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How Designers Think – The Design Process

Demystified

Article · January 2006

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 How Designers Think
The Design Process Demystified

Fourth edition

Bryan Lawson

AMSTERDAM BOSTON. HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD

PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
EL.%wER Arch8tenura Press s an m p r n t of Elsevler Rcss
 Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgements xi

Part One What is Design?

1 Introduction
2 The changing role of the designer
3 Route maps of the design process

Part Two Problems and Solutions

4 The components of design problems
5 Measurement, criteria and judgement in design
6 A model of design problems
7 Problems, solutions and the design process

Part Three Design Thinking

8 Types and styles of thinking
9 Creative thinking
10 Guiding principles
11 Design strategies
12 Design tactics
13 Design traps
14 Designing with others
15 Design as conversation and perception
16 Towards a model of designing

Bibliography
Index
 Index

Page numbers for illustrations have suffix f

ABK group (Ahrends, Burton and Building and Urban Design Associates,
Koralek), 241,246,248 Birmingham, 227
AD Urban Concepts (Brown), 3 Building Performance Research Unit, 100
The Adventures o f Sherlock Holmes Burrows, Mike, 94
(Conan Doyle), 54 Burton, Richard, 165,241,246,247,
Agabani, FA., 184,196,197 248,252,263
Ahrends, Peter, 241,246,248,263
Akin, 0 ,45
Alberti, Leon Battista, 173,204 CAD systems (computer aided design),
Alexander, Christopher, 24,25.27.28, 283-4
62.75,76.77:91,164 Cairns, G.M., 86
Alfred MacAlp~neConstruction Ltd, 259 Calatiava, Santiago, 10,148,149,170,
Alice in wonderland (Carroll), 159 171,189,204,208,217,218,256,
Alice Through the Looking Glass 279,282,294,301,302
(Carroll), 31,63 Cambridge University. 177,195
Allsop. Kit, 205,206,207 Candy, L.. 94,101
Andrews, R., 267,288 Castelvecchio Museum, Verona, 279
Anthony, K.H., 156 Cathedral of St John the Divine,
Archer, L. Bruce, 40,69,70 New York, 218f
'Architects Club,' 23 Centraal Beheer office building,
Architectural Practice and Management Appledorn, 163,169
Handbook (RIBA), 33-4 Chapman, F.B., 14
Architecture Action and Plan (Cook), 181 Chermayeff, 5.. 62.77
Armani, Giorgio, 190 Christiaans, H., 184
Arts Council, 236 Clegg, G.L.. 10,22
Asimow, M., 40 Caleridge. Samuel Taylor, 148
Astragal, A.J.. 31 Colonia Guell, Barcelona, 251
Come to Judgment (Picasso), 63
Components of design problems, 5342
Barcelona International Exhibition, 10 see also Problems and 5olutions in
Bartlett, F.C.. 15,133,134,141,142 design
Bauhaus, I60 defining the limits of a problem, 55-7
Bellini. Mario, 146,189 experience develops
Berlyne, D.E., 131 judgement, 55-6
Bill, P., 8 regression and escalation, 56-7
Boardman, Chris, 94 differerences between design
Boden, Margaret, 146,295 fields, 534
Bole, Axel, 71 difficulties typified in town
British Airports Authority Project planning, 54f
Process, 259 establishing the level of detail. 55
Broadbent, Geoffrey, 76,203 integrated solution, 61-2
Brown. Denise Scott, 3,168,209,255 Georgian window, 6lf.62
Bruner, Jerome, 119,133,134 pattern ofthe problem, 62
Buchanan, Professor James M., 80 multi-dimensional problems, 58-60
Buckle, Richard, 175 designing a window, 59,60
Components of design Crick, Francis, 153
problems (continued) Crinson, M, 6
relating to what already exists. 57-8 Cross, Anita. 190
sub-optimising, 60-1 Cross, Nigel, 22, 28, 108, 167, 184.
cumulative strategy, 60 190. 191, 201, 265, 273, 274, 275,
interconnectedness, 60-1 276,277,283,288,290,291,303
Conditions of Engagement for
Architects, 36
Conference on Design Methods, Daley, J., 28
Manchester 11962). 38 Darke, Jane, 46, 47.99. 295
Constraints in design. 90-1 10 Das Capital (Maw), 17
clientluser, 9 W l Data General computers. 246
conflicts between constraints, 91-2 De Bono, Edward. 3. 15, 132, 201. 293
designer, 90 De Groot. A.D., 133
domain of influence, 92-3 De Re Aedificatoria (Alberti). 160
external constraints, 94-7 Demosthenes, 220
constraints often interesting to Design see also Components of
architects, 97 design problems; Constraints in
des~gningChicago bibliographical design; Education for design;
centre, 95-6 Measurement in design; Model of
engineering Severins bridge, Designing; Principles of design;
Germany, 94, 95f. 96f Problems and solutions in design;
examples, 94 Process of design; Role of the
formal constraints, defined, 104 designer; Strategy for design;
four generators of design Tactics for designers; Teamwork
constraints, 90f and design:
function of constrainb, 99-102 in architecture, 5
classification of buildings into definition of the word, 3
types, 102 in engineering, 4
criteria used by designers, 101 and the environment, 4-5
form and content, 100-1 in fashion, 4
four functions of a building, 100 personal, 5
purpose of constraints, 100 professional, 5-6
internal constraints, 93-4 as a skill, 14-15
defined, 93 Design Guide for ResidentialAreas
legislator, 91 (Essex County Council), 74
model of design constraints. 105-10 Design in Mind (Lawson),viii, 266
constraints and criteria. 109-10 Desian
" Thinkina Research
4

example of, Symposia, viii

the National Theatre.. 105.. 106f The Descent of Man (Darwin). 129
the Pompidou Centre, 107 Dickson, D., 113
three-dimensional block. lO6f Dictionary of the English Language
use of the model, 107-9 (Johnson), 200
as an aid to understanding, 108 Dilemmas in a General Theow of
n developing a balanced design Planning (Rittel and
process. 109 Webber), 200
practical constraints, defined, 103 Dahr, J.H., 101, 109, 110
radical constraints, defined. 103 Dorst. K., 274, 275, 303
role of constraints. 97-9 Dreyfus, H.L., 285
extended model, 98f Duffy Frank, 172
internal and external Dyson, James, 92, 190
constraints, 98-9
symbolic constraints, 104-5
in the form of critical analysis, 105 Eastman, C.M., 44.45. 184
Cook, Peter. 88 Eberhard, J.P., 56
Cosi Fan Tutti (Mozart), 190 Eckert, C., 273,274
Creativity and Cognition Edison, Thomas Alva, 145, 148
Conferences, ix Edrnonds, E.A., 94, 101
Education for design. b-10. 155-7 Heaquarters and Training Building for
creativity, 155-7 Cable and Wireless, 252, 253f
and design studios, 156 Heath, T, 102
model of hydro-electric plant, Henrni, R., 278
156, 157f Hertzberger, Herman, 153, 154.157,
use of previous work, 155 163,164,165,169,235,250,255
design studios, 7-8 280,281,301
in different fields, 8 Hillier, B., 46. 100
history of architectural education, 6 Homes for Today and Tomorrow
'modernism,' 7 (Morris). 73
proposal for single degree in all Hornsev Colleae of Art. 240
design fields, 9-10 How ~esigne; Think (~awson),vii. 1.
specialisation stamina " at school. 9-10 278.303
technological change, 6-7 Howell, Bill, 195
Elliot, P., 23, 29 Howell. Killick. Partridge and Amis
Emett, Roland, 145 (architects), 195
English Heritage, 231 Hubbard. P.. 8
Erikson. Arthur, 170 Hudson, L.. 152
An Evil Cradling (Keenan), 181

Icon trap for designers, 229. 280

Fedorovitch, Sophie, 175 The Individual in Society
Fiwilliam College. Cambridge, (Krech, Crutchfield and Ballachey),
192f. 252 233
Fodor, Jerry, 137 Issigonis, Alec. 146
Forty, A., 146
Fraser, 1.. 278
Froebel, Friedrich, 303 Jackson, PW., 152
Jacques, Robin, 202
Jameson, Conrad, 204
Galanter, E., 136 Jamieson, P, 171
Gardner, C., 171, 175, 176 Jenkins, J.G., 21
Garland, Ken, 239 Jincna, Eva. 39, 85, 105, 163. 164. 171,
Garner, W.R., 134 183.209. 211,212,213,217. 250,
Gaudi, Antonio, 104,251 255,272
Gehry, Frank, 282. 283. 284, 294 Johansen, John, 114. 116
The Geometry of the Environment Johnson, Philip, 58
(March and Steadman), 104 Jones, Geoff, 227
Gero, John, 302 Jones, J. Chris.. 26.28. 33, 60, 117,
Geneis, J.W., 152 162. 201, 229
Ghost in the Machine (Kaesher). 136 Jones, Peter Blundell. 97
Glymph. Jim, 283
Goel. Vinod. 137, 289. 295, 296
Goldschmidt, G., 281 Kagioglou, M., 259
Gosling, D., 205 Kannengiesser, U., 302
Grange, Kenneth. 265, 276 Kaye, B.. 26
Green, Cedric, 235, 236. 239, 240, 241 Kidder, T, 245
Gregory, Sydney, 32.40.288 Kneller, G.F. 148, 157
Groak, Stephen, 279, 280 Koestler, Arthur, 136, 265
Gropius, Walter, 160 Kohler, Wolfgang, 133
Guilford, J.P., 139, 143 Koralek, Paul, 241, 246, 248, 263
Kraus. Karl, 112
Krier, Leon. 167
Habraken, N.J., 115, 169. 170
Hannay, P, 205
Hanson, K.. 28 The Lady with the Dog (Chekhov), 53
Hare, A.P., 243 Lasdun, Sir Denys, 105. 168. 271
Haring. Hugo, 97 Law Court building, Northampton, 206f
Lawson, Byan R., 9, 39.42. 43. 72, 73, decision taking, 81-2
74, 76, 85, 105, 140, 143, 149, 153, design methods, 75-7
154, 162, 163, 164, 168. 169, 171, Alexander's method, 75-7
183, 184, 189, 192, 203, 207,208, failings and deficiencies, 76-7
209, 21 2, 21 3, 248,255,259,266, requirements and interactions,
271,272,277,280,282 75-6
Laxton, M., 156, 157, 296 numbers, 64-73
Le Corbusier, Charles-Edouard, 25, 97, combining the scales, 69-70
104, 161f, 173,204,231,302 Archer model of design
Leach, E., 113 process, 69
Leaman, A , 100 Stevens rules for measurement
Lessons for Students of Architecture scales, 69-70
(Hertzberger), 112, 156 interval numbers, 65, 66f
Levin, PH., 40 Fahrenheit and centigrade, 65.66f
Lindsey, 8.. 282, 283 nominal numbers. 68f
LLoyd, P., 184 ordinal numbers, 66-7
London Underground, 267 rankings, 67f
Looking for the Beach under the ratio numbers, 65f
Pavement (Hertzberger), 233 precision in calculation, 7&3
Laos, Adolf, 177 dangers in over-application of
Lubbock, J., 6 science, 72
Luchins, Abraham H., 155 faults of over-precision, 71-3
Luchins, Edith 5.. 155 problems in measuring success, 63-4
Lutyens, Edwin, 88 regulation, 73-5
Lynn, Jack, 231 Design Guide for ResidentialAieas
Lyons, Eric, 162 (Essex County Council), 74
legislation not aiding good
design, 75
MacCormac, Jamieson and Prichard Mandatorv Minimum Standards. 74
(architects). 249 Parker Morris recommendations for
MacCormac, Richard. 151, 173, 192f. kitchens, 73, 74f
193f. 194f. 204, 208, 209,249,250, Value of Standards foi the External
252,277 Residential Environment
Macintosh, Kate, 99 (Department of the
MacKinnon, D.W., 151, 152 Environment). 74-5
Macmillan, 5.. 258 value judgment, 70, 77-8
Maguire, Bob, 251 Medway, P., 267,288
Maher, M.L., 274, 275 Miller, G.A., 136
Maitland, B., 205 Miller, Jonathan, 190
Man Made Futures (Weinberg), 166 Model of designing, 287-303 see also
Mandatory Minimum Standards for Principles of design
public sector housing, 73, 74 design investigations, 287-9
Manifesto ofArchitecture (Sant-Elia), 166 interviews with designers, 28&9
March, L., 173 research in the laboratory, 288
Markus, Tom A., 29, 36, 100, 133, 288 use of computers, 289
MarkusIMaver map, 36, 37f. 38, evaluating, 298-9
39,257 objective and subjective, 298
Martin, Sir Leslie, 104 suspending judgement, 299
Martin Centre, Cambridge, 104, 173 formulating, 292-3
Matchett, E., 32 framing, 292-3
Maver, Tom, 36 identifying, 292
McDonnell, J.T., 302 moving, 295-6
McLuhan, Marshall, 113 interpretive moves. 295-6
Measurement in design, 63-82 primay generators, 295
cost benefit analysis, 78-81 problems and solutions, 296-8
difficulties for designers. 81 are inseparable, 296-7
siting of third London Airport. 78, 79f continuous process, 297
vews of RIBA, 79-80 thinking in parallel, 297-8
 reflecting, 299-301 Practical Thinking (de Bono), 3
guiding principles, 300 Price, Cedric, 165
references, 300-1 Prince of Wales Institute of
reflection on action. 299-300 Architecture, 6
representing, 293-5 Principles of design, 159-80 see also
conversations with representations, Model of designing
293-5 client, 167-8
scope of a model. 29C-1 climate. 177-9
skilis and values, 291, 301-2 designs for ecologically sound
Moore, Henry, 83 skyscraper, 177, 178f
Morris, Desmond, 244 content, 167
Morris, Sir Parker. 73 decomposition versus
Moulton, Alexander, 149, 150 integration, 164-5
Mueller, R.E., 138 balancing design concepts, 1 6 6 5
Murphy, G., 138 'green' design, 165
Murphy. Richard, 279 formal, 1 7 3 4
Murray. Gordon, 108, 190 constraints, 173
Museum of Anthropology.Vancouver, 195 geometrical ideas, 173
Musgrove, J., 46 future, 165-7
images by Sant-Elia, 166f
and technology, 166-7
National Theatre, 105, 106f. 271 morality, 1 6 0 4
Neisser, U., 135 cultural style. 161-2
'New Architecture,' I 6 0 New Architecture, 160
Newell, A,. 134 principles and pragmatism, 163-165
Neylan, Michael, 99 practical, 170-1
Norberg-Schulr, C., 101 'high-tech' design, 170
Notes on the Synthesis of Form structural engineering, 170-1
(Alexander), 27 radical, 172
symbolic, 174-7
minimalism in the theatre. 175
Olympic Games (1992). 94 product personality, 176f
Open University, 202 users. 168-70
O ~ r o n Robert.
. 256 have competing requirements, 169
involvement in design, 169-70
Problems and solutions in design, 83-90,
112-25 see also Model of designing;
Principles of design
Page. John, 38.60.85.288 analysis model, 83
Palladio. Andrea, 173 design as a contribution to
Papeweight (Fly), 17 knowledge, 118-20
Parallel lines of thought in design, activities of imaging, presenting
143,154-5 and testing, 119
Parc de la Villette, Paris, 267, 268f body of knowledge for
Peng, C., 251 testing, 119
Piaget, Jean, 134 heuristic catalyst for imaging, 119
Pilling, 5.. 183 characteristics of design, 119
Plans and the Structure of Behaviour design problems, 120-1
(Miller. Galanter and Pribhaml. cannot be comprehensively
stated, 120
- ,. require subjective
PoincarO, Henri, 147, 149 interpretation, 120
Pompidou Centre, Paris, 89, 107, 117, tend to be organised
118f hierarchically. 121
Poon, J., 274, 275 design process, 123-5
Portillo, M., 101, 109, 110 finding and solving problems, 124
Poundbury village, 167 involves subjective value judgement,
Powell, Dick, 171 12&5
Probiems and solutions in example Parc de ia Villette, Paris,
design (continued) 267.268f. 269
is prescriptive activity, 125 and negotiations, 269-71
ne'ed for'action. 125. reconciiiation of conflict, 269-70
no infallibly correct process, 1 2 3 4 transparency and panorama.
process is endless. 123 27&1
design solutions. 121-3 between peopie, designers,
are often holistic responses, 122 drawings and computers, 2 6 5 4
are pans of other design as shared experience, 277-8
problems, 122-3 definitions of design. 31-3
can create design problems, 11t-17 allowing for disparate and common
as a contribution to knowledge, 122 features, 33
no optimal solutions. 121-2 by an engineer, 32
numbers of different solutions, 121 framing, 275-7
designing for the future, 112-14 defined. 275-6
'Futureshock,' 113 through the eyes of the user, 277
technology changes, 113 transparancy and panorama, 276
finding and salving problems, 117-18 Intentions. Practices and
example of Pompidou Centre, Aspirations. 260f
117, 118f and project management. 263-4
generators of design problems, and aynchronisation, 261, 262f
84-90 laboratory studies, 4 1 4
clients, 84-5 architecture and science student
as creative partner, 85 groups, 43
range of ability, 84 divis6n between analysis and
designers, 87-8 synthesis in problem solvinq, 44
seen as artistic, 87-8 expenmental sitlations, 42f -
legislators. 89 primary generator, 46-8
conflict with designers, 89 comprising generator, conjecture,
users. 85-7 analysis, 46-7
communication gaps, 85, 86f Darke's map of the design
remoteness, 86-7 process, 46f
-
nan-committal desiqn, 115-1 6
buildings must change, 116
-
m u l t,i ~ l eaenerators. 48
problem and solution view, 271-5
flexible and adaptable, 115 -
desiqners '~roblemfocussed.' 271
procrastination, 11'4-1 5 example of Britjsh Rail train,
flawed strategy, 115 272, 273f
throw-away design. 116 importance of drawing and
Process of design, 31-49, 259-85 talking, 273
conversations, negotiating between
with computers, solutions, 274-5
Artifical Intelligence, 284 realistic experiments, 44-5
computers knowledge of bathroom requirements, 44
design, 282 disaggregating the design
destgn ideas not codable for process. 45
computers, 285 route maps. 33-41.48.49f
frustration of designers with accuracy, 40-1
computers, 284 theoretical and prescriptive. 40
problems with CAD systems generalised map, 38f
(computer aided design), graphical representation, 4Qf
2834 MarkusIMaver map, 36,37f, 38, 39
saving time. 282-3 decision sequence, 37
with the drawing, return loops, 37, 38
dialectics of sketching. 280 negotiation between problem and
example of detail of balustrade, solution. 48, 49f
2796 280 RlBA handbook, 34-6
icon trap, 280 four phases of work, 34.35f
'unexpected discovery,' 281 Plan of Work, 3 5 4
and narrative, 267-9 timing of activities, 34-5
Process Protocoi Salford University, 259 Savidge, R., 74
Pugin,A.WN. 160, 161, 162 Scarpa, Cario, 279,280, 281
Scharoun, Hans, 97,105
SchGn. Donald A., 26, 265, 266, 269,275,
Rae, J., 240 276,278,281,292,293,299
Rand. Paul, 96. 100, 176 Severins bridge. Germany, 94.95f. 96f.
Rathbone, R.R., 40 194-5
Requirements for designers, 12-14 Seymour. Richard, 9, 154. 172, 175, 176.
ability to design, 14 272
aesthetic appreciation, 12-1 3 Seymour Powell (designers). 172,
understanding needs of users, 13 175.176
RIBA see Royal Institute of British Sheffield University, 18
Architects Simon, H.A., 134
Ritchie, Ian, 171, 192, 250. 266. 267. Sketches of Thought (Goel). 137
269,276 Soane. Sir John, 174
Roe, A,, 151 Spence. Sir Basil, 168
Rogers, Richard, 89, 107, 117, 118, 163. Spencer. C.P. 169
164,170,238 Stacey, M., 273. 274
Role of the designer, 17-30 Starck, Philippe. 10, 150. 208
craft design. 17-23 Steadman, P., 173
cartwheel, 21f. 22f Stephen. Douglas, 99
differences in desian Drocesses. Stevens, S.S., 69. 70
Stirling, James, 160, 174, 183, 229, 249
Stirling and Wilford (architects]. 84-5, 249
marble machine. 18f Strategy for design, 181-98 see also
design by drawing, 26-7 Process of design; Tactics for
advantages, 27 designers
perceptual span. 26 brief for the designer, 182-3
types of drawings, 26 central idea, 189-94
future roles, 28-30 examples of the importance of,
conservative, 29 1904
middle path. 30 Fitzwiliiam College, 192-4
revoiutionaly 29-30 industrial design. 190, 191f
professionalisation of design. 23-5 racing car design, 190-1
and the Industrial Revolution, 24-5 Royal Opera House, 190
separation of designing from heuristic strategies, 184-5
making, 23-4 use of careful calculation or of 'rule
scientific design, 27-8 of thumb,' 184-5
design methodology, 28 primary generator, 188-9.194-8
work by Alexander, 27-8 crucial constraints, 196-7
traditional design process. 2 5 4 examples of sources, 194-6
individualism. 25 structural honesty. 195
Rosenstein, A.B., 40 vertebrate architecture, 195
Roskill Commission, 78, 80, 238 guiding principles with local
Rowe, PG., 47.95. 215.216 constraints. 189
Roy, Robin. 92, 190, 191, 201 life cycle. 197-8
Royal Institute of British Architects analysis through synthesis, 197-8
[RIBA), 23, 24, 25, 29, 34-6, 165, starting again, 198
174,257,260 protocol studies. 183-4
process map, 34-6, 260 analysis of video-recorded design
views on cost-benefit analysis, 79-80 protocois, 184
Rayai Opera House, Covent Garden. 190 theory and practice, 181-2
Ryle. G., 15, 130 three different approaches to one
problem, 185-8
appearance to visitors, 187. 188f
Sainsbury Wing of the National Gallery, environment as critical. 186f
London, 212, 213, 214f, 215f importance of dte, 187f
St. Mary's Hospital, Isle of Wight, 241. The Structure of Design Problem Spaces
242f. 243f (Goel and Pirolli), 287
 Stum~f.S.C.. 302 practices. 248-53
collective goals, 251
example of Heaquarters and
Training Building for Cable
and Wireless, 252, 253f. 254f
Suwa, M , 281 role of practice principle, 249-50
Sydney Opera House, 47, 237 structuralist and metaphorist
approaches, 251
successful groups of architects,
Tactics for designers, 200-1 9 248-9
alternative design solutions, 207-12 process, 257-8
example of Temasek Polytechnic, analysis and synthesis
Singapore, 210f. 211f combined, 257
single solution often preferred, 208 prescriptive route maps, 257-8
Broadbent's method, 203-9 group.
four tactics, 203-9 dynamics, 2 4 2 4
analogical design, 204 A8K group (Ahrends, Burton and
cananlc design, 204 Koralek), 241, 246. 248
iconic design, 204 example of S t Mary's Hospital,
pragmatic design, 2 0 3 4 Isle of Wight, 241, 242f, 243f
changing direction of thought, 201 five characteristics of a group, 243
cognitive recipes, 201 group morale, 244
lateral and vertical thinking, 201 norms, 244-8
narrative design. 205-7 can become too powerful, 247
example of Law Court, example of Data General, 246
Northampton, 205,206f 'leaders' and 'lawvers.'
~. 246
parallel lines of thought, 212-19 regressive behaviour, 245
cathedral of St John the Divine, -
individuals and desiqn, 2 3 3 4
New York, 218f roie of the client, 253-6
example of the Sainsbury Wing of establishing trust and
the National Gallerv London. confidance. 255
212, 213. 214f. 215f Technologies of design, 10-1 2
interior design by Jiricna, 212, 213f dangers of specialisation, 11-12
waterfront site in Chicago, 21 5, different desgn approaches. 12
216f. 217f inventions often not bv , enoerts.
, 10
understanding the problem, 202 Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore,
problem identification 21M. 211f
game (PIG). 202 Thinking, 129-57
Talbot, Reg. 202 behaviourists. 131-2
Tate Gallety, London, 153 formation of associations, 131
Taylor, J.L., 237, 238 -
imaqinative thouaht. 132
Teamwork and design, 233-65 cognitive science, 134-7
design, artificial intelligence, 136-7
games, 2 3 6 4 2 cognitive psychology, 134-5
conflicts, 237-8 control in the mind, 135
'Connect' (game). 2 3 9 4 0 humans and computers, 134-5
'Gambit' (game), 240 mental agents, 136
interactions between creative personality, 151-3
designers, 239 characteristics, 151-2
players involved, 237 convergent and divergent
as group activity, 256-7 thought, 152-3
benefits of collaboration, 256 differences between intelligence
as natural activity. 2 3 4 6 and creativity, 152-3
collective process, 240 intelligence, 152
development of skills, 235-6 creative process, 147-50
involvement of users, 235 'eureka' moment, 147-8
organisations, 25&9 'first insight,' 148
design process maps. 258-9 five stage model, 148, 1 4 8
 'illumination,' 150 nine-dot-four-line puzzle, 222, 223f
'incubation,' 149-50 pseudo-puzzle false constraints,
involves hard work, 148 223f. 224
mathematical invention described Trevino, Lee, 14
by Poincare, 147 Turner, J.M.W., 153
'preparation,' 149 Twersky, 0.. 281
'verification, 150
creativity. 145-7, 153-5
defined, 145 University Centre Building, Cambridge.
in design, 153-5 195, 196f. 197f
distinction between originality Utron, Jorn, 47
and creativity. 1 5 3 4
using parallel lines of thought.
154-5 Vale, Brenda, 165
H-creativity and P-creativity. 146 Vale, Robert, 165
Gestalt school, 132-4 Value o f Standards for the External
mental imaging or'schema,' 134 Residential Environment
problem-solving, 132-3 (Department of the Environment),
recognition of situations, 1 3 3 4 74-5
productive thinking and design, 140-3 Van Bakel, Anton, 140
adventurous thinking, 141, 142 Van der Rohe. Mies, 10.88.97.104.147
closed system thinking, 141 Venice Biennale. 207
control and direction of thinking, 141 Venturi, Robert. 39, 154. 162, 168,209
convergent and divergent thinking, 212,214,217,255
142, 143f Violet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel, 171
parallel lines of thought, 143 Vision of Britain (Prince of Wales), 167
speed of working, 150-1 Vitruvius, 173, 204
theories of thinking, 130-1 Von Kekile, Friedrich, 148
thinking about thinking, 129-30
thought and personality, 1 3 8 4 0
factorial school, 138-9 Walford, R., 237, 238
production factors, 139-40 Wallis, Barnes, 12, 149, 256
Program, Concept and Site Watkin, David, 161
(van Bakel). 140 Watson, James, 153
recognising classes of ideas, 139 Weinberg, A.M., 166, 167
simultaneous cognition and Wertheimer, M., 132, 140
production, 140 What Desiqners Know (Lawsonl. viii.
types of thinking, 137-8 2 7 1 . 5 8 . 282,283
combination of rational and The Wheelwnshtb Shoo ISturt), 21
imaginative thought, 138 Whitehead, AN., 129 '
reasoning and imagining, 137 Whitfield, P.R., 12, 149, 256
Thorndike. EL., 131, 132 Wiggins, G., 281
Thorny. D.G., 201 Wilford, Michael, 85, 151, 168, 174.
Toffler, A., 113 209,210, 211, 249,250, 254.256
Traps for designers, 220-32 Wilson, C.S.J., 102, 177
categoly trap, 220-1 Wilson, M.A., 8
image trap. 229-32 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 102, 159, 177,
images can convey false 287,290
impressions, 230 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 25, 220, 303
'streets in the air' can become
slums. 231f. 232
number trap, 227-8 Yeang, Ken, 177. 178f, 179, 183, 203,
example of planning authority 250,251,302
rules, 227, 228f
puzzle trap, 221-7
jigsaw puzles, 225f. 226f. 227 Zeisel, J., 86, 119

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