IM User's Guide Vs 2012


SAFOAM USER’S GUIDE
This ‘SAFOAM User’s guide’ was prepared as a

service to the customers using Reedy International
Corporation’s SAFOAM family of endothermic
foaming agents. Reproduction or distribution of this
brochure, in whole or in part, is prohibited without
the permission of Reedy International Corporation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................1
SAFOAM - Its Use in Thermoplastics ........................................................2
2. Structural Plastics and Polymer Selection .........................................................3

Properties of Amorphous Polymers .............................................................3
Properties of Crystalline Polymers ..............................................................4
Properties of Thermoplastic Elastomers ......................................................4
3. Foaming Agent Selection...................................................................................6

Physical Foaming Agents ............................................................................7
Chemical Foaming Agents ...........................................................................7
Exothermic Chemical Foaming Agents
Azodicarbonamide .................................................................................8
Endothermic Chemical Foaming Agents
Sodium Borohydride ..............................................................................9
Traditional Acid/Carbonate Systems ...................................................10
SAFOAM Endothermic Chemical Foaming Agents .................................10
Gas Evolution and Rate .............................................................................12
4. SAFOAM in Injection Molding ......................................................................16

Introduction to Structural Foam .................................................................16
Thermal Conductivity ..........................................................................17
Acoustical Properties ...........................................................................17
Benefits of Foaming ...................................................................................18
Structural Design Flexibility ................................................................18
Density ...........................................................................................18
Weld Lines .....................................................................................18
Knit Lines ......................................................................................19
Improvements in Processing ................................................................19
Lower Internal Stresses ........................................................................19
Large Complex Parts............................................................................19
Lower Costs .........................................................................................20
Resin Usage ...................................................................................20
Tooling Expenses ...........................................................................20
Processing Charges ........................................................................21
Flexibility in Part Production ...............................................................21
Part Design .................................................................................................21
Load Considerations ............................................................................21
Stress-Strain Curves .............................................................................21
Apparent Modulus and Creep ..............................................................22
Fatigue Properties ................................................................................22
Recommended Maximum Working Stress ..........................................23
Thermal Stress/Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion ............................23
Structural Designs ................................................................................23
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Bending ................................................................................................26
Tension.................................................................................................27
Compression ........................................................................................27
Injection Molding Processes Using SAFOAM .........................................29
Processing Methods ...................................................................................29
Conventional Injection Molding Machines .........................................29
Specialized Low Pressure SFM Machines...........................................30
Low Pressure Process with Chemical Blowing Agents .......................30
Co-Injection (Sandwich) SFM Machines ............................................31
Gas Counter-Pressure SFM .................................................................31
Direct-Gassed Nitrogen SFM ..............................................................33
High Pressure SFM ..............................................................................34
Gas Co-Injection ............................................................................34
Gas Assist Molding ........................................................................34
Chemical Gas Assist Molding .......................................................34
CoralFoam®....................................................................................34
Over Molding .................................................................................35
Processing Equipment
Standard Injection Machines ...............................................................35
Chemical Structural Foam Machines ...................................................35
Physical or Inert Gas Machines ...........................................................35
Molding
Machine Settings..................................................................................36
Clamping Force ....................................................................................36
Melt Temperatures ...............................................................................36
Mold Temperatures ..............................................................................37
Cooling.................................................................................................37
Mold Cooling .......................................................................................37
Pressure Settings ..................................................................................37
Injection Pressure ...........................................................................37
Hold Pressure .................................................................................37
Injection Speed ....................................................................................38
Functional Design ................................................................................38
Wall Thickness and Material Flow Lengths ........................................38
Transition Sections ..............................................................................39
Fillets and Radii ...................................................................................40
Tolerances/Warpage Control ...............................................................40
Draft Angles .........................................................................................41
Snap-Fits ..............................................................................................42
Hinges ..................................................................................................43
Bosses ..................................................................................................46
Ribs ......................................................................................................46
Guides ..................................................................................................47
Louvers ................................................................................................48
Nozzle Design ......................................................................................48
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Tooling
Molds ...................................................................................................49
Corrosion Resistance .....................................................................50
Thermal Conductivity ....................................................................50
Heat Treatment...............................................................................50
Sprues, Runners, Gates and Gate Locations ........................................50
Sprues.............................................................................................50
Runners ..........................................................................................50
Gates ..............................................................................................51
Gate Locations ...............................................................................51
Vents ....................................................................................................51
Secondary Operations
Painting ................................................................................................53
Assembly and Fastening ......................................................................53
Self-Tapping Fasteners ..................................................................53
Ultrasonic Inserts ...........................................................................54
Expansion Inserts ...........................................................................54
Molded-In Inserts ...........................................................................54
Press Fits ........................................................................................54
Ultrasonic Bonding ........................................................................55
Vibration Welding .........................................................................56
Solvent Bonding ............................................................................56
Adhesive Bonding..........................................................................56
General Guide for SFM Set up ..................................................................57
Incorporation of SAFOAM in SFM ..........................................................58
Engineering Structural Foam Resins .........................................................59
5. Heat Transfer and Aging of Closed Cell Foam Insulation ..............................60

Hear Transfer Model ..................................................................................60
Conduction .....................................................................................60
Thermal Radiation .........................................................................61
Gas Diffusion Model..................................................................................62
Foam Cell Geometry ......................................................................63
Gas Transport Process ...................................................................64
6. Trouble Shooting .............................................................................................67

Trouble Shooting Splay .............................................................................67
Trouble Shooting Splay Chart .......................................................67
The Throttle for Endothermic Blowing Agent is Temperature .................67
Blowing Away Sinks (Sink Mark Removal) .............................................68
Reducing Sinks/Molding Recommendations.............................................69
7. Questions & Answers

Injection Molding ......................................................................................71
Structural Foam Molding ...........................................................................72
Blow Molding ............................................................................................73
Rotational Molding ....................................................................................73
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8. Appendices
Notes & Units .............................................................................................. I
Glossary .................................................................................................... IV
Common Acronyms ................................................................................VIII
Acknowledgments....................................................................................... X
INTRODUCTION
SAFOAM is produced from naturally occurring materials that are microencapsulated using sophisticated
proprietary technology. Produced under food ingredient conditions with the highest levels of quality control,
SAFOAM is inherently safe to use and all components are Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) as prior
sanctioned by the Federal Food and Drug Administration.
SAFOAM is environmentally friendly. It has no photochemical reactivity or stratospheric ozone depletion

potential. It leaves no residue and is free of the environmental concerns commonly associated with existing
nucleating agents. SAFOAM does not contain any transition metal salts as activators and does not generate
cyanuric acid or ammonia, which are toxic and contribute to degradation of mold surfaces and extrusion
equipment.
Reedy International Corp., in partnership with Genpak Corporation, has completed development of an advanced
foam production process that meets current and future global emission requirements without major equipment
changes or compromises in product quality, density or production rates.
This new technology is designed to replace chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFC’s) in the production of polystyrene foam food products. The system negates serious disadvantages of
existing processes due to its ability to achieve very efficient production rates while improving the physical
properties of the foamed materials.
Reedy International and Genpak Corporation have recently been awarded patents for producing foam sheets
using SAFOAM concentrates and a combination of atmospheric and organic gases as blowing agents. Reedy
International currently holds six additional patents for using direct gas in a low-density polystyrene foam using
CO2, N2, and/or any other gas.
SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 1

INTRODUCTION
SAFOAM - ITS USE IN THERMOPLASTICS
SAFOAM is an endothermic chemical foaming agent (CFA) used in thermoplastics with a wide variety of
applications. Processors use it to produce foamed moldings or extrusions, or to eliminate other processing
problems, such as sink marks, warpage or molded in stresses. Its use in structural plastics provides several
advantages, including:
 Weight reduction  Cost savings

 Increased part rigidity  Enhanced acoustical and
 Stress and sink mark insulation properties
elimination  Warpage elimination
Plastic processing is a constantly evolving industry and new techniques and equipment are introduced regularly.
Despite the wide variety of equipment and processes, they can be classified under two main groupings:
 Molding  Extrusion
This User’s Guide reviews physical and chemical foaming agents as well as the basic injection molding and
extrusion processes. A glossary of terms and a list of common acronyms appear in the Appendix. SAFOAM
selection and use information can be found on the insides of the covers.
This SAFOAM User’s Guide is intended as a service to our customers. The information contained in this guide
is based on our experience with SAFOAM and the foaming processes that are discussed. We strongly
recommend that SAFOAM be thoroughly evaluated in your process equipment and application. We do not
guarantee favorable results, and we assume no liability in connection with the use of SAFOAM. This
information is not intended as a license to operate under, or a recommendation to infringe any patent of Reedy
International Corporation or others.

STRUCTURAL PLASTICS AND
POLYMER SELECTION
The term “structural foam” is generally used to describe a plastic product having integral skins, a cellular core,
and a high enough strength-to-weight ratio to be used in load-bearing applications. There are many systems
used in the production of structural foam, with as many equipment manufacturers preparing machines to make
the products. There are a wide variety of thermoset and thermoplastic resins used in structural foam, with many
types of physical and chemical foaming agents being used to produce the cellular structure.
The real value of foam is the increase in strength-to-weight ratio and the reduction of sink marks in areas
opposite thick sections. The structural integrity of a properly foamed part is greatly enhanced due to the
reduction of stresses and a general increase in stiffness. Parts produced by the structural foam process are three
to four times as rigid as injection moldings of the same weight. The density of a foamed part is generally 60-
90% of the polymer or foaming agent.
Foamed plastic can be thermoset, thermoplastic or thermoplastic elastomer resins. Thermosets are generally
foamed as a result of the vaporization of a foaming agent, caused by the exotherm in the thermosetting reaction.
Foamed thermoplastics are typically produced by the addition of an inert gas or chemical foaming agent to a
thermoplastic resin. The most significant quantities of foamed plastics are being produced in thermoplastics.
More recently the term “structural plastics” has been adopted to describe polymers foamed by a variety of
emerging technologies.
PROPERTIES OF AMORPHOUS POLYMERS
Amorphous polymers are those that are devoid of crystallinity or stratification. They do not have melting points
but rather softening ranges. They are normally transparent, and undergo only small volume changes when
solidifying from the melt, or when the solid softens and becomes fluid. Most plastics are amorphous at
processing temperatures, with many retaining this state under all normal conditions. Common examples of
amorphous thermoplastics include polycarbonate, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and polystyrene, and
are very easy to foam using SAFOAM.

STRUCTURAL PLASTICS AND POLYMER SELECTION
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS
Crystalline polymers contain solid crystals with a definite geometric form. Such structures are characterized by
uniformity and compactness. Unlike amorphous polymers, crystalline polymers have considerable order to
their molecules in a solid state. This indicates that many of the other atoms are regularly spaced, have a true
melting point with a latent heat of fusion associated with the melting and freezing process, and have a relatively
large volume change during the transition from melt to solid. It is these characteristics that cause a lack of melt
tension and/or melt strength, which may make crystalline polymers more difficult to foam. Common examples
of crystalline thermoplastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, and acetal.
PROPERTIES OF THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS
Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) represent a family of polymers that resemble elastomers in that they can be
repeatedly stretched without distortion of the unstressed part shape. They are, however, true thermoplastics and
as such do not require curing or vulcanization as do rubber-like elastomers. It is possible to foam TPEs if they
are specifically designed for melt tension and strength.
The desirable performance properties of thermoplastic elastomers are derived from their chemistry and
morphology. Thermoset rubber articles commonly contain a reinforcing agent such as carbon black. In TPEs,
the polymer system itself provides this reinforcement, commonly due to two or more intermingled polymer
systems, each with its own phase.
Chemical composition and morphology provide a rational, convenient means of categorizing the existing
commercial thermoplastic elastomers. There are presently six generic categories of commercial TPEs:
1) Styrenic block copolymers
2) Rubber-polyolefin blends
3) Elastomeric alloys
a) Thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPVs)
b) Melt processible rubbers (MPRs)
4) Thermoplastic polyurethanes
5) Thermoplastic copolyesters
6) Thermoplastic polyamides (nylons)

STRUCTURAL PLASTICS AND POLYMER SELECTION
To compare the different classes of TPEs, locate them on the two-dimensional plot below, with the horizontal
axis representing performance and the vertical axis representing cost. The cost and performance of the generic
categories of TPEs increase as one proceeds in the order of styrenics, polyolefin blends, elastomeric alloys,
polyurethanes, copolyesters, and polyamides. As a basis for comparison, Table 2 gives a plot of the different
generic classes of thermoset rubbers. The thermoset rubbers also increase in both cost and performance as one
proceeds from the lower left to the upper right portion of the plot. In comparing thermoplastic rubbers with the
corresponding thermoset rubbers, it is important to remember the processing costs of the TPEs are significantly
lower than those of the thermosets.
Thermoplastic Elastomers.
High Cost Polyamides
Copolyesters
Urethanes
Elastomeric Alloys
Polyolefins
Low Cost Styrenics
Low Performance High Performance
Table 1.
Thermoset Rubbers.
High Cost Fluoroelastomer
Acrylate
Epichlorohydrin
Nitrile
Hypalon
Neoprene
EPDM
Butyl
NR
Low Cost SBR
Low Performance High Performance
Table 2.

FOAMING AGENT SELECTION
Any substance capable of producing a cellular structure in a plastic or rubber mass, be it alone or in
combination with other substances, is defined as a foaming agent. Thus, the term includes compressed gases
that expand when pressure is released, soluble solids that leave pores when leached out, liquids that develop
cells when they change to gases, and chemical agents that decompose or react under the influence of heat to
form a gas. Liquid foaming agents include certain aliphatic and halogenated hydrocarbons, low boiling
alcohols, ethers, ketones, and aromatic hydrocarbons. The chemical foaming agents range from simple salts
such as ammonium or sodium bicarbonate to complex nitrogen releasing agents, of which azodicarbonamide is
an important example. Foaming agents, also known as chemical blowing agents (CBAs), can be utilized in all
conventional plastic processes including extrusion, calendering, injection and compression molding, coating,
expansion casting, and rotational molding. Regardless of type, a foaming agent should possess the following
desirable qualities:
1. Long term storage stability under normal conditions.

2. Gas release over a controlled time and temperature range.
3. Low toxicity, odor, and color of both the foaming agent and its decomposition products.
4. No deleterious effects on the stability and processing characteristics of the polymer.
5. The ability to form cells of uniform size.
6. The ability to produce a stable foam, that is, the gas must not be lost from the cell, which causes
collapse.
7. Good cost-performance relation and availability.
The quantity of gas contained in a foaming agent is not nearly as important as the rate at which that gas is
released. Azodicarbonamides contain large volumes of gas, but are well known to give rise to foamed parts
with voids and poor surface finish. SAFOAM endothermic foaming agents contain less gas volume, but
release that gas in a much more controlled fashion, giving rise to more uniform cell structures. SAFOAM
produces CO2, which is a low-pressure, very soluble gas. Solubility improves the melt flow of most polymers
and may lower processing temperatures. These foamed plastics have higher performance characteristics than
those generated with other commonly available foaming agents.
Foaming agents are classified as physical or chemical. Chemical foaming agents (generally solids) undergo a
chemical reaction when producing the gas, while liquid physical foaming agents undergo a reversible change of
physical state: vaporization.

PHYSICAL FOAMING AGENTS
The two major categories of physical foaming agents are liquids and gases. The gas most often used is
compressed nitrogen. In injection molding, the gas is injected under high pressure directly into the polymer
during plastication, and the mixed polymer and gas are metered into the mold. When the pressure is relieved,
the gas becomes less soluble in the polymer and expands, forming the cellular structure. Nucleating agents like
SAFOAM, in the form of finely divided powders and chemical foaming agents, sometimes are used with the
gas to yield a finer cell structure. The nitrogen is inert, nonflammable, leaves no residue in the polymer, and is
not temperature restrictive; however, the use of the process in industry is limited. The specialized equipment
that is needed is licensed, and there is a tendency for the process to produce foams with coarser cell structure
and poorer surface appearance than those of polymer processes with nitrogen-producing chemical foaming
agents.
Liquid physical foaming agents produce gas through vaporization. They are generally short-chain aliphatic
hydrocarbons (in the C5 to C7 range) and their chlorinated and fluorinated analogs. Others used less frequently
include cycloaliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes. The liquid physical
foaming agents are used over a wide temperature range in low pressure atmospheric processes. They are widely
used to produce low density thermoplastics such as foamed polystyrene, and thermoset polymers such as
polyester, epoxy, and polyurethane foam systems.
CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS
Chemical foaming agents produce gas by a chemical reaction, such as a thermal decomposition or a reaction
between two or more components. They are selected for a specific application or process based on their
decomposition or gas generation temperature. It is important to match the decomposition temperature with the
processing temperature of the polymer to be foamed. If the polymer processes at temperatures below that of the
chemical foaming agent, little or no foaming will occur. Additionally, if the process temperature is
significantly above the foaming agent’s decomposition or reaction temperature, poor (overblown, ruptured) cell
structure and surface skin quality problems will likely result.

Chemical foaming agents may be either organic or inorganic chemicals. The thermodynamics of gas formation
with chemical foaming agents are classified as either exothermic (heat releasing) or endothermic (heat
absorbing). The most well known organic, exothermic chemical foaming agent is azodicarbonamide. The most
common inorganic, endothermic foaming agent is sodium bicarbonate.
EXOTHERMIC CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS
Azodicarbonamide
One of the most widely used exothermic chemical foaming agents is azodicarbonamide. This chemical foaming
agent is a yellow powder that decomposes at 383-421ºF (195-216ºC), depending on the method of preparation.
It evolves 220 cc/gram of gas after decomposition. The decomposition rate of azodicarbonamide can be
adjusted by activators, and a wide range of lower decomposition temperatures can be attained. This range of
useful temperatures and high gas efficiency are the primary advantages of this type of chemical foaming agent.
Suitable activators include transition metal salts, (especially those of lead, cadmium and zinc), polyols, ura,
alcohol amines, and some organic acids. Unlike many other organic foaming agents, azodicarbonamide does
not support combustion.
The thermal decomposition of azodicarbonamide is complex, giving rise to a variety of reaction products. The
decomposition of azodicarbonamide at 374ºF (190ºC) produces gaseous products consisting of nitrogen (65%),
carbon monoxide (31.5%), and carbon dioxide (3.5%). Ammonia has also been detected in some cases.
Exothermic chemical foaming agents are generally used for the following results:
 maximize total density reduction
 generate foam in high viscosity resins
 increase mold filling capability
 decompose at higher temperatures
Azodicarbonamides are capable of generating large quantities of gas at high foaming pressures. The
exothermic reaction of this family of chemical foaming agents is hard to control in most foaming applications.
This leads to coarser cell structures, voids, and poorer surface quality for the processed parts. The thermal
decomposition of azodicarbonamide compounds is well known to generate cyanuric acid and isocyanurate,
which contribute to plate out on mold surfaces and extrusion equipment.

Exothermic azodicarbonamide chemical foaming agents should be used only when an endothermic chemical
foaming agent is judged as unsuitable for your application.
A Differential Scanning Calorimetry curve for a common exothermic azodicarbonamide chemical foaming
agent can be found in Figure 1.
25
Azodicarbonam ide
20 Figure 1.
Differential
Scanning
Heat Flow (W/g)
15
Calorimetry curve
10 for a common
azodicarbonamide
5
chemical foaming
agent showing
exothermic
0
behavior.
-5
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
10x
Temperature (Celsius)
ENDOTHERMIC CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS
Sodium Borohydride
Chemical foaming agents based on sodium borohydride produce gas as a result of a chemical reaction rather
than thermal decomposition. Sodium borohydride foaming agents produce copious amounts of hydrogen gas
upon reaction with water or when activated by a proton source. The decomposition of sodium borohydride is
independent of processing temperatures.
Several products based on sodium borohydride exist in polyethylene and polystyrene carriers. Some grades are
activated by special chemical additives. The sodium borohydride concentrates are typically 5-10% active. The
sodium borohydride foaming agents are stable to moisture once compounded in the concentrate form.
Because the reaction decomposition product of sodium borohydride foaming agents is hydrogen gas, extreme
care must be taken not to exceed the lower explosion limit of 4% volume of hydrogen in the air.

Traditional Acid/Carbonate Systems

The most well known endothermic chemical foaming agents are from the acid/carbonate family. These foaming
agents take advantage of the chemical reactivity of inorganic carbonates with acidic species to evolve carbon
dioxide gas. The most widely used acid/carbonate systems are based on sodium bicarbonate and citric acid
derivatives.
The common acid/bicarbonate products are available as 100% powders or as concentrates in universal waxy-
type carriers. The concentrate products are available in up to 70% active concentrates. The gas evolution of
these acid/carbonate products depends on the level of their activity and in which form the product is used. The
typical 100% active powder product produces about 100 cc/gram of carbon dioxide gas.
The acid/carbonate systems are typically safe for use in food contact applications. All components are
Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS). The carbon dioxide gas is non-flammable and poses no threat for
explosion. It readily diffuses from the foamed products, allowing for shorter painting cycles. The universal
waxy-type carriers have been known to cause screw slippage in certain applications. Poor dispersion is a
common concern for the high percentage concentrates in many traditional material handling systems. Poor
dispersion lends itself to variations in the foaming process, creating voids and thin skins that lead to mechanical
failure in the final foamed products.
SAFOAM ENDOTHERMIC CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS
A recent addition to the array of endothermic chemical foaming agents is the SAFOAM family of products.
The chemistry of SAFOAM most closely resembles the traditional acid/carbonate systems, but is based on a
buffered salt reaction chemistry. SAFOAM products are not solely based on simple sodium bicarbonate, but
take advantage of the controlled reaction of synthetic inorganic carbonate compounds with acidic species to
generate carbon dioxide gas. Although the volume of evolved gas for SAFOAM is somewhat lower than other
acid/carbonate systems, the kinetics of gas release insures its superior performance.
SAFOAM products are available as 100% active powders or as concentrates in functional polymer carriers.
The concentrates are typically 40% active to insure a good dispersion in traditional material handling systems.
SAFOAM P, FP, RIC, and RPC will produce about 140 cc/grams and serve as the base material for the
polyethylene and polystyrene concentrates.

A Differential Scanning Calorimetry curve of a common endothermic chemical foaming agent can be found in
Figure 2.
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0.
0.
0.
0.
.0
.0
.0
75
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
00
40
60
80
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
3.
4.
0.4
0.2
Figure 2.
Differential
0
Scanning
-0.2 Calorimetry
Heat Flow (W/g)
-0.4 curve for

-0.6 SAFOAM® FP-40
-0.8
showing
endothermic
-1
behavior.
-1.2
-1.4 SAFOAM FP-40

-1.6
-1.8
100x Temperature (Celsius)
The use of SAFOAM endothermic chemical foaming agents gives rise to more uniform cell structures, thicker
skins, better surface appearance, and more control as compared to other traditional chemical foaming agents.
SAFOAM affords significant weight reduction, sink mark elimination, shrinkage control, and warpage
elimination. It produces parts that can be painted without significant degassing time.
SAFOAM products are safe for use in food contact applications. The components of all SAFOAM products
are Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS). SAFOAM is manufactured within the confines of an FDA
approved facility, adhering to strict Good Manufacturing Practices to insure the maximum product quality.
SAFOAM products are generally used to:

 improve nucleation in  foam highly fluid polymers
tandem with nitrogen  reduce physical property loss
 create a uniform cell structure  minimize part stresses
 reduce cycle time  increase weld line strengths
 reduce surface swirl or splay appearance

GAS EVOLUTION AND RATE
The enhanced performance of SAFOAM endothermic chemical foaming agents is believed to be the result of a
more uniform cell structure that is directly related to the controlled rate of gas release in the product. This rate
of gas release is dependent on temperature, pressure and the composition of the foaming agent. The SAFOAM
family of endothermic chemical foaming agents is based upon modified citric acid/carbonate systems that vary
significantly in their compositions from the traditional acid/carbonate systems.
The gas released by SAFOAM FP can be seen in Figures 3 and 4, while figures 7 and 8 represent SAFOAM
FP-40. A typical azodicarbonamide was used as a reference in Figure 3. The gas volume data was generated
by a linear temperature program. The thermal expansion of the air in the sample vessel is accounted for by the
subtraction of a blank value (45.7cc) from the total gas volume measured. Figure 3 clearly shows that
SAFOAM FP generates 200 cc/gram of gas volume at 350ºC. Figure 7 shows that SAFOAM FP-40 generates
101 cc/gram at 375ºC. Both the SAFOAM FP and FP-40 generate significantly less gas than the typical
azodicarbonamide, which generates 230 cc/grams at 350ºC.
The first order kinetic factor of SAFOAM RPC as compared to a typical azodicarbonamide can be found in
Figure 6. The differential response of SAFOAM RPC is significantly slower than the azodicarbonamide. The
longer the foaming time (defined as the amount of time it takes to generate 63% of its gas capacity), the slower
the kinetics of gas release. Slower gas release allows for a more controlled formation of the cell structure
within the foamed plastic, which in turn allows for fewer voids and stresses, thicker skins, and higher quality
surface finishes.

4.5
4 Typical Azo
SAFOAM FP
(ml/grams
3.5
(m;/grams)
2.5 Figure 3.
Comparison of gas
Volume
2 volumes for
Volume
SAFOAM® FP and
1.5
a typical azo-
1 dicarbonamide.
0.5
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4
4.5
4
Typical Azo
Volume Differential (ml/grams
3.5
SAFOAM FP
3 Figure 4.
Differential response
2.5
for SAFOAM® FP
and a typical
2
azodicarbonamide
showing rate of gas
1.5
release.
1
0.5
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.25 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00

4.5
Typical Azo
3.5
SAFOAM RPC
Volume (ml/grams
3
Figure 5.
2.5 Comparison of
gas volumes for
2 SAFOAM® RPC
and a typical
1.5 azodicarbonamide.
1
0.5
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4
3.5
3 Typical Azo
SAFOAM RPC
2.5
Figure 6.
2 Differential
response for
1.5 SAFOAM® RPC
and a typical
1 azodicarbonamide
showing rate of
gas release.
0.5
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00
-0.5

1.2
1
SAFOAM FP-40
Volume (ml/grams
0.8
Figure 7.
Gas volume for
0.6 SAFOAM® FP-40.
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4
1.2
1 SAFOAM FP-40
0.8 Figure 8.
Differential
response for
0.6
SAFOAM® FP-40
showing rate of
gas release.
0.4
0.2
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00

SAFOAM IN INJECTION MOLDING
SAFOAM is used in the production of injection molded parts requiring a cellular structure and for the
elimination of sink marks and stress in solid parts. SAFOAM is used in all types of injection molding
equipment, including low and high pressure specialized structural foam machines, and conventional machines
modified for structural foam.
SAFOAM is used in the following foam structures:

 Structural Foam Molding (SFM) - usually parts of 1/4 inch (6.35 mm) thickness or more, with a 10-
40% weight reduction compared to solid molding.
 Thin wall parts - generally 1/8 - 3/16 inch (3.18 - 4.76 mm) thickness with a 1-20% reduction in
weight compared to solid molding.
SAFOAM is also used to eliminate sink marks and to reduce warp and molding stresses: it is used at low levels
(up to 0.20% active SAFOAM) and is not intended to produce any significant weight reduction.
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL FOAM
Structural Foam is a plastic product having walls with a solid skin around a cellular core. Density is usually 65-
90% of the solid polymer and varies according to material, fillers, blowing agent, wall thickness, processing
conditions and required physical properties of the part. The term “structural” is applied because the principle
behind foaming is that strength is obtainable by properly designed structure (using the wall thickness). The
flexural strength (S) of a supported beam can be defined by:
EI
S  KO or S  K1 Ea 3 Figure 9.
W13
for any two identical loading conditions. “E” is the flex modulus of the material, “K1” is a constant for that
particular beam and load, and “a” is the beam height. From this it is obvious that the wall height is much more
important than the flex modulus. If we were to take the material required for a solid beam with a wall 0.160”
thick and foam it to 80% of solid, we would now have enough volume to
generate a 0.200” thick beam at the same width. The flex modulus may decrease by 25% for the foamed resin,
but the results are:

SOLID FOAMED
S1  K1 E (.160) 3 S2  K1 (.75E )(.200) 3
and
 K1 (.0041E )  K1 (.0060E ) Figure 10.
dividing S2 by S1 and solving:
K1 (.0060E .0060
S2 / S1    1.463
K1 (.0041E .0041
Thus, the same quantity of resin foamed is nearly 50% stiffer than its unfoamed counterpart. With similar
manipulations, we would see that equal strength could be obtained with only 88% of the resin at 20% weight
reduction.
The ability to obtain strength with structural foam caused the initial push to develop around cheaper commodity
resins. As the end-use requirements have become more demanding, however, the materials used have become
more sophisticated. There are now well over 200 million pounds of engineering plastics being foamed each
year.
Density reduction up to 40% can be achieved in SFM. The density reduction obtained is dependent upon part
thickness, flow length of the resin, amount of filler, and part design. Foaming a polymer should not change its
chemical resistance or chemical structure, provided the proper processing conditions are used.
SFM parts have increased stiffness because they are usually thicker than solid moldings. Their lower density
gives a higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to solid moldings. Because of the cellular structure within the
parts, acoustic or insulation properties can be enhanced.
Thermal Conductivity. Engineering Structural Foam is also a good heat insulator, significantly better than
solid plastics as seen from its lower thermal conductivity. In business machine housing design, for instance,
higher operating temperatures can be tolerated without exposure of the machine operator to a hot surface, as
would be the case with metal.
It should also be noted that as densities decrease, thermal conductivity also decreases. This is true because in
the cellular core there is an increased content of air, which has lower thermal conductivity than the base resin.
Acoustical Properties. Engineering Structural Foam can offer distinct advantages versus metal in noise
reduction since they dampen vibrations much more rapidly.
It should be noted that the manner in which structural foam is used to reduce noise plays an important role in its
effectiveness. If the method of noise reduction is merely to enclose the sound source (sound attenuation), metal
will suffice. However, if the actual source of noise can be made out of foam, the noise will dissipate up to 16
times faster than with metal. Moreover, if the source continuously generates noise, as is the case with a printer
housing, the use of structural foam decreases the amplitude of vibration for an over-all reduction in noise level.
In many cases, to eliminate unwanted vibration or noise it is necessary to add dampening to the system, or to
design it so that the forcing frequency is well below the natural frequency. This is done by either increasing
stiffness or reducing mass, usually accomplished by the addition of ribs.

140
Resin A
120
Resin B
100
Resin C Figure 11.
80
Aluminum
Sound Dampening
60 Characteristics.
Steel
40
20
Physical properties such as impact resistance or tensile strength will depend on the amount of weight reduction
and the thickness of the skins surrounding the cellular core. The thicker skins achieved with SAFOAM,
compared to other foaming agents, produce parts with better physical properties.
BENEFITS OF FOAMING
Although increased strength from designing thick wall sections is a major benefit of structural foam, there are
several other key advantages obtained from foaming. Some of these are: enhanced processability, reduced part
stresses, large part sizes, lower costs, and a large variety of processing techniques. These topics will be
overviewed in this section and will be discussed in more detail throughout this guide.
Structural Design Flexibility

Density. The level of foam that can be achieved varies with each individual resin and is further affected by
solids loading, processing conditions, foaming agent, and part design. When density is matched with the
designed wall thickness, a multitude of combinations can be used to achieve a given flexural requirement or
other property. For example, a 0.150” wall at 10% weight reduction might provide the same impact strength as
a 0.180” wall at 25% weight reduction with both options requiring the same amount of resin. The part’s
flexural strength would most likely be higher with the thicker wall, thus allowing the designer an additional
design parameter not available in solid injection molding.
Weld Lines. The occurrence of weld lines (knit lines) is very common with specific configurations and causes
weak areas in the part. Consequently, a part must be designed with that in mind, since typically only 50% of
the solid wall strength is retained. In a foamed part, however, the melt merges more uniformly and achieves
about 70% of the part’s wall strength. While not perfect, the superior bonding does allow for greater overall
part strength and permits more freedom in allowing weld lines when necessary. By further masking the weld
line in a slightly thicker wall, a designer may produce a part having a weld line, but not a weakness.

Knit Lines. Improved melt flow can cause more distinct knit lines. Reducing injection speed should correct
this.
Improvements in Processing
The presence of gas in the polymer provides a slight lubricating effect which increases typical flow lengths by
about 2-5%. Similarly, the viscosity responds as if it was lower and requires lower injection pressures to fill.
In most cases, the expansion of the dissolved gasses in the molten polymer provides the force that fills the part,
eliminating the need to maintain a packing pressure during molding. The force exerted on the mold is
substantially smaller during filling/packing, usually less than 1,000 psi, as compared with 12,000+ psi in
injection molding. Typical values for estimation are 20-25 tons of clamp required per square foot of surface
area of the part.
Lower Internal Stresses

Two major characteristics of the structural foam process are the low pressures required during injection and the
fact that the mold is filled by rapid expansion of the gas dissolved in the polymer. Both features, plus the
presence of the cell structure, permit much greater relaxation of the polymer chains and more randomization of
any fillers. The mild, continuing pressure of the gas exerts enough force on the walls of a part to eliminate sink
marks. The randomization of fillers, the shortening of polymer length and the low stress levels from gas
expansion substantially increase the uniformity of shrinkage. These same characteristics result in less stress
cracks and weld-line strength loss in the finished part. This is due to the deformable nature of the gas cells. An
internal stress in solid plastic is frozen in place and the latent energy can manifest itself as a crack or other
external stress, during an impact or otherwise. With a foam structure, however, the gas cells become stress-
energy absorbers, leaving little residual forces to cause problems. In a similar manner, warpage can often be
eliminated. In all these situations, however, improper molding with foam or the need for high pressure (force)
can offset the effects of the gas cells to some degree.
Large Complex Parts

Compared to injection molding, much larger parts are achievable in foam molding. Both structural foam and
injection molding processes are comparable and since the same kinds of resins are used, similar detail and
complexity are possible in a part. The major difference is the low pressure required for foam molding. This
changes economics significantly so that a low pressure structural foam machine could be built with only a 400-
ton clamp but have an 8-foot x 8-foot platen and a 100 lb. shot capacity. A similar size machine for injection
molding would likely have a 4,000-ton clamp and a 25 lb. shot to go with such a large platen. Large parts lend
themselves to structural foam, particularly since wall sections tend to be bigger and will permit adequate
foaming to take place. Small parts (1 oz. or less), on the other hand, usually need all the physical properties
associated with a solid wall and should not be foamed. Parts in the mid-range should be foamed if there are
specific advantages provided by the process. The key advantage to consider is the effectiveness of structural
foam in both cost and processing when making a large part that is too complex for extrusion, compression
molding, or thermoforming.

Lower Costs
Several of the peculiarities of structural foam molding can have significant impact on cost savings. In the
majority of cases, if the physical disadvantages of foamed parts are not prohibitive in end use, structural foam
processing will be more cost effective than injection molding. Each cost saving area, though related, is
generally autonomous so that any application could use one or all of the benefits. Resin savings and tool costs
are obvious ones, but the biggest contributor to cost is the option on the type of machine that can be used for the
foam process. Whether using a low pressure structural foam machine or a high pressure injection molding
machine, the machine selected will dictate the type of product, several of the part’s characteristics and, most
importantly, the cost savings options that can be included.
Resin Usage. Using less resin is the obvious area of cost improvement for foam. The greater the density
reduction, the higher the savings in resin cost will be. If a chemical foaming agent (CFA) is used, there will be
an added cost for the chemical. In most resin/blowing agent mixtures, a minimum level of chemical is needed
to produce measurable density reduction. This weight can usually be reduced further by an increase in the CFA
concentration. Generally a point is reached, however, where additional foaming agent will produce little or no
additional weight reduction. A typical example appears below in Table 3. Use of a physical foaming agent,
such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, is cheaper but requires different types of machines or machine
modifications and produces coarser cell structure. Wall thickness and flow length will impose a physical
limitation on the reduction in density and physical end-use requirements may solidify that limit.
Part Wt. % Resin % SAFOAM Total

lbs Density Cost $ SAFOAM Cost $ Cost $
5.00 100 10.00 0.0 0.0 10.00
4.75 95 9.50 0.5 0.13 9.63
4.50 90 9.00 1.0 0.26 9.26
4.25 85 8.50 1.5 0.39 8.89
4.00 80 8.00 2.0 0.52 8.52
3.75 75 7.50 2.5 0.65 8.15
3.50 70 7.00 3.0 0.78 7.78
3.25 65 6.50 3.5 0.91 7.41
3.00 60 6.00 4.0 1.04 7.04
Table 3. Comparative cost chart based on an average resin price of $2.00 and an average SAFOAM®
price of $5.20.
Tooling Expenses. The mold cost is a variable influenced by many parameters, particularly the design of the
part. Most of these parameters are identical for tools in structural foam; however due to the lower pressure of
the foaming process, the physical strength required for withstanding injection and clamp pressures is much less.
As such, aluminum tools are the standard material of construction. This generally means that the cost of the
mold is around 25% less than that of a steel tool, and of course, much lighter and easier to handle. If the mold
will see a great deal of activity (over 200,000 parts), then tool wear will be a key factor and hardened steel
might be the better choice.

Processing Charges. The substantial decrease in clamp tonnage necessary to make a foamed part is the reason
that machine (or operation) charges are reduced. Since platen dimensions and shot size become the new
limiting factors, any typical injection molding machine would be capable of producing much larger parts in
foam. If a 30 ounce part with a large surface area required a 700 ton machine for injection molding, it is
probable that a 300 ton machine would be adequate to produce a foamed part, assuming sufficient shot capacity
and adequate platen area. The cost of operating smaller machines is significant, and if only larger machines are
available, then 2 or 3 parts could be made with multiple-cavity molds. In one case there are lower operating
costs per part; in the other case, more parts are made for about the same operating cost.
Flexibility in Part Production

The structural foam process presents several alternatives in producing parts. Since low pressures are generally
used, an injection molding machine has a much higher limit on surface area that can be successfully molded.
Consequently, multi-cavity molds are generally quite common and a family of parts can be produced with one
shot, assuming shot capacity is adequate. On a structural foam machine (a variety of injection molding
machines) there is generally the presence of a multi-nozzle manifold. The stationary platen has a pattern of
holes from which the nozzles on the manifold can be matched up. These are often on a 6”x6” grid which means
that a large part could be filled by using a nozzle at any of the 6” spacings or that a different part could be shot
every 6 inches (or multiples thereof). This allows maximization of the machine’s shot capacity and/or permits
overall cycle time per part to be greatly reduced.
PART DESIGN
Designing parts in Engineering Structural Foam requires the same careful consideration of load, modulus,
fatigue and stress conditions as any product design cycle.
Load Considerations
The mechanical properties of Engineering Structural Foam resins are relatively stable over a wide range of
conditions and are predictable over a range of temperatures. Like all thermoplastics, structural foam resins
exhibit visco-elastic behavior. Therefore, the properties of strength and rigidity depend on the amount of stress,
the rate of loading, and the length of time that the stress is applied, as well as the temperature and environment
in which it is applied. In structural foam, unlike injection molding, the type of process, the degree of density
reduction and the wall thickness will have an effect on the properties of the molded part.
Stress-Strain Curves
The stress-strain curves, exemplified in Figure 12, illustrate the capability of Engineering Structural Foam
resins to withstand short-term loading and the effects of density on tensile properties, measured by ASTM
D638. Tensile properties and proportional limits increase as density increases. On this basis, the designer can
determine a specific gravity of a part appropriate to fulfill performance requirements.
(.250” Wall Thickness)

7000 .95 Specific Gravity

.85 Specific Gravity
6000
Figure 12.
Stress-Strain
Stress (PSI)
5000
Curve @73F.
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4.5
Strain %
Apparent Modulus and Creep

Following the immediate elastic deformation caused by a load, a slower deformation occurs which gradually
approaches a nearly constant rate of flow. This time-dependent behavior is called creep.
The rate of creep in a part will vary with the temperature of the environment and stress in the part. The stress
level where creep becomes negligible is called the creep limit of the material.
The simplest method to compensate for the visco-elastic behavior of Engineering Structural Foam is to work
with the apparent modulus rather than the instantaneous modulus. The apparent modulus is used to predict part
performance at given points in time after initial application of external loads. It is expressed as:
S
E Figure 13.
e1  e2
Where:
S = Induced stress (psi)
e1 = Initial strain (in/in)
e2 = Strain due to creep of the material at a given stress and time (in/in)
e1 = e2 + Total strain
Fatigue Properties
When parts are subject to cyclic loading, fatigue failure can occur below the yield point of a particular structural
foam material. Figure 14 shows the results of fatigue testing conducted at 1800 CPM for two foamable resins.
To determine the fatigue life of a part, the maximum stress of the part is calculated and compared to the fatigue
endurance curve. Stress concentrations should be considered when calculating the maximum stress level.
Since fatigue endurance in thermoplastic materials is dependent on cyclic frequency, this curve can be used as a
guide. For critical applications, prototype testing or computer-aided methods are recommended to assure
satisfactory reliability.

Fatigue strength can be expected to increase with decreasing wall thickness, due to the higher density seen in
thinner wall parts.
(73°F Air, 1800 CPM) (.250” Wall Thickness)

4.5
4
Cyclic Stress 10psi
Flexural Reversed
3.5
.80 SG
3 Figure 14.
2.5 Flexural Fatigue-
2 Fatigue-Endurance.
1.5
1
0.5
0
10*4 10*5 10*6 10*7 10*8
Cycle to Failure
Recommended Maximum Working Stress

Temperature, fatigue and chemical environment are the three critical factors that limit the load bearing
capabilities of structural foam. Actual design limits of foam applications should be determined only after
careful evaluation of each of these factors.
Thermal Stress/Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Thermal stress, caused by the thermal expansion and contraction of a material, can often be the cause of
unexpected part failure. When two materials with greatly dissimilar coefficients of thermal expansion are
combined in assembly, thermal stress is of the greatest concern. Differences in the thermal movement of the
materials may cause problems in tight tolerance and close fit areas, particularly when press fits are used or
inserts are molded-in. Thermal stress can be approximated using the equation:
 t   1   2  ET Figure 15.
Where:
1, 2 are the coefficients of thermal expansion for respective materials
E = Modulus of Material
T = Temperature Change
Structural Design
Unlike most commodity thermoplastic foams, which are not linearly elastic, Engineering Structural Foam resins
enable the designer to accurately predict stresses and deflections resulting from external loads, enhancing the
reliability of short- and long-term performance.
Stresses, strains and deflections can be determined using classical engineering methods. The structure of the
cellular core and solid skin may be considered to be a composite, and the stress analysis performed accordingly
in the composite analysis. An equivalent I-beam section of solid material serves as the cross-section for the
foam part. (See figure 16.)

Figure 16.
Beam
Cross-Section.
The Moment of Inertia of the equivalent I-beam is then formulated as:
bh 3  b  bc  h  2 ts 
3
1x  Figure 17.
12
b Ec
Where: bc 
Es
Ec = Modulus of Core
Es = Modulus of Skin
ts = Thickness of Skin
hc = Height of Equivalent Core
This approach is technically correct, but there are difficulties in measuring the core modulus and the as-molded
variations in skin thickness. Incorrect assumptions in these areas can result in erroneous solutions.
A more conservative approach to analyzing a structural foam part in a load-bearing environment would be to
model the cross-section as two outer skins with no cellular core. (See Figure 18).

Figure 18.
Two Skins with
No Core --
Cross-Section.
The equivalent Moment of Inertia is equal to:
1x 

b h 3  hc 3  Figure 19.
12
Since the cellular core does provide some stress-absorbing characteristics, this analysis should provide a safety
factor. When time or costs do not permit a more detailed analysis, the structural foam cross-section can be
considered to be homogeneous. (See figure 20.)
Figure 20.
Homogeneous
Cross-Section.
(All mechanical properties reported in this manual were determined with the test material being homogeneous
materials -- not composites. Therefore, the reader should assume homogeneity when computing stresses or
deflections, or when referencing this data. The section modulus or moment of inertia of a part's cross-section is
then determined solely by the exterior dimensions of the part. The property values as a function of the
environment can be obtained from the graphs shown).

Bending
The efficient distribution of material in a structural foam cross-section contributes to its excellent flexural
properties. The flexural strength of a structural foam material is significantly higher than its tensile strength,
even though failure in bending is a result of tensile rupture, because the maximum tensile stresses occur in the
outer fiber of the part, which is solid polymer or skin (Figures 21 and 22).
When designing for ultimate failure of a part in bending, the engineer should be cautioned that flexural failure
can occur at the tensile strength limits of the foam. The governing factor is the maximum tensile stress in the
cellular core under flexure. If the distance from the neutral axis to the outer-most cellular core exceeds one-half
inch, failure will occur approximately at the tensile strength of the material. The cellular core will yield and a
stress crack will propagate through the adjoining skin. If that distance is kept under a half inch, flexural failure
will result closer to the reported flexural strength for a standard test specimen.
When optimizing structural members for bending, the designer should select a non-symmetrical cross-section to
allow the placement of the neutral axis so that the maximum bending stresses occur in compression.
Figure 21.
Foam Cross-
Section in
Bending.

Figure 22.
Beam
Cross-Section.
Tension
The apparent tensile strength of any foam material is less than that of the same material in a solid configuration.
Strength is reduced considerably because of the density reduction and stress concentrations caused by each
individual cell. Therefore, tensile stresses should not exceed the proportional limit of the material.
Compression
The compressive strength of a foam material is higher than its tensile strength. In bending, a compressive
failure, although extremely rare, normally involves buckling of the skin and collapse of the cellular core. When
pure compressive stresses are applied, structural foam parts will fail because of a crushed cellular core rather
than from induced tensile stresses resulting from volumetric changes.

The distribution of material in a foam cross-section helps optimize the torsional stiffness-to-weight ratio. In
this case, the cross-section can be thought of as a hollow shaft similar to the analogy of the I-beam effect in
bending. A foam part will have less torsional stiffness than a solid part of the same dimensions. But as weight
is reduced with the introduction of a cellular core, the polar moment of inertia is only decreased a fraction of
that same amount. This is because the inertia is a function of the fourth power of the ratio of the inner diameter
to the outer diameter.
Twisting and racking of structural foam parts can be offset with the use of molded-in ribs. For example, a
square plate would resist torsion if diagonal ribs were molded-in to help avoid deflections. In this case, the ribs
would be put into tension and compression, and strains would be significantly reduced because of the increased
polar moment of inertia.
Figure 23.
Rib
Cross-Section.
Very often a plate analysis is required for a foam structural design. As with beams, plates can be analyzed
using standard engineering methods. However, a foam structure requiring rigidity will normally consist of a
cross-pattern of ribs rather than a uniformly thick wall. Since handbooks will give plate equations in terms of
uniform thickness, ribbed plate design thickness must be calculated, and is based on equivalent moments of
inertia between the flat and ribbed sections. (See figure 23).

• Straight Injection Molding

• Low Pressure Structural Foam Molding
• High Pressure Structural Foam Molding
• Gas Counter Pressure Structural Foam Molding
• Nitrogen Injection Structural Foam Molding
• Gas Co-Injection Structural Foam Molding
• Gas-Assist Molding
• Chemical Gas Assist
• CoralFoam®
• Over Molding Structural Foam Molding
PROCESSING METHODS
SFM parts may be made by low or high pressure processes. Pressure refers to the mold cavity pressure. Low
pressure SFM is produced by incorporating SAFOAM with a resin and injecting a “short shot” (less than the
mold cavity volume) into the mold. The screw must be allowed to bottom out, that is, no pad or cushion should
exist for the forward movement of the screw. This allows the gas to expand and evolve in the polymer melt
while in the mold. The gas released by SAFOAM expands the resin to fill the cavity. Since the mold cavity is
not completely filled with resin, the pressure in the mold is only that generated by the SAFOAM. Low
pressure SFM is produced in a variety of equipment.
SFM on conventional machines (Figure 24) is possible, but some modifications are recommended if good
quality parts are to be produced. The most important modification is the use of a positive nozzle shut-off valve
to prevent drooling of the resin which causes variation in part weight and nozzle freeze-up. The shut-off nozzle
may be spring, mechanically, or hydraulically operated.
Conventional Injection Molding Machine
Figure 24.
A typical
injection
molding
machine
with major
elements
identified.

Specialized Low Pressure SFM Machines
Figure 25.
Schematic
illustration of
low-pressure
injection
molding.
There are machines that are specifically built for the production of low pressure SFM. These machines offer
the advantages of fast injection speed, large shot capacity and platens. Because lower clamp tonnages are used,
the tooling is less expensive. Reciprocating screw, or two-stage screw, plasticating/ram-injection machines are
available.
Low Pressure Process with Chemical Blowing Agents

In this type of process, a chemical blowing agent such as SAFOAM is first blended with plastic pellets, and the
mix is then introduced at the feed point of the molding machine. During processing, the blowing agent is
exposed to sufficient heat to cause its decomposition, thus giving off the gas necessary to achieve the foaming
process.
The equipment used for a low pressure structural foam process with chemical blowing agents is very similar to
that used in injection molding. In fact, standard injection molding machines are used in many cases, giving the
injection molder the flexibility of processing structural foam.
Low Pressure SFM parts generally show characteristic surface splay (or swirl marks) caused by gas bubbles
escaping from the leading edge of the molten plastic and being smeared due to the laminar flow. SAFOAM
normally produces smoother surfaces than other chemical foaming agents, and techniques such as increased
mold temperatures and fast injection speeds with increased mold pressure can reduce surface splay.

Co-Injection Machine
Figure 26.
Schematic
illustration of
two-
component
molding:
A. initial
position
B. injection of
skin material
C. transition
phase
D. injection of
core material
E. additional
injection of
skin material.
Co-Injection (Sandwich) SFM Machines

Co-injection (or sandwich) molding machines are capable of injecting both solid and foamed resins
simultaneously through specially designed nozzle systems. This results in a solid outer layer covering a foamed
core. Different resins can be used for skin and core, and since the skin is solid, the parts have an excellent
surface quality. The ability to use a different resin for the core can also reduce costs.
Gas Counter-Pressure SFM

In the gas counter-pressure method, inert gas charged in molten polymer is contained until the entire shot is
injected into the cavity. This prevents simultaneous expansion and produces a molded part with a smooth
comparable to a solid part
Gas counter-pressure SFM utilizes a sealed mold and sequencing valves to pressurize the mold from a gas (e.g.,
nitrogen) pressure source. The purpose for the sealed mold is to control the gas pressure during injection. Use
of SAFOAM means that low gas counter pressure (40-60 psi) can be used. Sealing the mold usually involves
machining an O-ring groove around the parting line to accept sealing material such as neoprene. Recommended
groove dimensions are .170" deep by .182" wide (.432 x .463 cm), for a .188" (.476 cm) O-ring. It may also be
necessary to seal ejector pins, the sprue bushing and moving slides or cores to maintain a seal adequate to hold
35-300 psi counter-pressure. Thus, the process should be considered as a tooling modification rather than one
that requires specialized molding equipment.
The steps in the process are as follows: clamping the mold, pressurizing the cavity, injecting the resin,
depressurizing and ejecting the part. This sequence has no significant effect on either cycle or cure time.
Just before the injection stroke begins, the mold is pressurized, and this pressure is maintained during about
75% of the injection stroke. Pressurization is accomplished by connecting the mold to a supply of filtered, dry

compressed air, or, more frequently, nitrogen. At this point the sequencing valves isolate the pressure source
and also release the pressure from the mold. Solenoid-controlled valves regulate both gas intake and venting to
depressurize the cavity. The gas pressure prevents escape of the foaming gas while the mold is almost filled
and a solid skin is formed. The amount of gas is controlled by pressure transducers or regulators. Release of
the mold pressure permits the gas to expand to fill the mold completely. (Figure 27)
A. Melt and blowing agent forced into Figure 27.

accumulator. Steps of
B. Melt forced into pressurized mold
SFM
cavity. process.
C. Gas counter-pressure pressure is

relieved, and excess foamed material
in mold is forced into accumulator.
D. Mold is opened and part ejected.
The more blowing agent used, the higher the counter-pressure required to contain bubble growth, although 300
psi is usually sufficient. Table 4 shows the relationship of wall thickness and counter-pressure requirements.
Normal Counter-Pressure Range

Wall Thickness % Blowing Agent Pressure Required
.150 5 400-500
.500 5 300-400
.250 5 200-300
.300 5 300-500
Table 4.
With a tightly sealed mold, gas counter-pressure processing produces a part with a cellular core and a smooth
surface. Although a Class A surface is achievable, slight imperfections may occur, but are easily masked with a
mist coat of paint. Density reduction is normally less than that of a similar part molded with the low pressure
foam process. The exact amount of density will be determined by wall thickness, flow length, part
configuration and processing conditions.
The gas counter-pressure method does offer a number of advantages. Because expansion of the polymer does
not occur until the entire shot is injected, cell structure is evenly distributed throughout the part. This provides
a predictable, uniform mechanical property profile and reduces the possibility of over-packed and over-stressed

sections that can result in poor dimensional control and warping. Counter-pressure produces a much thicker
and non-porous skin, sealing in the gases that usually permeate the porous skin of conventional foam parts.
The addition of SAFOAM to the mix allows parts to be painted directly from the mold without blistering. In
addition, volatiles that sometimes rise to the surface of parts are kept in solution, greatly reducing liquid build-
up in vent areas and on the parting line.
Direct-gassed Nitrogen SFM

The physical or nitrogen process requires specialized foam molding equipment in which nitrogen gas is metered
directly into the polymer melt. The extruder section of the machine then mixes and meters the gas-containing
polymer melt into a holding container called an accumulator. Here, the melt is held under pressure to prevent
premature expansion. When the predetermined shot size is attained in the accumulator, a valve opens and a
plunger forces the melt into the mold - only partially filling it to allow for expansion. It should be noted that
one or more nozzles are used for filling the mold cavity, and that the number and location of these nozzles is
determined after considering resin flow characteristics, part configuration, and other requirements of the
application.
The mild foaming nature of SAFOAM, an endothermic product, imparts a much higher level of control to the
structural foam process. Use of SAFOAM as a nucleating agent, which produces smaller bubbles, (up to 0.5%
of 100% active SAFOAM or SAFOAM concentrate up to 2%) will give smoother surfaces and fewer voids,
because it allows better dispersion of gas into small, numerous, uniform cells. This improved gas dispersion is
essential in thin walls to obtain a significant weight reduction. A reduction of 10% or more is possible with
SAFOAM that is not possible with nitrogen alone.
Figure 28.

Foaming Agent Weight, ozs. % Weight Reduction

Nitrogen 52.2 16.8
Exothermic 53.5 14.7
Endothermic (SAFOAM) 53.5 14.7
Nitrogen + Exothermic 50.3 19.8
Nitrogen + SAFOAM 48.1 23.3
Table 5.
High Pressure SFM

Specialized machines are used for high pressure SFM. A full shot of foamable resin is injected at pressures
normal for the resin used. The mold cooling forms a solid skin and then the expansion of the melt occurs by
retracting a platen or platens, core or slide activation, or a combination of the techniques, to enlarge the mold
cavity.
The high pressure SFM process provides a better reproduction of mold cavity detail and a surface essentially
free of surface splay, which often eliminates post molding finishing operations, if the correct processing
conditions are used. It is also possible to vary density by controlling the mold expansion so that weight
reduction is restricted to non-critical areas. Areas where high strength is required can essentially be solid resin.
Guidelines for high pressure foam molding regarding clamp requirements, material flow, and basic mold
configuration are quite similar to those for injection molding. However, the increased complexity of expansion
molds results in higher tooling costs than in low pressure molding.
Gas Co-Injection is a two-component molding technique. One component completely encapsulates the other,
thereby allowing us to call the outside component the “skin”, and the inner component the “core”. No shuttling
or rotating of tools or machine platens takes place, as in some other two-component processes. Both material
components are shot through a common nozzle assembly. The two resin components are delivered from
independent in-line reciprocating screw-type barrels, each with its own profile of temperature, pressure, and
injection velocity. The two barrels share a common nozzle assembly, which is the backbone of the process.
This nozzle assembly provides two concentric flow chambers for the respective resins.
Gas Assist Molding is being realized as a method that can offer significant cost reductions over other processes
by taking certain operations out of the manufacturing sequence. Gas assist injection molding offers most of the
manufacturing and design advantages that a customer looks for. These include good surface finish, good
structure, and a shorter cycle time - all of which add up to a notable cost reduction.
Chemical Gas Assist Molding will enable designers to produce molding with thin and thick sections without
processing problems, built in stresses or sink marks. To produce molded products that have wall sections
between 0.04 inches and 0.4 inches or more in a single molding with ease, it is necessary to add only .1% to
.5% active level of an endothermic blowing agent, such as SAFOAM.
CoralFoam® is a process with selective foaming ability done outside the tool and is capable of achieving a
Class A surface.

Over Molding is a process consisting of two shells molded in separate cavities. This technique allows uniform
wall thickness and, if required, interior ribs or bosses as well as inserts. The shells are then temporarily
attached by simple snap or press fits and installed into a second tool for overmolding. For best results in
sealing, the flange temperature should be elevated prior to injecting the overmold material. In contrast to
encapsulation, the surface temperature of the flanges allow the overmold material to adhere, creating a better
seal. The best time for the seam to be injected is directly after the halves have been molded.
PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
Standard Injection Machines

Very satisfactory results can be obtained by processing Reedy International's foaming agents with foamable
resins on standard injection machines. Quality parts can be produced as long as the machine and process
limitations are recognized and considered in part/process design. These limitations include:
 Distance of flow from the nozzle, or single point of entry, to the most distant edge of the part. This
shortcoming of flow can, in many cases, be overcome by increasing part thickness or improving runner
design.
 Platen size, when inadequate, requires that molds be centered rather than placed for optimum results.
 Shot size is limited to the free area inside the barrel in front of the injection screw.
 Injection speed is limited to the design of the hydraulic system of the injection machine.
Chemical Structural Foam Machines

Like standard injection machines, chemical structural foam machines are designed for flow from a single point
of entry into the mold. This, however, is where the similarity ends. The primary advantages of foam machines
include:
 Oversized platens relative to clamp tonnage, enabling the use of large molds and the placement of these
molds for optimum processing.
 Extremely high injection speeds in the range of 1,000 cubic inches per second.
 Large shot capacity. With these machines, material is "stored" in an accumulator and then injected into
the mold. Since the size of the accumulator is virtually the only limitation on shot size, this is a
considerable advantage over single-nozzle machines, which in reality are also limited by resin flow
length, hydraulic system design and other process variables.
Physical or Inert Gas Machines

Designed specifically for processing structural foam resins, these machines utilize inert gas, usually nitrogen. A
very long extruder charges a plastic accumulator, and the resin/gas mix is then injected through a manifold
system feeding one or more nozzles.
Machines of this type, suitable for very large parts and multiple-mold production, require adequate temperature
control, as well as streamlined flow in transfer tubes, manifold and nozzles, to properly process engineering
structural foam.

MOLDING
Machine Settings
To achieve optimum results when foam molding resins, certain basic criteria must be maintained and
monitored:
 sufficient clamping pressures
 proper mold temperatures
 proper melt temperatures
 proper injection, hold and back pressures
 proper injection speed
Each application may require independent determination of optimal machine settings within the ranges
described for each material.
Clamping Force
A number of variables affect correct clamping, including projected surface area, thickness of the part, length of
flow from the gate, injection pressure and injection speed. Figure 29 illustrates typical clamp requirements.
2500
2000 Typical Clamp

Requirements Figure 29.
1500 Typical Clamp
Requirements.
1000
500
0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Wall Thickness
Melt Temperatures
Although the flexibility of foamable resins allows them to be processed at relatively wide temperature ranges,
the optimum temperature for a given part depends on the machine used, the part’s geometry and complexity, the
flow lengths required, and other considerations. Reedy International has technical help available at your
request. Please find our contact information on www.reedyintl.com for support and assistance.

Mold Temperatures
Although it is possible to use molds without temperature controls, controlled molds are recommended for
foamable resins, as they can substantially influence the following parameters:
 surface appearance
 molded-in stresses
 shrinkage/release
 dimensions
 juicing
Cooling
Efficient cooling is essential in SFM to minimize cycle times. It is defined as the time between the end of
injection and the opening of the mold. The actual cooling time required may vary depending upon part size and
complexity. It is very important where the part has thick sections, because that will determine the cycle.
Cooling efficiency is much poorer when using epoxy molds. The benefits of SAFOAM in this area are: 1)
reduction in cycle times of 3-50%, 2) lower clamp forces, 3) improved filling due to lower viscosity, 4) lower
internal stresses, 5) more molecular disorientation, and 6) lower filling temperatures.
Mold Cooling
To produce uniform, high quality Engineering Structural Foam Parts, mold temperature control is of utmost
importance. Temperature differentials in the mold can cause unpredictable thermal expansion of large molds,
creating alignment problems. Difficult-to-cool areas, such as high cores, should receive special attention so as
to avoid hot spots. Water channels should be designed to maintain uniform temperature and avoid cold spots.
Proper mold temperature, aided by SAFOAM, contributes to good surface finish, low molded-in stresses,
uniform predictable flow, proper cell structure and uniform skin thickness.
Pressure Settings
Injection Pressure. Pressure should be sufficient to maintain constant injection speed. Pressure levels depend
on:
 the type and grade of material

 material viscosity
 complexity of the part
 quality of the mold
 type of gating
Hold Pressure. Although usually not necessary, hold pressure can be utilized to delay screw drive, resulting in
shorter residence time.

Injection Speed
The most efficient method of figuring injection speed is by measuring with a stopwatch or electronic device.
The ideal injection speed is determined by several factors:
 part weight
 flow length
 wall thickness
 gate and runner design
 part configuration
 density and surface requirements
Functional Design
The structural foam process permits molded parts with sections thicker than can be realized in injection molding
without sink marks and warpage problems. Traditionally, structural foam parts were designed with .250"
(6.35mm) wall thickness. Now with engineering resins, parts can be designed with wall sections as low as .04"
(1mm) and up to .4" (10mm) or higher with as little as .1% to .5% active level of an endothermic blowing agent
such as SAFOAM. The design criteria of a structural foam part must be considered before choosing the
optimum wall thickness and material for an application. The main considerations are impact strength, rib
design, boss design, and the strengths and moduli required for a properly functioning part. Flexural strength,
flexural modulus, and tensile strength increase with decreasing wall thickness. This is due to lower density
reductions and higher skin-to-core ratios seen more in thinner walls than in thicker ones.
Rigidity, load-bearing ability, and impact strength decrease with decreasing wall thickness, since they are more
dependent on part cross-section than density reduction. The effect of wall thickness on rib and boss design will
be covered later in this section.
Wall Thickness and Material Flow Lengths

In order to achieve thicker wall sections than injection molding with lower stresses and no sinks, it is important
to maintain a good and consistent density reduction throughout the part. To obtain these characteristics, the part
must be designed so the material can flow and readily fill the mold.
As all section thickness and ram pressure increase, the flow length of foamable resins increases. Higher melt
and mold temperatures also add to flow length and the ability to lower density. SAFOAM converts to liquid
CO2, which acts as a lubricant, improving flow and mold filling.

Figure 30 shows the relationship of wall thickness and flow for various resins.
350
300 Resin A
Figure 30.
Wall Thickness
Resin B
250 Wall Thickness
Resin C
200 vs. Flow.
Resin D
150
100
50
0
0 10 15 20 25 30
Flow (inches)
In molding wall thicknesses below .250" (6.35mm), there is a higher resistance to flow which must be
overcome by increasing injection pressure. Wall sections above .250" (6.35mm) have minimal opposition to
flow. These variations in resistance to flow could result in lower achievable density reductions and shorter flow
lengths in thinner walls than thicker ones.
However, recommended melt temperatures yield optimum physical properties. Exceeding these melt
temperatures produces lower physical properties with little or no increase in flow length. If flow lengths for the
chosen material exceed the recommended values, two methods can be employed to increase flow capability:
1. The cross-section-to-material flow can be increased by adding flow ribs or runners. These should not
become too large or the material will flow down the rib and have trouble filling the flat sections and part
cycle time may be increased.
2. By slightly increasing wall thickness by .030" - .0500", material flow capabilities may be enhanced to
alleviate molding problems in difficult-to-fill areas such as between louvers, where a flow runner is not
sufficient.
Transition Sections
Transition sections from thick to thin walls are more easily achievable without sink marks in structural foam
than in injection molding. Still, uniform wall thickness should be maintained whenever possible to minimize
restrictions to material flow.
Transition from thick to thin walls should be tapered for proper processing of the structural foam part. In
molding parts with wall sections of varying thicknesses, it is often better to gate the part in the thin section and
allow the material to flow into the thicker area.

Figure 31.
Wall
Thickness
Transition.
Fillets and Radii

Sharp corners create points of stress concentration and restrict material flow in a structural foam part. They are
often a major cause of part failure. The effect of fillet radius on stress concentration is shown in Figure 32.
Kt is the concentration factor and should be included in the equation for stress calculations. R/T is the ratio of
the fillet radius to the part section thickness. Use as large a radius as possible on inside and outside corners to
minimize this stress concentration and aid in mold filling. In most parts, the minimum inside radius should be
.060". If the section is under load or subject to impact, a minimum radius of .125" should be adopted.
A radius equal to 0.6 times the wall thickness will provide a desirable fillet for practical purposes.
4
Stress Concentration
3.5 Line A
Figure 32.
3
2.5
Stress-
2 Concentration
Kt
1.5 Factors.
1
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
R/T Ratio
Tolerances/Warpage Control
Tolerance specification is extremely important in product design as it can directly affect both part cost and the
ability to perform properly. The practice of blanket tolerancing on a drawing can result in unnecessary cost,
both in the part and the tool.
The final dimensions on a part are affected by:

 thermal expansion and contraction
 processing conditions
 mold dimensions and design
 part configuration
 material selection

The key to tolerance and warpage control in a structural foam part is to achieve a good and consistent density
reduction throughout the part. Some general guidelines for obtaining this density reduction and subsequent
flatness are:
 Maintain uniform wall thickness throughout the part. Thick sections will not only cause increased cycle
times, but may contribute to part warpage.
 Minimize restrictions to material flow. Omit ribs unless absolutely necessary and orient louvers in the
direction of the flow.
 Remain within the flow length of a material to reduce the chances of part overpacking. Add flow ribs or
gates close to openings to minimize overpacking.
Tighter tolerance and flatter parts can be realized by means of the structural foam process rather than injection
molding, since lower induced stresses result from lower cavity pressures.
Draft Angles
As in injection molding, draft angles are necessary in structural foam molding. Because of the lower pressures
involved in foam molding, smaller draft angles can be tolerated in certain cases. The wall thickness of a part
will influence the amount of draft necessary to release a part. As wall thickness decreases, larger draft angles
will be required. This is due to the higher cavity pressures in the mold which will make the part more difficult
to release from the tool. Generally, an angle of 0.5 to 3 will provide sufficient draft to release a part. (Figures
33 and 34 show the result and taper per inch for varying draft angles.) On very deep draws such as tall
standoffs and ribs, the increase in base width due to draft must be considered. A base that is too thick can result
in sink marks, postblow conditions, or increased part cycle time. In certain situations, zero degree draft can be
incorporated, depending on part configuration, material shrinkage, wall thickness, mold design, and mold
material.
Textured surfaces generally require an additional 1 draft per 0.001 inch depth of texture. For best results,
consult your engraver for depth versus pattern before specifying the draft requirements.
Figure 33.
Draft Angle
Taper Per
Inch.
DRAFT ANGLES, Degrees

1/8º 1/4º 1/2º 1º 2º 3º 4º
Taper per
inch .0022 .0044 .0087 .0175 .0349 .0524 .0699

Figure 34.
Draft Angle
Taper Per
Inch.
Snap-fits
The superior rigidity and strength of structural foam parts permit increased utilization of snap-fits for assembly
and for mounting heavy components in bases. A quick and extremely economical assembly method, snap-
fitting eliminates the need for added screws, brackets, and fasteners, significantly reducing labor and assembly
costs.
Stress, deflection, and strain are the primary criteria in determining the stiffness and assembly force required for
optimum performance of snap-fits. Equations for a cantilevered beam with constant cross-section are used as
models when designing snap-fits in structural foam parts:
FLC FL3 3 yC
  y  Figure 35.
I 3EI l2
Where:  = stress F = Load

y = deflection L = Length of Beam
 = strain E = Modulus of material
I = Moment of inertia C = Distance from neutral
of cross-section axis to extreme fiber
Figure 36.
Snap-Fit and
Pull-Off Lead
Angle.
To facilitate pull-off, an angled lead can be designed to function in the same way as the push-on lead angle. To
stay within the maximum allowable strain, the height of the lead ramp should never exceed the calculated
deflection.

If the snap-fit is designed as a tapered beam, a separate set of beam equations must be used. The primary
design criteria in this analysis are given by the following equations:
3
6F  LR 
yt  
Eb  h1  R 
 2

 2 InR  3  R  4 R WhereR 
h
b
Figure 37.
6FL 3yhs
 2

bh 2 Ks L2
Where b = Beam width

ho = Height of tapered beam at tip
hs = Height of tapered beam at base
Ks = Proportionality Constant = (yt/yc)
yt = Deflection of tapered beam

yc = Deflection of constant thickness beam
The above analysis considers the theoretical perpendicular force required to deflect the beam a specified
distance. In actual performance the force is applied via a lead-in angle. Thus the actual force required to bend
the beam is a function of the tangent of the lead angle (i.e., F insertion = F bending tan). A small lead angle gives a
lower assembly force. For example, changing the lead angle from 45 to 30 decreases the lead-in force by
42%.
The maximum stress level can be varied by changing the required deflection for insertion (y), the length of the
beam (L), the thickness of the beam (h), or a combination of all three.
Hinges
Properly designed, integral structural foam hinges offer fatigue strength comparable to metal, while eliminating
costly bracketry and assembly time. Hinges can be designed to be either hidden or visible, depending on their
location in the part. A number of basic hinge designs are practical for structural foam parts, several of which
are discussed below.
Full Pin Hinge

Design. The full pin hinge usually consists of barrels molded on each mating piece. Each of these barrels is
cored through and a metal pin is extended the full length of the part. Since disassembly requires removal of the
pin, the lift-off feature is not practical with this type of hinge.
The length of the hinge and the diameter of the metal pin are the determining factors in whether the full pin
hinge can be molded. When the length of the hinge is restricted by the permissible length of the side pull, a
partial pin hinge may be necessary.
Figure 38.
Full Pin
Hinge.
Load Bearing Ability. The full pin hinge has the highest load-bearing ability of any of the types discussed,
because the metal pin distributes the loading the full length of the part.
Cost. This type of hinge also has the highest tooling cost. Both mating pieces require side pulls to produce a
through-hole the entire length of the part.
Partial Pin Hinge

Design. The design of the partial pin hinge is similar to the full pin hinge except that the center barrels are
cored to produce a U-shaped section, and pins are inserted from each end. This type of design permits long
hinges to be molded with side pulls only at each end. The partial pin hinge does not allow a lift-off door.
Load-Bearing Ability. When the hinge is in the open position, the U-shaped sections assist in load bearing and
provide a uniform appearance along the length of the hinge.
Cost. The tooling cost for this design is less than for the full pin hinge because only the two barrels at the ends
require side pulls. The central barrels can be molded with straight pull tooling.
Figure 39.
Partial Pin
Hinge.
Projected Pin Hinge

Design. The projected pin hinge normally has two barrels molded on each mating piece. Pins projecting from
the barrels on one piece fit into holes in the other piece. In this design, the part with the pins is easily removed
to facilitate access for repairs, etc.

Figure 40.
Projected Pin
Hinge.
Load-Bearing Ability. When both mating surfaces are flush and a load is applied, the latch and hinges
withstand the load. However, when the mating surfaces and hinge are in the open position, the load-bearing
ability of the hinge is relatively low, since only the small cross-sectional area of the projected pins are
withstanding the load in shear.
Cost. Tooling cost for projected pin type hinges is relatively low, since only the part with the holes requires
side pulls in the tool.
Simulated Hole Hinge

Design. This design incorporates a hole in the barrel-shaped pieces without the use of side pulls. This is
accomplished by coring U-shaped areas on the outsides of the barrels - two facing downward and one facing
upward. Mating the barrels creates a through-hole to accept a metal pin. This type of hinge does not permit
easy lift-off, since the entire pin must be removed. Also, completely hidden hinges are not possible with this
design due to tool pull.
Load-Bearing Ability. The load-bearing ability of the simulated hole hinge can be improved by increasing the
bearing surface on the outside U-shaped portions of the barrel.
Cost. The tooling cost for this type of hinge is potentially the lowest of the types discussed since no side pulls
are required for either mating piece.
Figure 41.
Simulated
Hole Hinge.

Bosses
Bosses can be easily incorporated into structural foam parts to accept fasteners and support components. In
many applications, the addition of molded-in bosses, mounting pads, stand-offs and retainers can replace costly
brackets and miscellaneous small metal part assemblies.
In Engineering Structural Foam, there appears to be an optimum boss diameter for the best insert performance.
Experimentation has shown the optimum boss diameter to be 1.6 to 2.0 times the diameter of the cored hole,
with a minimum boss wall thickness of .080" (2mm). When a boss wall thickness becomes too thin, the walls
will have higher stress concentration and will be subject to breakage. If the boss wall becomes too thick, there
will be a greater chance of voids in the boss and it will behave somewhat like a pressure vessel. Hoop stresses
will increase with increasing wall thickness due to the distribution of material in a cross-section. Thicker
bosses are not necessarily stronger; they can result in an increased cycle time and ensuing part cost.
When utilizing bosses with wall thicknesses less than .120" (3mm), gussets or connecting ribs should be used
for added strength. Bosses should be cored whenever possible to prevent the formation of a thick section in the
part. Generous fillets should be designed in order to avoid stress concentration and resist torque loading.
Figure 42.
Bosses.
Ribs
The addition of ribs will increase the rigidity and load-bearing capability of a structural foam part without
increasing the wall thickness. In addition, ribs can reduce the cycle time and materials cost associated with
thicker wall sections. Unlike injection molding, the structural foam process permits the use of thicker, and thus
shorter, ribs for maximum rigidity opposite appearance surfaces without risk of sink marks. The surrounding
wall thickness and resulting density reduction determines the thickness of ribs that can be designed without sink
marks. Tall ribs that become very thin at the tip may cause problems with mold filling and will be areas of
higher stress concentration.

Figure 43.
Rib Design.
Guides
Molded-in structural foam guides can be used to locate printed circuit boards or any modular units, eliminating
the need for metal bracketry or metal bending operations. Because of the strength and rigidity of the material,
guides can be designed with snap-stops. The formulas given for snap-fits can be used to determine performance
criteria for molded-in snap-stops. Horizontal card guides can also be molded in the center of a part with straight
pull tooling technique.
Zero degree draft on guides is possible over limited areas when the wall section of the part is over .200" (5mm).
With wall sections less than .200", the draft angle should be increased to .5 since cavity pressures are higher
and the part will have a greater tendency to stick to the mold.
A technique to get the solid fit that 0 draft provides on a card guide without pulling it a long distance is to start
with 0 draft for one inch where the card meets with the mother board and then increase the draft to .5-1.0 for
the remaining distance.
Figure 44.
Tapered Draft.

Louvers
Molding in louvers in structural foam parts eliminates costly metal stamping operations. In addition, louvers
provide cooling capabilities to offset the insulative properties of plastic. Deflectors can also be molded in to
channel the flow of air for maximum cooling.
Whenever possible, louvers should be oriented in the direction of material flow. In designs where this is not
feasible, a runner should be located between louvers to channel the material to the outside of the louvers.
To utilize straight pull tooling for louvers located on the side of a structural foam part, the louvers can be
designed to extend over the top corner of the part. When louvers are molded with a side pull, a witness line
results around the core. Costly sanding operations are usually required to remove this line. Recess the area
0.020" and witness lines appear to be designed-in, thus reducing finishing costs.
Figure 45.
Louver with
Material
Flow.
Nozzle Design
The structural foam process requires control of the nozzle to eliminate drool and maintain fast flow. Since this
must be accomplished without using decompression or "suck back" so that the material does not foam
prematurely, the most desirable method of nozzle control is a well-designed shut-off that will not restrict
injection speed.
If a nozzle shut-off is not available, the effects of the drool may be minimized by closely controlling the
temperature of the tip of the nozzle.
The nozzle land should be .188" (.476 cm) and the orifice should be .188" (.476 cm) minimum. When using a
long nozzle, it is recommended that two heating zones be employed: one to maintain melt temperature in the
main body and one to heat the tip for drool control.
In the nitrogen process, Teflon, or other non-thermally-conductive nozzle tips are extremely helpful in
preventing nozzle "freeze-off," as well as creating a better seal than the normal metal-to-metal nozzle.

TOOLING
Molds
Many materials have been used in the construction of structural foam production molds, and the choice of mold
material depends upon a number of factors such as part design (plastic material and geometry), number of parts
to be produced, plastic molding process and mold design. The particular usefulness of steels stems from the
unique combination of properties achievable through alloying additions and suitable heat treatment.
Specific properties of steels that can be modified to achieve desirable characteristics are: hardness, wear
resistance, corrosion resistance, strength and toughness. No other class of mold materials is as versatile as steel.
While cast molds have been produced in aluminum, beryllium-copper and alloys with satisfactory results,
machine molds are most commonly constructed of aluminum, mild steel or pre-hardened steel.
Structural foam molds are usually designed to withstand 1,000 psi, but the actual pressure is in the range of
300-400 psi. These low molding pressures permit the use of lower cost molds and “soft” metals. Therefore, in
low pressure SFM, molds can be made of less expensive materials such as forged or supported cast aluminum,
Kirksite, steel, or epoxy, because of the low clamping forces required.
Steel molds are generally used in high pressure SFM where high clamp tonnages are required. Steel is specified
primarily because of its abuse resistance. The softer materials scratch easily, lose their fine finish during long
production runs and require care and high maintenance.
The most common tool steels used for plastic molds are AISI P-20, H-13, S-7, A-2 and A-6. The introduction
of new molding materials, higher temperatures, and higher injection and clamping pressures has created a need
for better corrosion resistance, improved control of mold temperature and higher compression strength. A
plastic manufacturer’s most important demands on tool steel for long lasting molds are as follows:
 high compression strength  good wear-resistance

 excellent corrosion-resistance  good thermal conductivity
 easy machinability  good polishability
 easy repairability
There is always a risk of indentation of the parting lines, but the risk decreases with increasing compressive
strength on the part of the tool steel used. High compressive strength is also desirable because the tools are
liable to mechanical damage during transport and installation. In some cases, the tools are nitrided to prevent
the cavity from becoming scored or otherwise spoiled.

To improve the strength of the plastic product, an addition of glass fiber, asbestos, wood fibre, etc., is frequently
made. These substances have an abrasive effect on parting lines, runner gates and inlet nozzles. For such
products, it can therefore be advisable to choose a particularly wear-resistant tool steel.
Corrosion Resistance. Practically all molds used for molding come into contact with cooling water. The
cooling water is sometimes contaminated with small amounts of acids and salts. In all water-cooled parts, such
as inserts, molds, frames and holders, corrosion is likely to occur. Some plastics are also corrosive to the mold
material. After a time, therefore, the tool must be taken out of service and cleaned.
A brief pause in production and high humidity can cause the mold to perspire, which causes the mold to rust,
especially in seams. This corrosion can cause serious problems with dismantling the tool, since the parts
become difficult to separate.
Thermal Conductivity. The limitation in maintaining a high production pace lies in the ability of the mold to
conduct heat away from the plastic item. In this context, the thermal conductivity to the material is obviously
important, as are heat transfer between tool and coolant and heat transport through the coolant.
Heat Treatment. The purpose of heat treating a finished tool is to retain suitable mechanical properties, such
as hardness, toughness, and strength. The principal problems that arise in association with heat treatment are
distortion and dimensional changes. To minimize these problems, the tool should be stress-relieved after rough
machining. Some changes are inevitable during hardening, and while it is possible to limit and control them to
a certain extent, the safest way is to use pre-hardened steel, for which no additional heat treatment is required.
Sprues, Runners and Gates and Gate Locations

Sprues, runners and gates are normally made as generous as possible, but not so large as to cause an increase in
cycle time or in the amount of regrind generated.
Sprues
Sprues are usually tapered from the nozzle to the mold to reduce melt expansion to a minimum. A standard
sprue bushing of .5" to .75" taper per foot (1.270 to 1.906 cm per meter) with a minimum "0" dimension of
.219" (.557 cm) is recommended for use in injection machines. They should be of the minimum length possible
to avoid cycle time increases and reduce unnecessary shear and to minimize adverse effects on polymer flow
and injection speed.
Runners
Runners should be large enough to allow fast injection speeds. They should be designed to ensure that pressure
is maintained on the melt to prevent premature expansion. On multi-cavity molds, the runner system should be
designed so that mold fill-rates are balanced.
Full round and trapezoidal runner profiles are recommended in molds for Engineering Structural Foam. Full
round runners should be a minimum of .375" (.952 cm) diameter, and depending on flow length, injection speed
and part weight, can be as large as .75" (1.906 cm) diameter. Runners should be kept as short as possible. Cold
slug wells should be included at the end of primary and secondary runners.

Gates
Gates should be sized to ensure fast and complete fill of the mold. Width and thickness of gates are usually
smaller than part thickness to make removal from the part easy and to prevent an increase in cycle time.
Where possible, gates in foamed parts should be in the thinnest area to allow the low pressure melt to flow more
easily into the thicker sections, and to ensure that the thinner sections are completely filled.
Engineering Structural Foam resins can be molded using common gate designs. The most frequently used types
are direct-sprue and edge gates. Tunnel and pinpoint gates can be used, but should be limited to small parts
with short flow lengths. Gates for structural foam perform the function of balancing flow to all parts of the
mold. The gates, however, should not restrict injection speed. Gate land length and design can determine
surface quality when trying to achieve an as-molded aesthetic part. If the gate and nozzle are increased and the
vents are decreased, maintaining tool pressure of 35 psi, the increased mold pressure would greatly improve
surface quality by eliminating splay.
Gate Locations
The following are important considerations in selecting gate locations:
 gates should allow for uniform flow lengths.

 gates should be located so as not to trap air.
 gates should favor flow into thin areas.
 gates should move weld lines away from impact and appearance areas.
 gates should be located in areas that will allow for easy degating and finishing.
Vents
In order to properly fill molds, it is essential to evacuate entrapped air and gas from the mold cavity. This is
most readily accomplished by employing multiple vents in the mold. The amount of venting required depends
upon the volume of gas to be evacuated and the rate at which it must be evacuated. High temperatures and air
restriction as the mold fills can also cause burning of the part in the vent area.
The following guidelines are recommended when venting a mold:
 Machine relief slots to a width of .500" to .750" (1.270 to 1.906 cm) and a depth of .032" (.795 cm).
Allow .25" (.635 cm) land at the extremes of flow (in the far corners, for example) and at 3" (7.62
cm) centers around the parting line. It is extremely important not to connect the relief slots.
 Machine vents 0.003" (.008 cm) deep at the extremes of flow and at difficult-to-fill areas.
 Progressively open vents as required to produce a part of consistent density and acceptable surface.
(NOTE: Injection speed will affect density and surface; adjustments in injection speed should be
made at the same time vents are being modified, so that an optimum combination is found.)

Figures 46, 47 and 48 illustrate typical venting methods that may be used alone or in combination to vent
molds.
Figure 46.
Parting Vent
Lines.
Figure 47.
Ejector Pins and
Sleeves.
Figure 48.
Openings.

SECONDARY OPERATIONS
Painting
Durable paint systems have been developed for structural foam parts which require fewer finishing steps than
for metal fabrications. These systems add color, gloss, texture and solvent, UV and mar-resistance to the
substrate.
Although well-molded parts can be coated without any surface preparation, structural foam parts are often
lightly sanded to promote paint adhesion, or to remove surface imperfections that cannot be remedied by
tooling changes or processing improvements. Parts should be totally free of surface contamination before
painting. Counter-pressure paint systems sometimes differ from those used for standard structural foam.
SAFOAM® uses CO2 as the foaming gas. CO2 will diffuse through most plastics very rapidly, allowing for
immediate painting with either water-based or solvent-based paint.
Assembly and Fastening

Virtually all fastening systems associated with thermoplastic assembly can be used on structural foam parts.
When selecting a fastening system, the supplier of any particular system can make recommendations for
optimizing performance of that system in Engineering Structural Foam. The actual testing of a system in an
application will always be the best method to insure reliability.
Self-Tapping Fasteners. These fasteners are viable for permanent assemblies or when less than ten field
assembly/disassembly operations are anticipated. Structural foam's relative freedom from molded-in stresses,
coupled with its compressible cellular core, makes thread rolling screws preferable to the thread cutting variety.
Cored holes should be molded whenever possible to obtain maximum performance.
Figure 49.
Self-Tapping
Fasteners.

Ultrasonic Inserts. One of the most popular methods of assembling Engineering Structural Foam parts is
through ultrasonic inserts. These inserts perform very well, plus provide the flexibility of repeated
assemblies/disassemblies for the foam parts.
In order to obtain maximum performance from ultrasonic inserts, correct hole sizes are critical. Wherever
possible, the hole should be molded into the foam part. Drilled holes will yield much lower performance value
because their interior surface will not have a continuous skin.
Expansion Inserts. Expansion inserts are placed in pre-formed holes and expanded against the side of the hole
by insertion of a screw. These inserts offer lower performance than ultrasonic inserts, but are more economical
and suitable for many common assemblies.
Expansion insertion causes cold forming of the material, and while the compressible cellular core makes
Engineering Structural Foam parts less susceptible to residual stress, the following guidelines are recommended
to minimize insertion and high hoop stresses:
1. Boss diameters should be approximately two times the diameter of the insert.
2. When designing component parts for clearances, be sure that the insert and not the plastic carries the load.
3. Heating cycles associated with finishing a structural foam assembly may cause relaxation and loosening of
inserts. Finished parts should therefore be checked during production to guard against insert failure.
Molded-In Inserts. Molded-in inserts are compatible with Engineering Structural Foam resins. When using
these inserts, reinforced grades of material are generally preferable due to their lower coefficients of thermal
expansion. However, suitably designed inserts can be used with unreinforced grades of material. If molded-in
inserts are required, thorough testing for any possible part cracking or insert loosening is advised.
Press Fits. Press fits can be used to attach metal pins, bushings or inserts to a foam part, provided correct
diametral interferences are predetermined in the design. Long-term reliability will depend upon the creep
behavior of the material used.
Assuming the metal shaft does not deform greatly when pressed in, a simplified Lamé equation for thick walled
cylinders can be used to determine the amount of diametral interference:
Sd Ds  L   h 
D   
L  Eh 
Figure 50.
1   Ds / Dh 
2
L
1   Ds / Dh 
2

Where:
D = Diametral interference
Sd = Design stress
Dh = O.D. of hub
Ds = O.D. of shaft
Eh = Tensile modulus of hub
L = Geometry factor
vh = Poisson ratio of hub
The holding and assembly force may be approximated by multiplying the joint pressure, joint area, and
coefficient of friction of the materials together.
F  PA f 
Sd Ds f Figure 51.
L
Where:
F = Assembly force
P = Joint Pressure
Ds = Shaft diameter
l = Length of press fit
f = Coefficient of friction
Sd = Design stress
If the press fit assembly must operate at elevated temperatures the strength of the interface will be reduced due
to changes in thermal expansion and the resin's modulus of elasticity. To calculate the loss of interface due to
thermal expansion of a metal shaft pressed into a structural foam hub:
D  Do   h   s  Do T Figure 52.
Where:
Do = Original diameter
D = Diameter at operating temperature
h = Coefficient of thermal expansion of hub
s= Coefficient of thermal expansion of shaft
T = Change in temperature
When examining long-term performance, the apparent modulus of the structural foam resin determined from the
creep curves must be utilized.
Ultrasonic Bonding. Engineering Structural Foam allows the designer to use ultrasonic assembly methods,
including:
 Insertion - the process whereby a metal piece is implanted in the plastic.
 Staking - the process of melting and forming the upper portion of a stud so as to retain another material,
usually metal.
 Spot Welding - the process of creating small localized bonds between two parts.
Continuous and large area welding techniques are not generally recommended for use with foam, since
the cellular core tends to dissipate much of the ultrasonic energy in a far field weld.

Vibration Welding. Vibration welding is a relatively new process for bonding large parts. Basically a low
frequency friction weld, it is capable of producing strong, pressure-tight joints. This method lends itself very
well to Engineering Structural Foam parts that require permanent loads over large areas. Although butt joints
are normally used in this process, the geometry of the part may require a flange to increase rigidity. Since the
process resembles ultrasonic welding, there may be considerable flash during bonding, and cosmetic flash traps
are recommended on critical appearance surfaces.
Sonic and vibration welding techniques generally perform better in thinner wall designs than in thicker ones.
As the wall section is widened, a greater amount of energy is absorbed by the cellular core, and bonding
becomes more difficult to achieve.
Solvent Bonding. Foamable resins can be solvent-cemented to themselves or other plastics using a number of
commercial solvents.
Adhesive Bonding. Solventless adhesives can be used to bond foamable resins to themselves or other plastics.
Since each application has unique requirements of flexibility, temperature resistance, etc., careful selection of
adhesive is recommended. Epoxies, urethanes and silicones are typical candidates for adhesive bonding.

GENERAL GUIDE FOR LOW PRESSURE SFM SET-UP
1. Injection pressure should be set high enough to provide the maximum injection speed possible
without burning. Keep in mind that some resins are sensitive to high shear. High speed injection
usually gives improved surface quality.
2. Back pressure should be used (100-200 psi) to give consistent, even filling and mixing during
plastication.
3. Screw speeds of 20-50 RPM are usually used.
4. Shot size should be set about 25% less than the mold volume, although the desired weight reduction
may specify the exact setting.
5. Minimum cushion is used (i.e. the shot size should be such that the screw nearly bottoms out during
injection). Holding pressure should not be used.
6. The rear zone temperature should be low enough to prevent premature decomposition and gas loss
through the hopper.
7. Mold temperatures affect surface finish, skin thickness, and cycle time. Hot molds give a glossier
surface, thinner skins and longer cycle times. The normal range is 60-160ºF (16-72ºC), but higher or
lower temperatures are not unusual.
8. Quenching a part in water immediately on removal from the mold is helpful in reducing cycle times
and post-blow in parts with thick sections.
9. Cycle times depend on the polymer and part thickness and mold temperature. SAFOAM gives lower
cycle times than exothermic foaming agents.
10. Vent size and location should be decided upon by experimentation with the mold using metal shims
before cutting the mold.
11. SAFOAM tends to clean out residues of exothermic chemical foaming agents and other additives
(i.e. colors) over time. The CFA residues can cause misleading results until they are no longer
present.
12. Although SAFOAM poses no problems in painted parts on its own, any exothermic residue in re-
grind can cause blistering or pin-holing. Parts with exothermic re-grind should be treated as
exothermic CFA parts.

INCORPORATION OF SAFOAM IN SFM
There are several ways of incorporating SAFOAM, including:
1. Pre-blending/tumbling with the resin.

2. Auger feeding directly into the hopper throat using the “screw retract” signal to control the auger.
3. Using a meter-blender mounted above the machine hopper.
SAFOAM is added as a percentage by weight of resin.

ENGINEERING STRUCTURAL FOAM RESINS

PROPERTY UNITS TEST METHOD
PHYSICAL
3
Solid Density * oz/in ASTM-D792
Solid Specific Gravity* ASTM-D792
Foam Molded Specific Gravity ASTM-D792
Wall Thickness Inches
Water absorption  24 hrs. 73ºF % ASTM-D570
@ Equilibrium 73ºF
Mold Shrinkage Flow ** 10-3 in/in ASTM-D1299
Mold Shrinkage Cross Flow
THERMAL
Deflection Temperature @ 66 psi ºF ASTM-D648
Under Load @ 264 psi
2
Thermal Conductivity BTU/hr/ft (ºF/in) ASTM-C177
Specific Heat BTU/lb./ºF
Coefficient to Thermal Expansion 10-5 in/in/ºF ASTM-D696
Flammability Rating US 94***
ASTM-E162
UL Temperature Index - All Properties ºF UL 746B
MECHANICAL
Tensile Strength Psi ASTM-D638
Elongation at Break % ASTM-D638
Tensile Modulus Psi ASTM-D638
Flexural Strength Psi ASTM-D790
Flexural Modulus Psi ASTM-D790
Compressive Strength Psi ASTM-D695
(10% deformation)
Shear Strength (ultimate) Psi ASTM-D732
Creep at 500 psi - 73ºF, 1,000 hrs. % strain ASTM-D674
Falling Ball Impact ft/lbs GE Test Method
ELECTRICAL
Dielectric Strength Volts/ mil ASTM-D149
Dielectric Constant 100Hz ASTM-D150
Dissipation Factor 100Hz ASTM-D150
Surface Resistivity ohm x 10" ASTM-D257
Volume Resistivity ohm cm x 10" ASTM-D257
Arc Resistance Seconds ASTM-D495
High Voltage Arc Tracking Rate in/min UL 746A
High Ampere Arc Ignition No. Of Arcs UL 746A
Comparative Track Index Volts UL 746A
Hot Wire Ignition Seconds UL 746A
* Specific gravities listed are for comparative purposes and are not necessarily indicative of specific gravities obtainable in molded parts. All ASTM general test methods are
followed, except specimen size with four-sided skin is varied to accommodate structural foam processing.
** Molding equipment, processing parameters and part configuration should be considered when designing for tight tolerances. For tight-tolerance molding, a tool development
program might be recommended.

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
HEAT TRANSFER AND AGING OF

CLOSED CELL FOAM INSULATION
HEAT TRANSFER MODEL

The heat transfer model was developed by Mark Schuetz and Leon Glicksman at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Schuetz has shown that the total thermal conductivity of foam is a combination of three
contributions: conduction through the polymer, conduction through the cell gases, and thermal radiation.
Convection as a heat transfer mechanism in closed cell foam insulation is negligible.
Conduction
Microscopic analysis of the cell structure in a polyurethane foam shows that the cell faces are composed of thin
membranes which are bounded on all sides by thick elements termed ‘struts’. Each strut forms at the
intersection of three cell walls and results from drainage during foam formation. The thin cell membranes and
relatively thick struts comprise the two structural elements in the foam geometry. Conduction through the
polymer has been analyzed by considering the distribution of polymer material between cell walls and struts and
by evaluating conduction in the actual cellular structure through upper and lower limiting models.
By staggering the cells, the effect of the tortuous path of conduction can be determined. Heat flow through
randomly oriented planes and randomly oriented sticks gave the same analytical results as the preceding
analysis. This suggests that the conduction term is essentially independent of cell geometry. For any given
cellular geometry, the cell walls will be statistically oriented for greater heat flow as compared to the struts.
The cell gas conductivity, kg, can be combined with the polymer conduction term when the cell gas
composition is uniform within the foam cross section. The case when the cell gas composition varies across the
foam thickness will be discussed later in the manual. The upper and lower limits to the conduction term can
now be summarized. The upper limit of the conduction model is given by:
2 f 
ksg  kg   s  (1)ks
3 3 Figure 53.
Three parameters must be experimentally obtained from the foam to evaluate the polymer conduction term in
Figure 53. The polymer distribution parameter, fs, is the fraction of the polymer material contained in the struts
of the foam. An experimental technique to calculate this parameter is presented in the Gas Diffusion Model
section of this guide. Note that the coefficient of the polymer conduction term reduces to the two limiting

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
results when fs is zero (no struts) and fs is unity (no walls). The porosity, is the fraction of the total foam
volume which is occupied by the cell gases and is given by the following,
s  a   f

s  g Figure 54.
where s, a, f, and g are the densities of the polymer, air, foam and cell gases, respectively. The polymer
conductivity, ks, must also be determined. Mark Sinofsky developed a transient hot wire thermal conductivity
testing technique at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to measure the thermal conductivities of foam
polymers. The majority of Sinofsky’s data is on urethane foam polymers but isocyanate, polystyrene and
phenolic polymers have also been tested. The lower limit of the conduction model is given by:
2 fs 
ks  g  k g  0.8   (1   ) ks Figure 55.
3 3
The difference of 20 percent in the solid conduction term between the two limiting models results from a
consideration of the tortuosity of the conduction path. The uncertainty between the two limiting models
amounts to less than five percent of the overall foam conductivity.
Thermal Radiation
The approach to the modeling of thermal radiation in the past has been to assume that the cell walls in foam
insulation are opaque to thermal radiation.
Thermal radiation in foam insulation involves radiant transport in non-gray, emitting, absorbing and
anisotropically scattering media. For commercially available foams, it has been shown that the attenuation of
thermal radiation is primarily absorption dominated and that scattering can be treated as isotropic. These results
simplify the experimental means of determining the contribution due to thermal radiation heat transfer and yet
only introduce a margin of error of 10 to 15 percent in the radiation heat flux term.
The experimental approach has been to directly measure the attenuation of thermal radiation in foams by
placing thin foam slices in an infrared spectrophotometer and measuring the percentage transmission of
radiation through each sample. Figure 55 shows a typical spectrograph for a thin slice of polyurethane foam.
The transmission spectrum is approximately uniform so that an average transmission value can be determined
for the sample thickness. Additional tests are conducted on other foam samples covering a range of thicknesses.
When the percentage transmission values are plotted versus sample thickness on a semi-log plot, the data forms
a straight line.
Figure 56 shows a plot of the average percentage transmission values obtained experimentally versus sample
thickness. The data shows that thermal radiation is exponentially attenuate in the foam as the foam thickness
increases to larger and larger values. As expected, the percentage transmission extrapolates to 100 percent at
zero sample thickness. The slope of the line is termed the foam’s extinction coefficient, K, and is the key
parameter required to quantify thermal radiation heat transfer in the foam.

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
The thermal radiation contribution including the foam’s extinction coefficient is combined with the conduction
heat transfer contributions to obtain an expression for the overall foam thermal conductivity,
2 f  16Tm
3
k eff  k g    s  (1   ) k s 
3 3 3K Figure 56.
where Tm is the mean temperature of the foam and  is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. The contributions due
to conduction through the polymer and thermal radiation will remain essentially constant during foam aging.
The cell gas conduction contribution will change as atmospheric gases diffuse into the cells of the foam and
Freon gas diffuses out of the foam. A gas diffusion model is required to predict the changes in cell gas
composition that occur during foam aging. The cell gas composition, in turn, determines the cell gas
conduction contribution in the heat transfer model.
GAS DIFFUSION MODEL
The gas diffusion model was developed by Douglas W. Reitz and Leon Glicksman at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
An overview of the aging process in closed cell foam insulation is show in Figure 57. A freshly made foam
contains primarily Freon gas with small concentrations of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen. Any carbon
dioxide formed during foam formation rapidly diffuses out of the foam. Oxygen and nitrogen diffuse into the
cells of the foam over time while Freon gas simultaneously diffuses out of the foam. The high molecular
weight of Freon causes it to diffuse much more slowly through the foam structure than oxygen or nitrogen.
This overall diffusion process leads to a decline in the R-value of the foam during its lifetime. The use of a
facing at the surface of the foam board may reduce the rate at which the foam ages.
Cuddihy and Moacanin showed that foam insulation can be treated as a homogenous media that obeys Fick’s
law of diffusion. Commercially available foams will satisfy the requirement of homogeneity unless the foam
contains large voids, collapsed cells of other defects that disturb the local gas diffusion process. The one-
dimensional form of Fick’s law that is applicable to diffusion in foams is given by,
 2 p 1 p

x 2
D  Figure 57.
where p is the partial pressure of the gas in the foam board and D is the diffusion coefficient of the gas in the
foam. The diffusion coefficient determines the transport rate of the gas through the foam medium and must be
obtained for each diffusion gas. Two major factors must be considered in developing an expression for the
diffusion coefficient: 1) the effect of the foam’s cellular structure on the gas diffusion rate, and 2) the

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
mechanism of gas transport through the polymer membranes that separate adjacent cells in the foam structure.
The effects of cellular geometry on the diffusion rate will be discussed first.
Foam Cell Geometry

The cell morphology in foam insulation was quantitatively analyzed by preparing two-dimensional, planar
views of the cell structure. The view of the cell structure shown in Figure 58 was obtained by treating a foam
with an embedding resin. A foam sample was placed in an initially liquid, low viscosity resin that filled in the
open cells at the surface of the sample. The resin-treated sample was cured in an oven and then cut into thin
sections using a microtome. The resin can be seen filling in the center of the cells normally occupied by cell
gases.
The two-dimensional sections provide a means of determining the distribution of polymer material between cell
walls and struts within a foam. The fraction of polymer material contained in the cell walls is of primary
importance since the struts play essentially no role in the gas diffusion process. The polymer distribution
parameter is determined by measuring the cell wall thickness and surface area to volume ratio of a foam using
the two-dimensional sections. The cell wall thickness can be measured at high magnification using a scanning
electron microscope. The thin polymer membranes are subject to swelling as a result of interaction between the
embedding resin and the polymer material. The extent of the polymer-resin interaction was investigated by
measuring the thickness of a polyurethane film before and after use of the resin. The measurements revealed a
swelling of the polymer material between 34 to 69 percent due to the resin. Thus, the measurements should
only be used as an upper limit estimate to the actual cell wall thickness in the foams.
The surface area to volume ratio of a foam is also measured from the sections. A test line is drawn across a
section photograph and the number of intersections between the test line and foam cell walls are counted. The
sample’s surface area to volume ratio, SV, is expressed in terms of the parameter, NL (number of
intersections/test line length). In general,
SV  2 N L Figure 58.
and is valid when uniformity of sampling is attained and the samples are representative of the structure. By
combining the surface area to volume ratio with the cell wall thickness, t, the fraction of polymer contained in
the cell walls can be determined,
fw 
 SV  t 
1    Figure 59.
where (1 - ) is the fraction of the foam volume occupied by polymer material (struts plus cell walls).
Measurements of polymer distribution in five polyurethane foams showed that the cell walls contained only 10
to 20 percent (fw = 0.10 to 0.20) of the polymer material in a foam. Thus, most of the polymer material is not
retained in the cell walls of a foam where it can be utilized in reducing gas diffusion into the foam cells.

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
The diffusion of a gas through the cell structure shown in Figure 64 can be modeled by assuming that the cell
walls are spaced, on average, one cell dimension apart. The idealized cubical cell structure shown in Figure 59
can then be used as a first approximation to the actual cell structure in Figure 58. The assumptions used in
conjunction with the cell geometry in Figure 59 are:
1. uniform cell wall thickness

2. resistance to diffusion only in cell walls
3. one-dimensional gas flow
4. no pinholes or cracks in cell walls
Each cell wall can be considered a resistance to diffusion with a diffusion coefficient, Ds, that determines the
transport rate of a gas through the cell wall. Each cell has an average cell dimension, d, and each cell wall has a
uniform thickness, t. Summing over all resistances and equating to an effective resistance, the effective
diffusion coefficient, Deff, that determines the transport rate of a gas through the foam’s cellular structure is
given by,
td d
Deff  Ds  Ds Figure 60.
t t
since d>t. In addition to the cell geometry parameters, the effective diffusion coefficient is directly
proportional to the cell-to-cell gas transport rate, defined by the polymer diffusion coefficient, Ds. This
transport coefficient must be considered before continuing with the development of the model.
Gas Transport Process

A side view of a cell wall with thickness, t, separating two adjacent cells is shown in Figure 60. The gas
transport process through the membrane is defined as having three stages. In the first stage, the gas, at
concentration c1 or pressure p1 (the two are related by the ideal gas law), is absorbed on to the surface of the
membrane. The dissolved gas then diffuses along a concentration gradient through the membrane to the
opposite surface in the second stage.
Finally, the dissolved gas comes out of solution to a lower pressure p2 or gas concentration c2. The absorption
step at the surface of the membrane is controlled by the solubility of the gas in the polymer. In general, Henry’s
law is obeyed so that the gas pressure at the membrane surface is linearly proportional to the gas concentration
within the membrane. The three-step process is termed permeation and is driven by the difference in the gas
partial pressure across the membrane. The defining equation for the permeability at standard conditions (STP:
273 K, 76 cm Hg) is,
VSTP t 
Pe 
 p1  p 2  A Figure 61.
where VSTP is the volume flow rate of gas at STP passing through a membrane of thickness t and area A under
a differential gas pressure (p1-p2). Each gas is not influenced by the presence of other permeating gases
although water vapor and Freon may have some plasticizing effects on the permeation of the other gases.

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
A diffusion coefficient is defined in terms of the membrane permeability which accounts for all three steps of
the transport process through the cell membrane. The diffusion coefficient is based on the difference in the gas
phase concentrations (c1-c2) and assumes the following,
1. Henry’s law is obeyed by the diffusion gas.

2. The ideal gas law applies to the diffusing gas.
3. Any interaction between the gas and the polymer does not significantly alter the permeation process
outlined above.
Using these assumptions in combination with the definition of the permeability in Figure 61, the diffusion
coefficient Ds is given by,
 T 
Ds   PSTP  Pe s
 TSTP  Figure 62.
where PSTP and TSTP are the gas pressure and temperature at STP, respectively and T is the test temperature.
The permeability of each diffusing gas in the foam polymer must be evaluated for use in the gas diffusion
model. Permeability data has been obtained using both the variable volume permeability testing method and the
variable pressure permeability testing method (see ASTM D1434-75 for a discussion of the testing methods).
Test films were prepared by combining the foam components (excluding the blowing agent) and casting them
into thin films (one to three mils thick). The films were post-cured in an oven. Note that catalyst levels had to
be reduced to avoid bubble formation.
The results of the cell-to-cell gas transport analysis can now be combined with the gas diffusion model. Before
summarizing the model, it is important to note that the cell shape in foams is more accurately represented by a
pentagonal dodecahedron or a truncated octahedron than a simple cubical cell. The surface area to volume
ratios of these cell shapes can be related to the average cell dimension, d, in the foam’s cell structure. The
pentagonal dodecahedron and truncated octahedron have surface area to volume ratios of 3.46/d and 3.55/d,
respectively, when in an aggregate of cells each shares half of its surface area with adjacent cells surrounding it.
Using the pentagonal dodecahedron cell shape and the results from Figure 62, the effective diffusion coefficient
defined Figure 60 becomes:
3.46  T 
Deff   PSTP  Pe
 SV t   TSTP  Figure 63.

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
Combining this result with Figure 59 shows the dependence of Deff on the fraction of polymer in the cell walls
fw and foam density:
Deff 

3.46  s   g  
 p STP
T 
 Pe s
f w  f   g   a 
Figure 64.
 TSTP 
These equations may be applied to the gas diffusion process under any high temperature aging conditions (i.e.,
60C) by simply substituting the appropriate high temperature permeabilities and the permeability test
temperature. The two forms of the gas diffusion model provide insight into the foam parameters that must be
influenced in order to reduce the gas diffusion rates in foams. An obvious but costly choice is to increase the
foam density. Significant improvements without necessarily affecting the foam’s density can be achieved,
however, by increasing the fraction of polymer material in the cell walls or by decreasing the polymer
permeabilities of the diffusing gases.

TROUBLESHOOTING
Trouble Shooting Splay. Splay or swirl in structural foam molding is a rough surface with a random occurring
pattern, usually increasing as you come closer to the gate. When the blowing agent is added in the barrel of the
injection molding machine or extruder, the blowing agent converts from powder, pellet, or liquid form into a
liquid gas molecule. The pressure and temperature inside the barrel keeps the blowing agent in a liquid form.
Once the pressure is released inside the mold, the blowing agent's liquid molecules convert again into gas
bubbles. When the liquid molecules of gas are converting from the liquid form into the gas form, they either
absorb heat (endothermic) or give off heat (exothermic). These gas bubbles instantly go to the surface of the
leading edge of the plastic. The gas bubbles move very quickly through the plastic because they are very low in
molecular weight. As the plastic is filling the mold, these bubbles on the leading edge are smeared against the
surface of the mold. The smearing of the bubbles is splay. The bubble size is determined by the particle size of
the blowing agent. The larger the particle size, the larger the bubbles will be, resulting in a rougher surface.
All gases are very sensitive to differences in temperature and viscosity. In low viscosity with hot materials, the
bubbles will be large. In low viscosity with cold materials, the bubbles will be small. In high viscosity and cold
materials, the bubbles will be non-existent.
The following table offers solutions to common splay problems:
PROBLEM RECOMMENDATION
Starburst pattern originating at the Increase injection speed
gate
Heavy swirls at the gate Reduce injection speed
Splay pattern around post/rough rib Lower mold temp, especially at area of
rough surface. Add venting
Splay near vent is different from Change size of vent. For rough surface,
other areas close vent slightly. For smoother
surface, open vent slightly.
The Throttle for Endothermic Blowing Agent is Temperature. When the shot is completely in the mold, the
blowing agent will go to the hottest area with the lowest resistance-the core. The foaming agent will foam in
this area. As the foaming continues in the core, heat is being absorbed by the blowing agent and the surface of
the parts is being cooled by the cold mold surface. By controlling the melt temperature and mold temperature,
you can change the foaming conditions.
Shot speed also plays an important part in the foaming process. Shot speed affects surface melt temperature due
to shear heat. Shot speed also affects mixing of the liquid blowing agent and plastic. The faster the shot speed,
the better mixing and more surface shear heat is added. The more shear heat, the thinner the viscosity, the
larger the surface bubbles or surface splay. If the shot speed is too slow, there will be less shear heat, mixing
will be worse, and the surface splay or surface bubbles will be larger. In other words, it is important to achieve
a correct balance between shot speed and temperature.

Most experienced foamed molders use a large nozzle orifice and fast shot speed. This allows for good mixing
and low shear heat.
Blowing Away Sinks. A sink mark is a depression or dimple on the surface caused by internal shrinkage after
the gate seals or by a short shot.
What Causes Sinks?
 Increase in Shrinkage: As the part continues to contract, it pulls away from cavity walls allowing
shrinkage to take place. The center or core of the part is the hottest area (this is where foaming takes
place) and the longest to cool.
 Increase in Wall Thickness
 Lack of Cavity Pressure
 Part Design
Thicker sections take longer to cool than thinner sections, which allow for additional shrinkage to take place.
Thicker parts will result in more sinks than smaller parts.
Shape of the part affects the rate of cooling. Round parts will allow for a more uniform distribution of the
plastic and sink marks will be very minimal.
Highly polished surfaces reflect light which exaggerates the appearance of sinks (magnifying glass).
 Rib to Wall Ratio

 Amount of Foaming Agent (enough to fill the mold)
 Type of Material
 Amorphous Plastics-Plastics with highly branched molecular chains and with long side chains that
cannot assume a tightly packed condition in any region because of their irregular structure. Chain
molecules of this type are intertwined like a tangled ball of yarn. Amorphous plastics are transparent as
glass (ex. CD).
 Filled & Fiber reinforced Plastics-A composite structure comprised of a thermosetting or thermoplastic
resin and fibers that have high strength and good electrical resistivity.
 Semi-crystallines-Thermoplastics that contain both crystalline (molecules exist in an orderly

arrangement) and amorphous regions.
 Crystallines-Consisting of numerous tiny crystals that are not completely formed.

TYPE OF PLASTIC DESCRIPTION SHRINKAGE LEVEL

Amorphous Plastic Irregular Structure Low Shrinkage/Minimal
Sinks
Filled & Fiber Reinforced Composite structure Lower Shrinkage
Plastic
Semi-Crystallines Combination of High Shrinkage
Crystallines & Amorphous
Plastics
Crystallines Regular structure High Shrinkage
consisting of tiny crystals
REDUCING SINKS/MOLDING RECOMMENDATIONS
 Use SAFOAM @1-5% dosing
 SAFOAM acts as a lubricant and improves melt flow and filling of the polymer.
 Increase nozzle size and gates.
 If using gas counterpressure, reduce pressure until Splay appears, then increase by 10 psi.
 Reduce hold pressure.
 Reduce shot size.
 Increase injection speed.
 Increase venting.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
The SAFOAM family of endothermic chemical foaming agents are designed to produce parts of superior
quality. They are easy to use and provide the plastic processor with new opportunities and applications that are
not possible with most other types of chemical foaming agents.
The answers to the most commonly asked questions about SAFOAM are given below. They are based on our
experience in the commercial use of SAFOAM with various customers.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Q. 1 What is the difference between endothermic and exothermic chemical foaming agents (CFA)?
A. Exothermic CFA such as Azodicarbonamide (or 1,1-azobisformamide), 4,4-Oxybis (benzenesulfonyl
hydrazide (OBSH), or 5-Phenyltetrazole (5-PT) release heat during decomposition and require care
during handling and processing to avoid problems caused by overheating.
Endothermic CFA, such as SAFOAM, need energy (i.e. they absorb heat) during decomposition
resulting in improved processing properties such as:
 Extrusion speed
 Wider operating temperature
Q. 2 What is SAFOAM in simple chemical terms?

A. SAFOAM is a mixture of polycarbonic acid and carbonates. It is very stable, and during
decomposition, produces only carbon dioxide gas in a very controlled fashion.
Q. 3 What makes SAFOAM  different from other endothermic CFA?

A. Unlike the other endothermic CFA, which are usually a mixture of an acid and sodium bicarbonate,
SAFOAM contains modified citric acid salts, which are very tightly controlled on particle size and
purity. This gives a predictable, controlled gas release. SAFOAM is a buffered foaming agent, which
helps prevent corrosion due to acid or base reaction.
Q. 4 How does controlled gas release help?

A. A controlled decomposition means that most of the gas is contained in the polymer melt and does not
escape at the rapid rate of other exothermic and endothermic CFA.
Q. 5 What is the gas yield of SAFOAM and the other CFA?

A. Based on 100% active powders, these are typical gas yields at 350ºC:
SAFOAM RPC - 180 cc/g
SAFOAM FP - 200 cc/g
Azodicarbonamide - 225 cc/g
5-PT - 210 cc/g
Other endothermics - 80 cc/g

The gas available in SAFOAM gives the same or greater weight reductions at the same use level of
other CFA even though the other CFA yield higher gas volumes. These values are approximate and
were obtained by a gas evolution and rate apparatus.

Q. 6 What are the effects of using a CFA at too high a level?
A. Using more CFA than necessary for the desire effect is not only costly, but can cause other problems
(i.e. excessive surface splay, extended cycle time or post-blow in injection molding). In extrusion,
excessive CFA levels can cause sag or dimensional control problems.
Q. 7 Why are SAFOAM concentrates typically 40% active?

A. Experience has shown that most processors prefer to use concentrates. A 40% concentrate gives the best
combination of dispersion and cost effectiveness. High active concentrates (70%) can cause dispersion
problems which lead to variation in the finished product. With recommended use levels of about 1%, it
is difficult to achieve accuracy and part consistency with 50 - 70% concentrates.
Q. 8 Which SAFOAM should I use?

A. SAFOAM is available as a powder, but most processors prefer to use a concentrate for convenience of
handling, etc. Call Reedy International Corporation at (732-264-1777) for recommendations.
Q. 9 How much SAFOAM should I use?

A. Tables on the insides of the front and back covers give guidelines for use of SAFOAM . The use levels
recommended are good starting points, but you should optimize for your application. In any case, never
use more SAFOAM  than necessary for the desired end effect. If you need more help contact Reedy
International Corporation at (732) 264-1777.
Q. 10 How do I get samples of SAFOAM and technical assistance?

A. Contact Reedy International Corporation at (732) 264-1777. If you have a new or difficult application,
technical assistance can be provided on-site, if necessary.
INJECTION MOLDING
Q. 11 What causes sinks and splay?
A. Please refer to the trouble shooting section in the user guide.
Q. 12 We have problems with ‘sink marks’; will SAFOAM help with these?
A. Yes. At very low levels of SAFOAM  (.1 - .5% activity) sink marks can be eliminated with no visible
surface effects. Do not overpack the part when using SAFOAM  for sink marks, as high pressure will
prevent cell formation necessary for sink mark removal.
Q. 13 We have a warping problem cased by molded-in stress. Will SAFOAM help relieve this?
A. Yes. Using the same technique as for sink marks can eliminate warp or molded-in stress, and still retain
good physical and appearance properties.

STRUCTURAL FOAM MOLDING (SFM)

Q. 14 We want to use SAFOAM to produce SFM on our conventional injection molding machines.
What modifications are needed?
A. Several modifications are recommended if good, consistent quality parts are to be produced:
 A positive nozzle shut-off valve capable of providing a positive closure at cylinder pressures in the
range of 1,500-2,000 psi minimum. It can be hydraulic, pneumatic, or spring actuated. Its purpose
is to maintain pressure on the melt to prevent gas escape, to stop ‘drooling’ of resin between shots,
and to eliminate nozzle freeze-up.
 A suckback is sometimes used to prevent ‘drooling’.
 Boosters to increase injection speed and an accumulator to increase capacity are desirable
modifications.
Q. 15 What clamp capacity is needed?

A. Clamp capacity is determined by the molding parameters since molded filling and pressure profiles
depend upon the molding process used. There is no need for the high post-injection pressures used
during cooling in solid parts. The mold needs only to resist the relatively low pressure of the expanding
gas as the part fills out. As a guide, only about 10-20% of the clamp required for solid molding is
needed for SFM.
Q. 16 What other factors are important?

A. If the mold is not designed for SFM, then adequate venting must be provided. Vents in the 0.005-0.010
inch (.127-.254 mm) range are used in SFM. Sprues, runners and gates are usually generous in size in
SFM.
Q. 17 We use the gas counter-pressure SFM process. Is SAFOAM suitable for this?
A. Yes. Lower gas counter-pressures (40-60 psi) can be used. This is a positive advantage over the high
gas counter-pressures required by most other CFA or nitrogen.
Q. 18 We use the direct-gassed nitrogen low pressure SFM process. Should we use SAFOAM?
A. Yes. Low levels of SAFOAM (.1 - .5% activity as a nucleant) will have beneficial effects. These
include better surface quality, fewer voids, and additional weight reductions of up to 10%. SAFOAM
gas makes the nitrogen more melt-soluble and smaller, more uniform cells are produced. This usually
leads to improved physical properties and shorter cycle times.
Q. 19 We currently use an exothermic CFA to produce SFM. Why should we change to SAFOAM?
A. Reduced cycle times (15 - 20%) mean higher output. Mold plate-out deposits are eliminated. Faster de-
gassing means faster post-finishing. The SAFOAM brochure lists several other advantages.

Q. 20 What about food contact considerations?
A. SAFOAM is composed of GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) or FDA sanctioned components. It is
suitable for food contact applications.
Q. 21 What about re-grind? How is it affected?

A. Unlike some CFA, which do not decompose fully in the processing and can cause CFA variations due to
re-grind activity, SAFOAM re-grind can be considered as “virgin” polymer as far as the CFA is
concerned.
BLOW MOLDING
Q. 22 Can SAFOAM be used in blow-molding?
A. Yes. Weight reductions of 5 - 15% have been achieved.
Q. 23 What SAFOAM grade should be used and at what additive level?

A. Follow the guidelines given on the front and back covers.
Q. 24 What blow-pressure is recommended?

A. Blow-pressure should be the minimum needed for part fill-out. It should not be set so high as to
compress the foam structure completely.
Q. 25 Are physical properties affected?

A. Yes. Impact strength is reduced by foaming, but stiffness normally is increased compared to the
unfoamed part.
Q. 26 What effect has SAFOAM on fillers and pigments?

A. Any fillers or pigments present will produce extra nucleation which results in finer cell structures.
Because SAFOAM  has an opacifying effect, it may be possible to use lower levels of pigments and
opacifiers.
ROTATIONAL MOLDING
Q. 27 Can SAFOAM be used to foam roto-molded parts?
A. Yes. SAFOAM powders work well in roto-molding. The best results are achieved by using SAFOAM
in combination with exothermic foaming agents.
Q. 28 What special techniques are used to foam roto-molded parts?

A. The mold vent is plugged (or it is equipped with a pressure valve) to prevent escape of the foaming gas
during heating of the mold. The mold is filled with just enough polymer and SAFOAM  to fill the mold
(i.e. it is “short-shotted”) and the mold is heated. After the mold is removed from the heat, and prior to
cooling, the vent plug is removed or the pressure valve is opened. The gas now expands the melt to fill
the mold. The advantage of the pressure valve is that the mold can be pressurized prior to heating and
pressure released in a controlled manner. This retards gas escape and generally results in appearance
improvements.
NOTES ON PROPERTIES, UNITS
AND DATA LISTINGS
Units
ASTM
Property Significance/Comments English Metric
Test
Compressive The ability of a material to resist a force that
lb/in2 kg/cm2 D695
Strength tends to crush it.
The equivalent property to specific gravity;
Density lb/ft3 g/cm3 D792
measured by displacement.
Deflection The measure of temperature at which a
Temperature, 66 specimen deflects 0.01 inches under a load of ºF ºC D648
lb/in2
66 lb/in2.
Deflection The measure of temperature at which a
Temperature, 264 specimen deflects 0.01 inches under a load of ºF ºC D648
lb/in2 264 lb/in2.
The voltage that an insulating material can
Dielectric Strength V/10-3in V/mm D149
withstand before dielectric breakdown occurs.
The ratio of the power dissipated in watts in an
insulating material to the product of the
Dissipation Factor Constant D150
effective voltage and the current. Measured at
a frequency of 106 cycles per second.
Effect of Strong A descriptive notation to indicate the material’s
Text D543
Acids performance.
The increase in distance between two gauge
marks at the break point divided by the original
Elongation, Break distance between the marks. A zero value in % D638
the field indicates that it measured less than
one.
The increase in distance between two gauge
marks at a yield point divided by the original
Elongation, Yield distance between the marks. A zero value in % D638
the field indicates that it measure less than
one.
The ratio, within the elastic limit, of the applied
stress on a test specimen in flexure to the
Flexural Modulus lb/in2 kg/cm2 D790
corresponding strain in the outermost fibers of
the specimen.
Flexural Strength, The measurement of resistance of the material
lb/in2 kg/cm2 D790
Yield to fracture during bending.
SAFOAM® User’s Guide page I

NOTES ON PROPERTIES, UNITS AND DATA LISTINGS (CONT'D)
Units
ASTM
Test
The resistance of a material to compression,
Hardness indentation and scratching. There are several
scales that are commonly used.
The energy required to break specimens in
which there is a v-notch to create an initial
stress point but measured at low temperature
kg
Izod, Notched, LT (-40ºC). (The value 999 in the tables indicates ft lb./in D256
cm/cm
that the specimen did not break.) The
measurement of notched izod for structural
foam is of limited value.
The energy required to break specimens in
which there is a v-notch to create an initial kg
Izod, Notched, RT ft lb./in D256
stress point. (The value 999 indicates that the cm/cm
specimen did not break.)
The difference between the size of the part
Linear Mold
and the size of the mold cavity. Values given in/in D955
Shrinkage
are often the average of a range.
Rate of extrusion of molten resin through a die
of a specified length and diameter. The
conditions of the test (e.g. temperature and
Melt Flow g/10 min D1238
load) should be given. Frequently, however,
the manufacturers’ data lists only the value,
not the condition as well.
Refractive Index, The ratio of the velocity and light in a vacuum
Constant D542
Sodium D to its velocity in the material.
(Also called modulus of elasticity). The ratio of
Tensile Modulus nominal stress to the corresponding strain lb/in2 kg/cm2 D638
below the proportional limit of a material.
The maximum stress that a material can
Tensile Strength,
withstand without breaking when subjected to lb/in2 kg/cm2 D638
Break
a stretching load.
The maximum stress that a material can
Tensile Strength,
withstand without yielding when subjected to a lb/in2 kg/cm2 D638
Yield
stretching load.
The rate of heat flow under steady state
Thermal conditions through unit area per unit
C177
Conductivity temperature gradient in a direction
perpendicular to an isothermal surface.
The maximum temperature below which a
U.L. Temperature
material maintains its electrical and ºC/mm
Index
mechanical integrity over a reasonable period.
SAFOAM® User’s Guide Appendices page II

NOTES ON PROPERTIES, UNITS AND DATA LISTINGS (CONT'D)
Units
ASTM
Test
The temperature at which a flat ended needle
Vicat Softening
will penetrate a specimen under a specified ºF ºC D1525
Point
load using a uniform rate of temperature rise.
The measure of the ratio of the potential
Volume Resistivity gradient parallel to the current in the material Ohm/cm D257
to the current density.
The percentage of water absorbed by a
Water Absorption, material when immersed in water for 24 hours;
% D570
24 hours water absorbed in a material chiefly affects its
electrical properties.
SAFOAM® User’s Guide Appendices page III

GLOSSARY
-A- Delamination - The surface of -F-
the finished part separates or
Alloy - A composite material appears to be composed of Family Mold - A multi-cavity
produced by blending polymers layers of solidified resins. mold where each of the cavities
or copolymers with other Strata or fish-scale-type forms one of the component
polymers under selected appearance where the layers parts of the assembled finished
conditions to achieve greater may be separated. parts.
physical properties.
Density - Weight per unit Fan Gate - This gate is used to
volume of a substance help reduce the stress
-B- expressed in grams per cubic concentrations in the gate area
centimeter. by spreading the opening over
Boss - Protuberance on a
plastic part designed to add a wider area. Less warpage of
Diaphragm Gate - Used in parts can usually be expected
strength, facilitate alignment, symmetrical cavity filling to
provide fastenings, etc. by the use of this type of gate.
reduce weld line formation and
improve filling rates. Fick’s Law - The basic law of
-C- diffusion of different molecular
Direct Gate - The sprue feeds species into each other. Fick’s
Clamping Plate - A plate fitted directly into the mold cavity. law states that the flux of a
to a mold and used to fasten the given component will be in the
mold to a plate. Drooling - The extrusion or direction in which the
leakage of molten resin from a concentration of that
Clamping Pressure - The nozzle or nozzle sprue bushing component decreases most
pressure applied to the mold to area while filling or shooting. steeply at a rate given by the
keep it closed during the cycle. product of the mutual
Dwell - A pause in the diffusivity and the gradient.
Cooling Channels - Channels application of pressure to a Most published diffusivity data
located within the body of a mold, made just before the are for two-component
mold through which a cooling mold is completely filled, systems. Fick’s law, which has
medium is circulated to control allowing any gases formed or many equivalent forms, is the
the mold surface temperature. present to escape from the defining equation for
molding material. diffusivity.
Cooling Fixture (shrink
fixture) - A jig or block to hold -E- Fill - The packing of the cavity
the shape of a molded part after or cavities of the mold as
it is removed from the mold Ejector Pin (knockout pin)- A required to give a complete part
until it is cool enough to retain pin or plate that is driven into a or parts free of flash.
its shape mold cavity from the rear as
the mold opens to force out the Fillet - A concavely curved
-D- finished part. transition at the angle formed
by the junction of two plane
Daylight Opening - The Extrusion - The compacting of surfaces, i.e., a rounded inside
clearance between two platens a material and forcing it corner. Also, the material
of a clamping press in the open through an opening in more or making up the transition.
position. less a continuous fashion. Where the surfaces are likely to
SAFOAM® User’s Guide Appendices page IV

GLOSSARY
endure bending toward or away Injection Pressure - The surface along the top of the
from each other, the fillet pressure on the face of the flights of an extruder screw; the
distributes and reduces the injecting ram when injecting final shaping surface of an
stress that would otherwise be material into the mold. extrusion die usually parallel to
magnified at the corner. the direction of melt flow; the
Injection Ram - The ram or mating surfaces of any mold,
Flash - Extra plastic attached screw that applies pressure to adjacent to the cavity
to a mold part along parting the molten plastic material to depressions, that, when in
lines. force it into the mold cavities. contact, prevent the escape of
material.
Flow - A qualitative -J-
description of the fluidity of a Land length - In an extrusion
plastic material during the Jetting - A turbulent flow in die, the distance across the land
process of molding. A measure the resin melt caused by an in the direction of melt flow
of its processability. undersized gate or where a thin between the lands.
section becomes thicker.
Flow Line - Marks visible on L/D Ratio - The term used to
the finished item that indicate Jig - A tool for holding parts of define an extrusion screw.
the direction of flow in the an assembly during the This is the screw length to
cavity indicating a cold mold or manufacturing process. screw diameter ratio
melt.
Low Marks - Wavy surface
-K- appearance of a molded object
-G-
caused by improper flow of the
Knit Lines (weld lines) - The plastic into the mold.
Gate - An orifice through marks visible on a finished part
which the molten resin enters made by the meeting of two
the mold cavity. -M-
flow fronts during the molding.
GEAR - Gas Evolution and Knockout Pin (ejector pin) - A Machine Shot Capacity -
Rate. rod or device for knocking out Generally based on
a finished part from a mold. polystyrene. This is the
-H- maximum weight of plastic
which can be displaced or
-L- injected by a single stroke.
Hot Runner Mold - A mold in
which the runners are insulated Laminar Flow - The flow of a
from the chilled cavities and Melt Index - A measure in
resin in a mold is accompanied grams of plastic material that
are kept hot. by solidification of the layer in can be forced through an
contact with the surface that orifice of 0.0825 inches when
-I- acts as an insulator through subjected to a force of 2,160
which material flows to fill the grams in 10 minutes at 190ºC.
Injection Molding - A process remainder of the cavity.
where a heat softened plastic Metering Screw - The
material is forced from a Land - The horizontal bearing extrusion screw that has a
reservoir into a cool cavity that surface of a semi-positive or shallow constant depth and
produces the desired shape flash mold by which excess pitch section usually over the
material escapes; the bearing last three or four flights.
SAFOAM® User’s Guide Appendices page V

GLOSSARY
Modulus - Derived from the Plasticate - To soften by Shot - The complete resin from
Latin word meaning “small heating and mixing. a molding cycle, including
measure”, a modulus is a scrap.
measure of a mechanical Profile Die - Extrusion die for
property of a material, most the production of continuous Short Shot - Failure to fill the
frequently a stiffness property; shapes. mold or cavities of the mold
the absolute value of a complex completely.
number or quantity, equal to -Q-
the square root of the sum of Shrink Fixture (cooling
the squares of the “real” and Quench Bath - The cooling fixture) - A jig or block to hold
“imaginary” parts. medium used to quench molten the shape of a molded part after
thermoplastic materials to the it is removed from the mold
Moisture Marks or Welds - solid state. until it is cool enough to retain
Marks on the finished part that its own shape.
are caused by moisture in the
resin and look like weld lines
-R- Shrinkage - The difference
except they may be in the found on a molded part as
wrong areas for weld lines. Ram - The portion of an compared to the actual mold
injection machine that moves cavity dimension.
backward and forward to
-O-
deliver the shot of resin to the Single Cavity Mold - A mold
nozzle and mold. The screw in having only one cavity and
Orange Peel - A surface finish a reciprocating screw machine.
on a molded part that is rough producing only one finished
and splotchy. Usually caused part per cycle.
Ram Travel - The distance the
by moisture in the mold cavity. injection ram (or screw) moves Sink Marks - A shallow
in filling the mold. depression or dimple on the
-P- surface of a finished part due to
Restricted Gate - A very small shrinkage or low fill of the
Packing - The filling of the orifice between runner and cavity.
mold cavity or cavities as full cavity in an injection mold.
as possible without causing When the part is ejected, this Slip Plane - Marks evident in
undo stress on the molds or gate readily breaks free of the or on finished parts due to poor
causing flash to appear on the runner system. welding or shrinkage upon
finished parts cooling.
Runner - The channel that
Parison - The hollow plastic connects the sprue with the Splay Marks - Marks or
tube from which a container is gate for transferring the molten droplet type imperfections
blow molded. plastic to the cavities. found on the surface of the
finished parts that may be
Pinch-off - A raised edge -S- caused by the spraying of the
around the mold cavity that hot melt through the gates and
seals off the part and separates Shear - The movement, in a into the cool cavity where they
excess material mold closes fluid or solid body, of a layer set up.
around parison in the blow parallel to adjacent layers.
molding operation. Split-Ring Mold - A mold in
which a split cavity block is
SAFOAM® User’s Guide Appendices page VI

GLOSSARY
assembled in a chase to permit -T- -W-
the forming of undercuts in a Tab Gate - A small, removable
molded piece. These parts are tab about the same thickness as Warpage - Dimensional
ejected from the mold and then the molded item but usually distortion in a molded object.
separated from the piece. perpendicular to it for easy
removal. Weld Line (knit lines) - The
Specific Gravity - The density marks visible on a finished part
of any material divided by the Thermoplastic - A material made by the meeting of two
density of water at standard capable of being repeatedly flow fronts during molding.
temperature usually 4ºC. softened by heat and hardened
by cooling.
Sprue - The feed opening
provided in injection molding Thermoplastic Elastomer -
between the nozzle and cavity (TPE) Any of a family of
or runner system. polymers that resemble
elastomers in that they are
highly resilient and can be
Sprue Bushing - A hardened repeatedly stretched to at least
steel insert in the mold that twice their initial lengths with
accepts the extrusion nozzle full, rapid recovery, but are true
and provides an opening for thermoplastics and thus do not
transferring the molten plastic. require curing or vulcanization
as do most rubbers.
Sprue Gate - A passageway
through which resin flows from Thermoset - A material which
the nozzle to the mold cavity. can undergo a chemical
reaction by the action of heat or
Striations - Marks evident on catalyst, leading to a relatively
the molded part surfaces that infusible and cross-linked state.
indicate resin flow directions or
impingement. Tunnel Gate (submarine gate)
- A type of edge gate where the
Submarine Gate (tunnel gate) opening from the runner into
- A type of edge gate where the the mold is located below the
opening from the runner into mold parting line.
the mold is located below the
mold parting line.
-V-
Suck Back - When the
pressure on the sprue is not Vent - A shallow channel or
held long enough for the resin opening cut in the cavity to
to cool before the screw allow air or gases to escape as
returns, some of the hot resin in the material fills the cavity.
the cavities or runner system
may expand back into the
nozzle and cause sink marks on
the finished piece.
SAFOAM® User’s Guide Appendices page VII

COMMON ACRONYMS
ABS EC HMC MPPE
Acrylonitrile-butadiene- Ethyl cellulose High strength molding Modified polyphenylene
styrene compound ether
EMA
ASA Ethylene-methyl HME MPPO
Acrylic-styrene- acrylate High-vinyl modified Modified polyphenylene
acrylonitrile epoxy oxide
EP
ASTM Ethylene propylene HMW MSDS
American Society for High molecular weight Material Safety Data
Testing and Materials ESCR Sheets
Environmental stress LCP
CA crack resistance Liquid crystal polymer MMA
Cellulose acetate Methyl methacrylate
ETFE LDPE monomer
CAB Ethylene- Low density
Cellulose acetate- tetrafluoroethylene polyethylene MMA
butyrate Methyl methacrylate
EVA LIM monomer
CAP Ethylene-vinyl acetate Liquid injection molding
Cellulose acetate- MW
propionate FDA LLDPE Molecular weight
Food and Drug Linear low density
CBA Administration polyethylene PA
Chemical blowing agent Polyamide (nylon)
FR LMC
CFA fiber reinforced Low-pressure molding PAI
Chemical Foaming compound Polyamide-imide
Agent FRP
Fiber-reinforce plastic LMW PAN
CPE Low molecular weight Polyacrylonitrile
Chlorinated GEAR
polyethylene Gas evolution and rate MA PB
Maleic anhydride Polybutylene
CPVC HDPE
Chlorinated polyvinyl High density MBS PBT
chloride polyethylene Methacrylate-butadiene- Polybutylene
styrene terephthalate
DSC HIPS
Differential Scanning High-impact polystyrene MDPE PC
Calorimetry Medium-density Polycarbonate
HM polyethylene
DTA High-modulus
Differential Thermal
Analysis
SAFOAM® User’s Guide page VIII

COMMON ACRONYMS
PCTFE PIE RH UHMW
Polychlorotrifluoro- Polyisobutylene Relative Humidity Ultra-high molecular
ethylene weight
PMMA RIM
PE Polymethyl methacrylate Reaction injection UL
Polyethylene molding Underwriter’s
PMS Laboratories
PEC Paramethylstyrene RP
Polyphenylene ether Reinforced Plastics UV
copolymer PMT Ultraviolet
Paramethylpentene RTM
PEEK Resin-transfer molding VAE
Polyetherether ketone PP Vinyl acetate-ethylene
Polypropylene SAN
PEH Styrene-acrylonitrile
Polyphenylene ether PPE
homopolymer Polyphenylene ether SMA
Styrene maleic
PEI PPO anhydride
Polyetherimide Polyphenylene oxide
SMC
PEO PPS Sheet molding
Polyethylene oxide Polyphenylene sulfide compounds
PES PS SPE
Polyethersulphone Polystyrene Society of Plastics
Engineers
PET PU
Polyethylene Polyurethane SPI
terephthalate Society of Plastics
PVAL Industry
PETP Polyvinyl alcohol
Polyethylene TGA
terephthalate PVDC Thermal Gravimetric
Polyvinylidene chloride Analysis
PF
Phenyl-formaldehyde PVDF TPE
Polyvinylidene fluoride Thermoplastic
PFA elastomers
Perfluoroalkoxy (resin) PVF
Polyvinyl Fluoride TPU
PI Thermoplastic
Polyimide RH polyurethane
Rockwell hardness
PIB UHM
Polyisobutylene Ultra-high modulus
SAFOAM® User’s Guide page IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the following people and companies for their assistance.
Gerry Mooney, Consultant

Mike Caropreso, Consultant
Larry Currie, Consultant
Dan Cunningham, Consultant
Joe Ventura, Consultant
Dan Roberts, Consultant
REFERENCES
Andrews, Claude R. and Gerard Mooney, J.M. Huber Corporation, Chemical Division, “Performance
Evaluation of Chemical Foaming Agents by Gas Evolution and Rate Analysis”
Clark, Christopher and Williams, Rick, “Gas Assist Injection Molding: Controlling the Flow,” Proceedings
from the 23 Annual Conference, Structural Plastics Division, Boston, MA, April 2-5, 1995,
Currie, Larry “Challenge of Building and Injection Mold.” Proceedings from the 23 Annual Conference,
Structural Plastics Division, Boston, MA, April 2-5, 1995.
Cylatec, Inc, Cyclacell Endothermic Blowing Agent Product Description
Dupont Plastics, “Structural Foam Handbook”
Wessling, M. et. al., “Carbon Dioxide Foaming of Glassy Polymers” Journal of Applied Polymer Science,
Vol. 53, 1994, pp. 1947-1512.
Kumar, Vippin, “Microcellular Polymers: Novel Materials for the 21st Century,” Cellular Polymers, 1992,
Paper 6, pp. 1-7.
Goel, Satish K. and Beckman, Eric J., “Generation of Microcellular Polymers using Supercritical CO2”,
Cellular Polymers , 1993, Paper 5, pp. 1-11.
Greele, Peter F. “Solid vs. Gas vs. Foam: Who Has The Best Ribs in Town?,” Proceedings from the 23 Annual
Conference, Structural Plastics Division, Boston, MA, April 2-5, 1995.
Kosin, John and Tice, Christopher, “Novel Endothermic Chemical Foaming Agents and Their Applications,
Journal of Cellular Plastics, Volume 26, July 1990
Mooney, Gerry; Tarquini, Mike; and Andrews, Claude, “Activex Users Guide”, J.M. Huber Corporation,
Chemicals Division
SAFOAM® User’s Guide page X
REFERENCES
Methven, J.M. “Foams and Blowing Agents, Rapra Review Reports, Volume 3, Number 1, 1990
Uniroyal Chemical Company, Inc. User Guide for Celogen, Kempore and Expandex
James L. Throne, Thermoplastic Foams
GE Plastics, Engineering Structural Foam Processing Guide & Design Guide
Borg Warner Chemicals, Structural Foam Design Manual
M. A. Schuetz & L. Glickman, “A Basic Study of Heat Transfer through Foam Insulation”, Owens Corning
D. W. Reitz, “Heat Transfer and Aging of Closed-Cell Foam Insulation”, Owens Corning.
Chakra V. Gupta, PhD, Polychem Alloy, Inc., “Flouropolymer Foams”, Handbook of Polymeric Foams and
Foam Technology
SAFOAM® User’s Guide page XI

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

SAFOAM USER’S GUIDE

This ‘SAFOAM User’s guide’ was prepared as a

2. Structural Plastics and Polymer Selection .........................................................3

3. Foaming Agent Selection...................................................................................6

4. SAFOAM in Injection Molding ......................................................................16

5. Heat Transfer and Aging of Closed Cell Foam Insulation ..............................60

6. Trouble Shooting .............................................................................................67

7. Questions & Answers

SAFOAM is environmentally friendly. It has no photochemical reactivity or stratospheric ozone depletion

This new technology is designed to replace chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 1

SAFOAM - ITS USE IN THERMOPLASTICS

 Weight reduction  Cost savings

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 2

PROPERTIES OF AMORPHOUS POLYMERS

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 3

PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS

PROPERTIES OF THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 4

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 5

1. Long term storage stability under normal conditions.

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 6

PHYSICAL FOAMING AGENTS

CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 7

EXOTHERMIC CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 8

ENDOTHERMIC CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 9

Traditional Acid/Carbonate Systems

SAFOAM ENDOTHERMIC CHEMICAL FOAMING AGENTS

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 10

-0.4 curve for

-1.4 SAFOAM FP-40

100x Temperature (Celsius)

SAFOAM products are generally used to:

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 11

GAS EVOLUTION AND RATE

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 12

100x Temperature (Celsius)

100x Temperature (Celsius)

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 13

100x Temperature (Celsius)

100x Temperature (Celsius)

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 14

100x Temperature (Celsius)

100x Temperature (Celsius)

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 15

SAFOAM is used in the following foam structures:

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL FOAM

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 16

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 17

Structural Design Flexibility

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 18

Lower Internal Stresses

Large Complex Parts

SAFOAM® User’s Guide page 19

Part Wt. % Resin % SAFOAM Total