot use
wave height of the water for visual clues as to how high above water the airplane is. For such reasons, it is prudent
to provide good visibility in a new seaplane design.
The operation of seaplanes on water, in particular saltwater, requires a rigorous adherence to corrosion
protection. This is necessary for all aluminum seaplanes, as saltwater will corrode through the material in a short
amount of time if left unprotected. Aluminum should be covered using materials such as polychromate primer or
zinc chromate. Regular inspections should be mandated, particularly in hard to see areas that are subject to
standing water. Also, the hull and sponsons should feature holes with removable plugs to allow water that may
collect during normal water operation to leak out.
Figure C3-12: A schematic showing important details on the lower surface of a seaplane.
Per Reference 13, refinement in the hull design, such as flared hull bottoms and increased fore- and afterbody
deadrise warping, improves hydrodynamic characteristics of the hull, even though the gains may not warrant the
added complexity and cost of manufacturing. This mostly pertains to aluminum aircraft – composite hulls offer a
promising potential, as compound surfaces are far easier to manufacture using that technology. Composite
materials also have an outstanding service history in and around water, as can be seen by the sheer number of
speedboats and jet-skis whose hulls are composite laminates. Reference 13 concludes that narrow hulls offer less
resistance (a fact well known to athletic rowers), however, their draft is greater and this increases water spray.
Figure C3-15: Two common shapes of hull bottoms; an unflared and flared ones.
Skipping is instability that may occur when landing at excessive speed with the nose pointed too high or when
crossing the wake of a boat1. The sensation is likened to an up and down bounce. A hull, whose step is shallow
and, thus, leads to poor ventilation behind it, is more prone to skipping. Pattering is a short period pitch oscillation.
Reference 14 presents methods to estimate the response of ships that extend to seaplanes as well.
Sternpost Angle
The sternpost angle typically ranges from about 7°-9°. This will allow the seaplane to rotate to a higher AOA once
on the step without the rearstep keel entering the water. If the rearstep enters the water, the hydrodynamic drag
will increase and this will reduce acceleration and lengthen the T-O run.
Forebody Flat
The length of the forebody float should be approximately 1.5 x Beam. This is important to reduce porpoising
tendency.
Figure C3-16: A schematic showing important details that must be considered when designing a seaplane.
Deadrise Angle
Deadrise angle typically ranges from 15° to 40°. The greater this angle, the less is the water impact load (hull load)
and this directly affects the weight of the airframe. It will also make water landings feel smoother. However, the
larger angle results in a hull that sits deeper in the water. This way, if the intention is to allow the aircraft to be
beached, the larger deadrise angle could make this impossible – the airplane will run aground far from dry land
The hull load factor is usually estimated using 14 CFR 23.572. Figure C3-17 shows hull load factors estimated for an
LSA style amphibious aircraft. Per 14 CFR Part 1.1, such an aircraft may have a gross weight as high as 1430 lb f and
th
have a stalling speed no higher than 45 KCAS without the use of high lift devices. (An important note: on July 29 ,
2013, the FAA granted the Icon A5 LSA an exemption from these weight limits, permitting a gross weight of 1680
lbf). The stall speed limit is reflected by the dashed vertical line. The dotted horizontal line represents the minimum
hull load factor of 2.33, i.e. if the calculated load factor is less than that value, it must be replaced with 2.33.
Reference 13 states that warping the deadrise of the afterbody is an effective means to reduce the height of the
step by about 50% (page 20).
Figure C3-17: Hull load factors for a range of deadrise angles, calculated for an LSA aircraft whose gross weight is
1430 lbf.
Aerodynamic Drag
Seaplanes, whether amphibious or floatplanes are generally very draggy. This is evident in Table 15-18. The shape
of the hull, or the floats and their associated support structure, generates a lot of drag. As has already been
discussed, the shape of this geometry is dictated by the hydrodynamic operation of the airplanes and, therefore, it
is practically impossible to reduce its drag. Drag must therefore be minimized by other means, such as using
streamlined cleats (which are used to tie the seaplane) or the use of flush rivets (or composite materials). Struts
should always feature thick symmetrical airfoil, such as generic NACA strut airfoils or standard streamlined strut
sections (see Section 13.5.1, Drag of Streamlined Struts and Landing Gear Pant Fairings).
Fbuoy
Buoyancy force (or load) coefficient: C (C3-20)
W B 3
W B 3
A desirable range of C at gross weight is generally between 1 and 2 (per Reference 11). As the airplane generates
aerodynamic lift during the T-O run, its value will gradually reduce to 0 at lift-off. This means that the resistance
will vary as well, as it is dependent on the displacement of the hull in the water. The resistance is placed into
coefficient form as follows. Its value must be obtained for any given geometry using towing tests in a water tank.
R
Resistance coefficient: CR (C3-21)
W B 3
V
Speed coefficient: CV (C3-22)
gB
Where: B = Beam of the seaplane (its largest submerged width of the hull)
R = Water resistance force
V = Speed with respect to the water
To evaluate hulls of different length-to-beam ratios (L/B), the following coefficients must also be introduced, as
they are typically used in the literature to document the variation of load and resistance:
2
Fbuoy B
Buoyancy force coefficient: C2 C (C3-23)
W L B
2
L
M
CM 2
Moment coefficient:
W L2 B
43 (C3-26)
d
CDR
Draft coefficient:
L B
2 13 (C3-27)
MR
CM R
Rolling moment coefficient:
W L2 B
43 (C3-28)
Where: d = Draft in ft or m
g = Acceleration due to gravity
M = Trimming moment (which affects the trim angle)
MR = Rolling moment, in ft∙lbf or N∙m
The evaluation of the trim angle (see Figure C3-16) is also important because the trimming moment, M, must be
near zero at low speed when the elevator is ineffective. Then, as the airspeed increases, the pilot can adjust the
trim moment using the elevator to change the airplane trim angle for minimum water resistance, R, if not the
minimum of the sum of R and aerodynamic drag.
The length-to-beam ratio, L/B, is typically around 5 to 9, but can be as large as 15 (such as the Martin P6M jet
powered seaplane designed in the 1950s). High L/B, while less draggy in the water, will result in a slender body
that is usually not be suitable for small seaplanes.
Typical shape of water resistance and trim angle variation versus speed coefficient are presented in Figure C3-18
and Figure C3-19. The data is based on actual towing test results for two distinct hulls shapes; conventional and
planing-tail, presented in Reference 12. The investigation of the reference indicates the planing-tail geometry not
only offers superior hydrodynamic characteristics, but aerodynamic as well. The shape of the resistance curves in
Figure C3-18 are of a classical shape, in which water resistance increases until the aircraft gets up on the “step.”
The ratio Fbuoy/R indicates the magnitude of the resistance, for if F buoy = W0, it amounts to about 22% of the weight
of the conventional and 15% of the weight of the planing-tail fuselage. The former represents a formidable
difficulty for conventional flying boats. However, the reference does not attribute the lower resistance of the
planing-tail hull solely to its geometry.
The “hump” or the peak of the curves (especially noticeable for the conventional hull) results from the aircraft
approaching its hull speed. Standard operations of seaplanes dictate that when this happens the pilot will rotate
the airplane sharply to try to help it “get on the step.”
The trim angle indicates the orientation of the seaplane in the water during the T-O run. This characteristic is of
great importance to the T-O analysis, as it directly affects the AOA. The AOA is determined by adding the trim
angle to the AOI of the wing with respect to the tangent to the keel (to which the trim angle refers). Figure C3-19
shows how the trim angle varies with the speed coefficient for the two hull styles. The planing-tail hull merely
Figure C3-18: Water resistance versus speed coefficient for two hull styles; a conventional and planing-tail shows
the latter generates substantially less resistance and has smaller hump than the former. (Reproduced from
Reference 12)
The trim angle curve for the planing-tail hull can be approximated using the following expression. Note that it
cannot be used for the conventional hull:
trim 1
2 1 1 tanh AC B (C3-29)
V
2
A reliable T-O analysis for seaplanes calls for its physics to be simulated and integrated over the duration of the T-
O, similar to what is done for landplanes. However, this calls for the resistance and trim angle to be simulated in a
manner similar to what is implemented below in Example C3-3.
DERIVATION:
We proceed similar to the derivation of Equation (15-
106). Consider the curve of Figure C3-20. Then, we
observe that the argument of the hyperbolic tangent
can be determined by solving for it, as shown below:
2 trim 1
ACV B tanh 1 1
2 1
ACV 1 B tanh 1 1
ACV 2 B tanh1 1
behaves similar to the curve above.
Since the inverse arguments lead to infinite results, we have to reduce them to values that will allow the constants
A and B to be evaluated with reasonable accuracy. For instance, if we replace the arguments -1 and +1 with -0.99
and +0.99, respectively, we get the following useful result:
EXAMPLE C3-3:
A flying boat of the planing tail configuration is being designed for eight occupants. Estimate the T-O distance,
given the following information:
Note that the modeling for the trim angle and water resistance coefficient is shown in Figure C3-21. The graph
shows that the curve fitting formulation offers a good fit to the original test data. Of course, this is done to allow
simple analysis to be performed in a spreadsheet. The trim angle formulation uses (CV1, 1) = (0.35, 6°) and (CV2, 2)
= (2, 8°) with Equation (C3-29).
Figure C3-21: Trim angle and resistance coefficient modeling for this example
CR CR C C0
Where: C0 = Load coefficient at the T-O weight and rest
Note that this expression is only used here to model the reduction in the water resistance with displacement of the
hull. It is based on the observation that with an increase in wing lift, the draft of the hull will decrease too and so
will the resistance. For real applications, the relationship between draft and resistance must be determined by
experiment.
Assumption 2:
Once the speed coefficient exceeds 7.5, the value of R is zero. There is no guarantee that the airplane is airborne at
this moment, but rather it is hydroplaning. This means that the bottom of the airplane is still in contact with water
and, thus, generates resistance. Account for this hydroplaning friction using the Froude frictional resistance of
Equation (C3-18), assuming that a wetted area of 1’x B (= 5 ft²) and smooth surface, whose frictional coefficient f
amounts to 0.012.
Assumption 3:
As the seaplane begins its T-O run, the engine is already generating some thrust. Pilot technique often dictates that
the thrust is increased slowly rather than quickly – observation shows over 6-10 seconds before the throttle is fully
open. Account for this technique by assuming a 10 second throttle up time, using the follow model:
Then, multiply the thrust by this factor to account for the ramp-up. This model will ensure that initially, 25% of the
maximum thrust is applied and once t > 10 seconds, the full thrust available at the given airspeed is used.
SOLUTION:
Using the appropriate data given above, the thrust function was created using Equation (14-40), where TSTATIC is
calculated using Equation (14-64) and propeller efficiency, p, of 0.82 was assumed at a maximum airspeed of 175
KTAS at 5000 ft.
The resulting analysis is shown in Table C3-4. The columns are calculated as follows, using the row with ID 10 as a
numerical example (note that additional significant digits are shown in row 10 for this reason):
Column Content
1 Contains the elapsed time, here obtained by adding 0.5 sec to the previous value: 4.0 + 0.5 = 4.5 sec.
2 Difference between time steps. t = 4.5 – 4.0 = 0.5. Note that dissimilar time steps are allowed.
3 Water or airspeed (no wind condition) in knots. Calculated by dividing the speed in ft/s by 1.688.
Speed in ft/s, obtained using numerical integration scheme of Equation (17-22).
4
Example: V10 = V9 + a9∙t10 = 15.09 + 4.149 x 0.5 = 17.16 ft/s
Dynamic pressure: q = ½∙∙V².
5
Example: q10 = ½∙0.002378∙(17.16)² = 0.3502 lbf/ft²
Speed coefficient, calculated using Equation (C3-22).
6
Example: CV10 V10 gB 17.16 32.174 5 1.353
(b) Unless the applicant makes a rational analysis of the water loads, §§23.523 through 23.537 apply.
§ 23.523 Design weights and center of gravity positions.
(a) Design weights. The water load requirements must be met at each operating weight up to the design landing
weight except that, for the takeoff condition prescribed in §23.531, the design water takeoff weight (the maximum
weight for water taxi and takeoff run) must be used.
(b) Center of gravity positions. The critical centers of gravity within the limits for which certification is requested
must be considered to reach maximum design loads for each part of the seaplane structure.
(b) In applying the loads resulting from the load factors prescribed in §23.527, the loads may be distributed over
the hull or main float bottom (in order to avoid excessive local shear loads and bending moments at the location of
water load application) using pressures not less than those prescribed in §23.533(c).
(c) For twin float seaplanes, each float must be treated as an equivalent hull on a fictitious seaplane with a weight
equal to one-half the weight of the twin float seaplane.
(d) Except in the takeoff condition of §23.531, the aerodynamic lift on the seaplane during the impact is assumed
to be 2/3 of the weight of the seaplane.
(1) nw = water reaction load factor (that is, the water reaction divided by seaplane weight).
(2) C1 = empirical seaplane operations factor equal to 0.012 (except that this factor may not be less than that
necessary to obtain the minimum value of step load factor of 2.33).
(3) VS0 = seaplane stalling speed in knots with flaps extended in the appropriate landing position and with no
slipstream effect.
(4) β = Angle of dead rise at the longitudinal station at which the load factor is being determined in
accordance with figure 1 of appendix I of this part.
(5) W = seaplane landing weight in pounds.
(6) K1 = empirical hull station weighing factor, in accordance with figure 2 of appendix I of this part.
(7) rx = ratio of distance, measured parallel to hull reference axis, from the center of gravity of the seaplane
to the hull longitudinal station at which the load factor is being computed to the radius of gyration in pitch
of the seaplane, the hull reference axis being a straight line, in the plane of symmetry, tangential to the
keel at the main step.
(c) For a twin float seaplane, because of the effect of flexibility of the attachment of the floats to the seaplane, the
factor K1 may be reduced at the bow and stern to 0.8 of the value shown in figure 2 of appendix I of this part. This
reduction applies only to the design of the carrythrough and seaplane structure.
§ 23.529 Hull and main float landing conditions.
(a) Symmetrical step, bow, and stern landing. For symmetrical step, bow, and stern landings, the limit water
reaction load factors are those computed under §23.527. In addition—
(1) For symmetrical step landings, the resultant water load must be applied at the keel, through the center of
gravity, and must be directed perpendicularly to the keel line;
(2) For symmetrical bow landings, the resultant water load must be applied at the keel, one-fifth of the
longitudinal distance from the bow to the step, and must be directed perpendicularly to the keel line; and
(3) For symmetrical stern landings, the resultant water load must be applied at the keel, at a point 85 percent
of the longitudinal distance from the step to the stern post, and must be directed perpendicularly to the
keel line.
(b) Unsymmetrical landing for hull and single float seaplanes. Unsymmetrical step, bow, and stern landing
conditions must be investigated. In addition—
(1) The loading for each condition consists of an upward component and a side component equal,
respectively, to 0.75 and 0.25 tan β times the resultant load in the corresponding symmetrical landing
condition; and
(2) The point of application and direction of the upward component of the load is the same as that in the
symmetrical condition, and the point of application of the side component is at the same longitudinal
station as the upward component but is directed inward perpendicularly to the plane of symmetry at a
point midway between the keel and chine lines.
(c) Unsymmetrical landing; twin float seaplanes. The unsymmetrical loading consists of an upward load at the step
of each float of 0.75 and a side load of 0.25 tan β at one float times the step landing load reached under §23.527.
The side load is directed inboard, perpendicularly to the plane of symmetry midway between the keel and chine
lines of the float, at the same longitudinal station as the upward load.
(b) A downward inertia load, corresponding to a load factor computed from the following formula, must be
applied:
(b) Local pressures. For the design of the bottom plating and stringers and their attachments to the supporting
structure, the following pressure distributions must be applied:
(1) For an unflared bottom, the pressure at the chine is 0.75 times the pressure at the keel, and the pressures
between the keel and chine vary linearly, in accordance with figure 3 of Appendix I of this part. The
pressure at the keel (psi) is computed as follows:
C2 K 2VS21
PK
tan k
(2) For a flared bottom, the pressure at the beginning of the flare is the same as that for an unflared bottom,
and the pressure between the chine and the beginning of the flare varies linearly, in accordance with
figure 3 of appendix I of this part. The pressure distribution is the same as that prescribed in paragraph
(b)(1) of this section for an unflared bottom except that the pressure at the chine is computed as follows:
C3 K 2VS21
Pch
tan
The area over which these pressures are applied must simulate pressures occurring during high localized
impacts on the hull or float, but need not extend over an area that would induce critical stresses in the
frames or in the overall structure.
(c) Distributed pressures. For the design of the frames, keel, and chine structure, the following pressure
distributions apply:
C4 K 2VS20
P
tan
(2) The unsymmetrical pressure distribution consists of the pressures prescribed in paragraph (c)(1) of this
section on one side of the hull or main float centerline and one-half of that pressure on the other side of
the hull or main float centerline, in accordance with figure 3 of Appendix I of this part.
(3) These pressures are uniform and must be applied simultaneously over the entire hull or main float
bottom. The loads obtained must be carried into the sidewall structure of the hull proper, but need not be
transmitted in a fore and aft direction as shear and bending loads.
C5VS20W 2 3
L
tan 2 3 s 1 ry2
23
(c) Bow loading. The resultant limit load must be applied in the plane of symmetry of the float at a point one-
fourth of the distance from the bow to the step and must be perpendicular to the tangent to the keel line at that
point. The magnitude of the resultant load is that specified in paragraph (b) of this section.
(d) Unsymmetrical step loading. The resultant water load consists of a component equal to 0.75 times the load
specified in paragraph (a) of this section and a side component equal to 0.025 tan β times the load specified in
paragraph (b) of this section. The side load must be applied perpendicularly to the plane of symmetry of the float
C X PV 2 3 KVS 0 CY PV 2 3 KVS 0
2 2
vertical PgV aft side
2 2
3
where— P = mass density of water (slugs/ft )
3
V = volume of float (ft );
CX = coefficient of drag force, equal to 0.133;
CY = coefficient of side force, equal to 0.106;
K = 0.8, except that lower values may be used if it is shown that the floats are incapable of
submerging at a speed of 0.8 VS0 in normal operations;
VS0 = seaplane stalling speed (knots) with landing flaps extended in the appropriate position and
with no slipstream effect; and
2
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec ).
(g) Float bottom pressures. The float bottom pressures must be established under §23.533, except that the value
of K2 in the formulae may be taken as 1.0. The angle of dead rise to be used in determining the float bottom
pressures is set forth in paragraph (b) of this section.
(1) A buoyancy of 80 percent in excess of the buoyancy required by that float to support its portion of the
maximum weight of the seaplane or amphibian in fresh water; and
(2) Enough watertight compartments to provide reasonable assurance that the seaplane or amphibian will
stay afloat without capsizing if any two compartments of any main float are flooded.
(b) Each main float must contain at least four watertight compartments approximately equal in volume.
§ 23.755 Hulls.
(a) The hull of a hull seaplane or amphibian of 1,500 pounds or more maximum weight must have watertight
compartments designed and arranged so that the hull auxiliary floats, and tires (if used), will keep the airplane
afloat without capsizing in fresh water when—
(1) For airplanes of 5,000 pounds or more maximum weight, any two adjacent compartments are flooded;
and
(2) For airplanes of 1,500 pounds up to, but not including, 5,000 pounds maximum weight, any single
compartment is flooded.
(b) Watertight doors in bulkheads may be used for communication between compartments.
1
FAA-H-8083-23, Seaplane, Skiplane, and Float/Ski Equipped Helicopter Operations Handbook, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Flight Standards Service, 2004.
2
Thurston, David, Design for Flying, TAB Books, 1995.
3
Savitsky, Daniel, On the Subject of High-Speed Monohulls, Presented to the Greek Section Of the Society Of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers Athens, Greece. October 2, 2003.
4
Prandtl, Ludwig and Oskar G. Tietjens, Fundamentals of Hydro- and Aeromechanics, Dover Publications, 1957.
5
Diehl, Walter Stuart, Engineering Aerodynamics, Ronald Press Company, 1936.
6
NACA TN-183, Static Stability of Seaplane Floats and Hulls, Diehl, Walter S., 1924.
7
Anon, Marine Fouling and its Prevention, Contribution No. 580 from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute,
George Banta Publishing, 1952.
8
Faure, Marin, Flying a Floatplane, TAB Books, 1985.
9
Stinton, Darrol, The Design of the Aeroplane, Collins, 1983.
10
Nelson, William, Seaplane Design, McGraw-Hill, 1934.
11
Wood, K. D., Aircraft Design – Aerospace Vehicle Design, Volume I, Johnson Publishing Company, 1968.
12
NACA TN-2481, Hydrodynamic Characteristics of a Low-Drag Planing-Tail Flying-Boat Hull, Suydam, Henry B.,
1952.
13
NACA TN-2503, Hydrodynamic Investigation of a Series of Hull Models Suitable for Small Flying Boats and
Amphibians, Hugli, W C , Jr. and W. C. Axt, 1951.
14
Biran, Adrian, Ship Hydrostatics and Stability, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003.
15
NACA-WR-L-150, Tank Tests of a Flying-Boat Model Equipped with Several Types of Fairing Designed to Reduce
the Air Drag of the Main Step, Havens, Robert F., 1945.