W17CFTCRAFrr

Z
CONFESSIONS & ACCUSATIONS
 First p?cbZi~hedi?, l!)70
hy il'trvisfoc.7; I'ublictstio7~s Liw?,ittid
I 1 Nelr? J l ' r t t ~L~c t n ~ ,Lo.rtdo?z ECY4
Z'his hook has b e ~ ns ~ in t Modrrn Series 7
and was p ~ i ~ by ~ T f ~. cf:d A . I ? o ~ ? ~ t ~Limited,
~hle
Edinburgh Thc papers inrludotl in this vol~lrvltf
@ Asi;orintio?z of ,%)cia1 Anthropoloyists of the Com7~~o?~~niecnlth are ofkred as a tribute t o
1'970 Professor E. E. -Evans-Pritchnrd
k7011nder and First Presidel~tof thr.
Associatian of Social Antlrropologists

II1hirvZJOIU'YIZP d e r i ? )rn,ainly
~~ from papers prcisented at the annual
co~tSe~r?zce qf I ~ PA~rioci/l,tio;r2O f 80cial A n t h ~ q o l o g i ~ tosf the
(:o~~~naon~~~rl;r
lth on the theme of witchcrcgt. ?'he co.pzfr?rencc,was
held (rt King's Coll~ge,Can~bridge, 3-6 April 1968, and the
Association u7ishr.s to record its gratitude to the Provost and
.Fellows of Kir~g'sCollege for their hos1)itality on that occasion.
 INTRODIJCTION
J f u ~ ? yDouglas

'I'llirt y Years
after Witchcraft, O~cnclesand Magic1

ITistorians and aathropologists have a conllnon interest in the

subject of witchcraft, but until very recerltly their outlooks have
diverged. Historians dealirig with si~teent~h- micl seventeenth-
coiit~ryEurope or Massachusetts cannot but see witchcraft ax
p r t of a, cum~llaitiveprocess with frequeritly a, violent and tragic
climax. Its scale may not have nlatclied the religious persecu-
tions of earlier times, but it is difficult not to see i t in Europe ns
another scourge, a destructive belief liable to run away wit11
reason, as Norman Gohn corlvilicingly slzows below. The a n t h o -
pologists of the 1950s developed insights into tlie fulictiorliiig of
witch beliefs which seemed about as relevant to the Etzropean
experierlce as if they came from another planet. Darigerous in
Europe, the ssine beliefs in Melanesia or Africa apyjeared to be
tame, ever1 d~rnesticat~ed; they served useful furictlio~is nncl were
riot expected to run amuck.
I s the difiFerelluc objectively valid? Does it really result ikon1
a difference it1 the social conditions, or is it due to prejudice in
the eye of the observer? Forrtierly antl~rol~ologists used to
enlpliasize the diRererlt quality of the ixlf'orniation a,cceasible
tie the t w o disci~)lille8of research. Now this diffcrerice is beilig
narrowed: tlle historiz~lrswho liavc c~rltribut~ed to this volume
have succeeded in delvirlg into rnatcrial very coxnpartzblr: to
that used by an t2lrol)ologists a11d the latter are gradually
improvi~igthe time-scale of their ol~servation.!['he ~llotnenthas
coriie for it survey of the su1)ject.
For a good tlecadt:, betivce~~ its pill)lir:stion in 1937 ;LIIC'Idlle
begirlriixig o f post war rosearch, Il'itehcraft , Oracles c m d J2ngic
cxmonq tlee Axa~zde had little inftrreilr:~. (Clyde JClnckholzr~ ' s
,Vaz~<,hoWitchcrnj"2:( I 944) wrLa clearly writ ten indc1)enclcirily.) 13ut
ill the nexC twenty years iC canlc: t o dowlinate the ~ ~ r i t i l l gofs
anthropologists irk a remarkable way, A s is the f t ~ t eof any
xiii
 or-igillrrl~.rork, it Ila,ic hren nl~pliecl.in direct ions llotl foreseen, nois tTtiiversi1)yof (jrtjr.o ( 1 $133, 1 !)34).I~VRIIS-
l'ritic.h:tr.clt~ ~ ~ S C I I Rt,11e
R P ~
i3tr l ~ l o s ~ r ~1)y t l ,its ;l1lt2lor*.IGv;~~rs-I'rit,c.]i~i~rd tllenc>ntlcesin no 5intelleetlualist' interpr-et,ntionsfavoured by tlhc li;x~glishantlhro-
u ilc:t.r.t;rit i t t3rmi iht: c.rlldt? lixilr:t ioil;tlisln to .it-llicli TJ itncllcrnft, ~)ologist~sand tnlrea them to task for. supposing t11al. p:ttLttr11s of
stJutfic:s Ila\-e caollllsii)\~t tlci (f"lv;~lrs-I'riI~c*fli~rcl, I!J(jA, 1,. 11 4). 111 thought can he explained by the worliil~gof the i l l d i ~ i d ~ ~ a I ' s
f hr: s11ort r*1rn, 111 t[iall ol' t,lzt-.\+ ~)l'li '14 l1i~11 1 1 ; 1 ~(Jt:riv(~dfi'onl his xnincl. He applauds the French, especially I>ui~kheirnand LiSvy-
1)OO)k Ltlit~i ~ ( : f ~ l l l (to ~ d fi'~Stl'i~tC Ili";~)w11 wish t,o brillg t~llthro- Bruhl, for their sociologic.al a ~ ~ ~ ~ m : w Indeed,
11. hc is our last
~)o'i(qi",sallti Ilisto~.iitnstogt.tl-zcr. 1 1 1 asl;i~lgI~ott-this l~ay)~>enecJi direct link witls the Frci1cli sociologists of L'.4nnde iYocioloq-lique,
wt3 1"i~i~1: f i ~ i i d i ~ ~ t r ~q11~iitiolis
q~t;tl aI)ol~tf lle list rxre of scl1olarly for the reiit of 11s reeeivccll J)urktlrhirn filtlercd through i:aclclifYe-
re,s(;arch. I3row11, At this stage 1le adlrlits himself a disciple of 1,Bv-y-
k'ilxt itrltl f o r e ~ ~ ~ this o s t WiLS ;t book a?)olxt tflr ~ociologyof BrlxSll:
I i ~ l O \ ~ l d g Ict . ~ l t o n - ~how t i r!znurir, clever Z L X ~I ~~ ~ ) p t;LS i ~t iht~l y
"'he critioisrns of XABvy-Erulll'w theories are so obvious and
1% c:r8c., could 1oleri~tt:cii~r.repar~cies i 11 t heir I~eliefqant1 coulci lirrlit
so forcil~lethat only ltctoks of excel~tio~inl Z~rilliance and
t Ilc: liil~dsof' (~~esti011 t,llcy i ~ ~ k e;~f>out d tho U I ~ ~ T - C ~ SI Lt "lrligllt
or'igi11;;llitjr could 11avr survived them, . . . Levy-Brulzl is
11;~t'e/ ) C C I ~ O S I ) C C ~ ~ Yf ~o 8th tl t ~ l i ~ 1 1 1t 0~ 1 ' ~ ~1~11CZies OXI the social
syteiikiug of patterns or xnodes of t l ~ o u g l ~wl~ich, t after
r-r5str;~iiltis ul)r)rl l ) ~ l * (io~l. ~ p tIllst ~ t t c lit f:xt,hert&cl stuclies of ~njcro-
elirninatiz~gall individllml variatiozl, are the same axnong all
f)olific..;. 'I'llc relatiio-ti Il~t:t.c\eer~ k)elic:f a11d society, instead rrf
the rrlelnl>ors of a prinzit,ive coninlrlizity ;xrl<ll a r e what are
; ~ i ) f ~ ~ ; l rt "~i ixlfi~~itcly :sg i~or-r~ltlez;, srxl)tle, ait~tlfluid, was yreserlted
calletl their l.)eliefs,. . . lilvery individrlal is colr-tl~elledtr) adopt
a1: it ~'oll!t'ol r ~ i j - s t ~ueit11 ~~~ a 11~g;tt ive fcedbarlz. Anthropologists
tlscse beliefs by 1,ressur.e of social circunrstauoes. . . . 13'lleri
st tic: tly liril it'c-lill tho c~tlestiorlsthey nslted and rest~,ailledt$eir
Levy-Rrulll says that ;t r c ~ ~ r e ~ e n t n tis~ coilec.
i o i ~ t ive, he n-tcails
11i~t1lral (vriosity. '1'11~ asslli~l~~tio~ls; of their model wcre no nlorc
that i t is ;C iio~ittllyd ~ t e r r ~ ~ i lmode
l c d of thongllt aiicl. i s there-
c*r-itie;~Ilye s i l r ~tlc~cl ~ i t 1 1 ~ 1 t1l l o s ~nrlc lchr*lyingtJlloL$zar~<lc t hcory of
fore r n ~ ~ l r n oto y of a socinl seg-
u all rnenthers of rr ~ o c i e t ~c3r.
is i t c ~ h c 4 r ; k f t.
ment' (1034, 1). 9).
'1711~< ' f l i i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ~ f ' fri~ltl i l ~ t t~)f*r(:~l)tio!l
* t ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ I C Oto I ' f~> ~ l i t i call&-
i~l
I p i s 1.cn.; jmr-l"alg7t i t i t . to tllcl irl t rl*rn-~apt ion of tl1r Second 'IVorlr1TV:ir.. clra1~3
Evi~tns-IVit vi rrlt, on to n~aliethe necessary l i ~ l knitfs cctrl-
1l7l1t.11 t c>;ic*llir~g ;~rirllitiltl~corl; 5%rre res~~rncid Evans-Pritclltid te~ny>orary
j~rrccptiotltheory:
l i i tiiwlf' h;t(l st r i , t b ( i to l)t~I)ljsI~ his NIIC~S S[ 11cliesand tms ~vorlci~lg
\As Jt~rilesand 3tig1la110 anti otllers lilairo shon-11,allpi sorllld or
; ~ 1 < 0 7'11<~ V (7Yu i . q i ({f(Y?/ril / i ( l i ( ~( l1 $1 %!I). 13is e o ~ i t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~3~er'c ~)ora~i~s
sigllt r1ia-y reach the brain of a person witllont ent eying into
1 1 1 i l ) l i 4 l i i 112 i ~ t pt ~ ~;LIZ& r t rts(";l1"i4f~f*~. I~:;Lc"II iiew ficldt\-orkcr 1)ro-
his corlsciousnews, ll/'e ~ n n ysay hhat he "lleair~"or "sees" i&
( I l l ( v r " c f llC1\'i t l l i l t ~ f ' i f l , ~Ilrl\V
, idf";l~, : ~ 1 1 ( 1 I1(l\.'I f ~ i : ~ ~ l l l~i ~ a )T l o ~ ) r!I B I ~ s .
b 1 3 t does nod l lo tic^' ' it . K 11 n st r~illllof A E ~ I S C ilnl)res~ic)118
I I ~ ~ Ii *! a t ~ gof'so(*i:l,l
v i ~ l s t i tio11s~ ~ il i a d to 1~ ;i~iaI*ys~cl. 11 sir~~j)liiie<l
only a f i : ~bec*r)rneeo~lsc:ioui:and these ;trc selected or1 account,
; ~ \ ~ ~ ~ r o1t1;7' ;~~ I"~~lC ( Y ~ S S ; ~ I ' Yfijr ;ts;.;iix\ilntil~g so r~rrrc:lr tl123,t isns
A ~nan'sintrl.ests are tJhcselective
of ttlscir grr:at'er aff~ci~ix-it)-,
> f 1 1 IPSSO~IS
~ ~ i l f : ~ t ~ ~ i l i : Ii f~ pS. O I I I ~ of' ~ of' t h v A z z t ~ ~l)r~ok ~ l c 1%ere over-
agent8 2111~1t hr8e a r r t o i\ gr*~17tt
cxtent socitxlly dctc.r*~nineci . . .'
lair l \\ it 11 01 llcr itlwss, ~'tlt~at>~ill>e~* also t ll;r t, Eva~rs-f3rit c2l;lrtl is
(iljid., 1). 18).
t i c v h l ) l r - rr~otic~st. tlocls r r o t s t ~ k
1 1 t h to ~lotrtinate to ii~ffrrti~lce
1111(1tily :L st 1t(1~1it tlkoi~gl~ t,. 1t is i ~ i ~ ~ ~ o s to s j ti >t~~itgillc
J~ llin~ hilrutall cbarlier, Marx had nr-yurrl that rrligiol~sIr~elicfs arc:
c a o r l r f ) l : t i r , i ~ l ( _ that
r t t~ol'ei s lrllrwc i r l his -lir*st, book t l~arsEI~IH bee11 ixlfluenced by social cxperienoc. VI'I-rcre n-as no rlorcltj- in the
; ~ o i i t ~ c ~ ors t i , tE1;it 1-I(> Iin4s l)rlr.ri l~lisitltc.r.t~rctccS, t~-elltiethcentury ill inquiring 410-u- tlic choics t~et~wccn orle
I "t.blr;i 1)s i t i.;irvc.#tliss.;;\r.,i-. l)clii,r.c>goi rig on, t o estnltli.;l~t 21a.t tjEle kind o f religiou or ;~rlotl\rrrllight br so dct,cr.nri~rc(l.42ut the
st ~rrlyof r2~:\11(1~ ' t i11(tcva(lofYf:red us i t ct)lltril)iit,iolz
i t it ( d ~ l ( ~ ; ~I\ f ;LS ~)rol~lt.rll I hat l h v y - l31.irlll set l~irlrself nmot~lifrid to t llc l)r*o;~clc.r
t r , t111. sot%ir~logj- of j~~r(~y"l"ioir. 111 Iris 1ectur.tx.; or1 rlbixgirb irr tlw orlc o f ;ts.;killg h o ~ vark>. religir,r~ : t i ;ill ~ 0 1 1 1 ~1~
1 a(.r.el)tt.tl. J \ ' S I ~
slio~lltl1)r:lic.f~ ill ir1visil)lc de111o11s stld gods, Y I L I L a-ild. ~ ~ ~ tab?(, for hil~lt,o discern tllc sct of int,t:rcsts t h t t blilzlieretl hclierchrs
1l;l vc ex1 )l;tilat,ol*y vsl me? L'~I';LI";cc~ in I16~y-Rr~l11's t er111~t I l l ~ ztlld enabled t t t s ~ n lt,o relnain collt1elltnit,ll all esl)larlz~torysystem
clkt~:qtioll ic;i:Crlis I I I ~ ~ ~ I ~ F S Iesc:cp I ~ C ti~ ~ I )~)ostulatizlp
~C, a special t)llat>served so ntangr practical ~ ~ e e i lTlze s . soinrrc of his insight
))I-irr~it~ivc' c;tst of ~ltitltl. Nut It3vaiis-jf%it,cllartlsolred it by lay in oxalniiii~igbeliefs a l ~ v s v sfro111 the ljoint*of view of iihe
l ) ~ O i ~ d ~111~: ~ l i(lj it ~ ~ s t ~still
iot~ further rmcl cosisidc~-ingi t ais part nct,ors in a given 8oci;cl wituation. 'Chrr he tljscalosed tlrc? areas
o f tilir p~*oI)lt:iu of tix]i)l;tn;ttiolin,r such. TTc aslcetl wily any ~net,:x- of thc great$r:.itconcenl, and tllose ilr wlliclt tllrliu ouriosity could.
1)11j~si (:a1 syst clrl slt ou ltl k)t? ac.ct.19tjcd. The tlifires1tc bet ween lie dormant. Ga8ps (Ii~crel)alzri(~ij PC)IIJ(~ 1je tolt1r:kted ~vii,liorat
r*i.ligio\rs t.sl)l:t t l ; t~ion;; ztuzi other exy,lnn:ttiorzs tlle~lfades into in tilw least ~list~urbing the ill~lsioriof' a c o ~ l l f ) l e t ~circle d of
t I~;~(djl~l'Ollll(i. 111 $191 ill(j~liryinto .12 it c.l~cr:xftas u prirlciple of 1)c~Iirf's.
cb;tlrs:tt ion, rto rn,y st cbrio~ls;st>iritrra;~l l,rlillgs rtrr postulat,t>d,o111y Evans-P~iit~hnrtllS nextj l)ook, Thr Y?A/PY ( 103-0:1), C X ends~
t l l r : u1~-stesiorrs~)owcr.sof 1lunla1i.i. l'lte belief 3% oil t l Sitrnc ~ ~ furt,hr>rhis ir~tcrestin t hc social st t3uc>t,rrr.iag of cxl~criclice.I-$is
fimt i ~ r y:ts 11r~lic.fi l l t l i c:onspiracy ~ theory of history, in the I~allc- cllapter con Nuer perception of t i l m is S I L C ~ Ia11exerciat*.7'he ~r.rain
f t l l ci-lX;~>t,s 01' il~tori(l:tt,io~~ or i l ~ (: ~ t rt,ive a v!zl~leof ~ t s y c > h o a n ~ l y i ~ t h e n ~ eof tht? I,ook is .;,2 disctrssion of ho\-r-;t pcc)plc ~ ~ 1 1use 1 an
- o r ;IJrj- proposit iolt t11;nt~c4;lr1 1 ) ~trc..;ciltetl ~ in thrr nn\-erifixk~le uoccl>tnl)le idiom to ~)rcscrlttihc?ir'poli t ic:nl systtlnl t o t ltcn~sel\*cls
f i ~ r - r l t . 'l'llc. (jl~rstioll t11t311 I ) C P O ~ ~ CO SI ~ Cak)out rat,ionality. uitliout m-orvying nI)or~tb o ~ vlittle i t corresponds to the f;tctls
'1'11~ ar Etcllvritft 1trlit.f~of t lzc I"irr,nr~c3ci .il-c3rejx+otected,tbvans- (194l)h, p. 288). T3y t h r tirllc l ~ writes e Nuer .lleligio?z (1 956) he
I"*it c>li:~r'cisho~rchtl,I I O ~only by- secol~drtryrlal,orat,io~ls of t llc is rnuch. closer to I)nrkllci~r~ than to I,&vy-Rruhl. But in t,hc
w by a s ~ t of
~ r l ; t i l r I q - p o t l ~ ~ s 1)1"lt, , social processes. First, the interval T/~,P rS'n7z.tcs.1:?f Cyren,nicn (1949) nn:llyses Glle social
izitcal\c>r:tftk)tllicfs s~ist&i"tjflf*~{ L j 7 , i l ~ l f ~rlor.t.tl
j~ raliacls and their strtlctllring of corlvcrsion. So 116 has eoi~sist.erltlyf o l l o ~ ~ ~his ed
i l t q f j l ~ ~ t i o fl(ll'on(l,
n~. t h y 77(qX.r rPstri("t(?(l SO as lrover to apply early ilrtxrest in tllc social restlraint1son perception. It won Id 1:x
i 11 c ~ , l l cxts t ill ~tl~ichlrr-o~lllictillgscc*tlorsrnigllt ]rave found a n vcrg ~nucliin t hc i;j)irit of these books to rlot,e the soci.c t 1 ~tl'~ctldl'-
i l i t c~cxstirl cirlrtgil~gt1lrc*n1.For rxattll~lr.tlic 1)elief that witch- ing of blind spots and ir~sight~s in 13-ork tlt.ri~-etlfrom tJllt*ln.
rar;i,f:! c\:ls ht:r't~clit;\~~~ in. thcx r>l;cs.: of cbotrllnoncrs. fcricX that tihe Tlsrcc lrrnitl prir1eitl1t.s of tho 12zalltXe a~l;~lysis havci beell
ruli 11q("~:Lss 11:1(3 110 t :till t of it, G I I R I . I I " C ~t 1121 t eonlnronerg would applied in later respnrch. First. t,olcranne of forcign beliefs: Pro-
~ i c ~ ~ ( " ~ ~ i ( ::t~'i"iocrats.
(*lils(* Ii:t~riially,the r3orrriestic ~t~rrracture n-as fmsor Scligrnazl's int rocblct ion point s 011 i t hut the Aznntlt3 n-ere
~ ~ { ~ l t t li rl lt lso f;lr ~ 1 % 110 son c-aorrltl ;Icc2zlseIsis owrl fat,lti~r without far from being i>ppressrtl l)y wi t,ch r r ; ~ f fc~nrs l~ ( b a l r s - Plait(211nrt1,
1)1';~11(lillg hiillisrlf as llf4r to :L t ; ~ i ut f d linc of ilc~scrnt.ilznllde bad 1 !):37, p. xi"), stld E va~ls-Prit,c)lartIpz)ilits out the 1ubric:nt-
n orlilt~clout 'IS ;t1-IIav t l ~ rocin1
r irll~)lici;~t iorls of fierctlitgaryand non- r.ffcct of alloiq-ing grudges t o I.)e broilght out into tile ol)c:11 and
1lc~1~t~~lit~:tr.y ~it~c~frt:raf'f, l ) ~ i vlrc?rc
t still a,I)lc t,o igtlorr: therz~when of ljroviding a fonnuln for at:tioli in misfortulre.
t Iwi I- 0-r~ I I io<Xivi(lu;:\l v a s ~~)c)i~ktrtl f,n r.c.ln tionslii~tsM it h wjtcllrs. Geco~ltl.ihc Ilostilitjes that Mere cxl~rcssed by m-itellc~'aft~
\\Tllf*rtbt l l i l I ~ t ~ l i t ~ f fsr~f~tlrr~tl
k r l i o s t r.rrlrlcr.;tl,lc t o irlt,t.llectrr;tl t~eliefswrerc c1t.arl-y pat tenilrxd. Accusntiolle clnstrrcrl ill areas of
cal~;~llcrlgc% ;uitl had not I~c.c?rl ~)rorid(:tl\\iLll ~)rot~tactivc mccha11- ;\nrhigrrons social i~clatliorls,Whclre r.oli_.sn-rw 111iErr-ctlby 1111-
~ Q I I iIl \~c~aqt t ~ t w iA i z : ~i11~01~1i~:ttlts ~ ~ < l ~ ~ ~1 txlat3i ~ ) ( ~ a ~ )of z nsl)i)ttii~g
l~l~ r q ~ t a ljx)wthr, wrc;~lt a?. or other forms c )f soc3i;ll tlisiaircc, m-it1c;h-
il l c b j ~ l * o ? ~'J'lroy l ~ ~ ~c l: o. ~ ~ l t fr r o f srbc,fc~sf1xnnzplc, any diffific'1llt;l. ~'~'itft ~ ( T C " I~ O
I S R\~-<*rtv~lot
J I~ ~ 111 ;1<lc:t l l ~ y;I l j l ) ~ ; ~rvllrr~
~ * ~ dt rasirtns
w i t fr tJtcki x* t I l f ~ ~ ri(::tl f l t 5 ~c"\s' lll;ttj C I ; C I ~dri~tlrU-asc ; t ~ ~ ~(xitlic3r t"(i t)et8\vee~l ~lciglll)ot~rai~lp rivals colr ld not otllrrn ist: 1)c I-esolvecl.
1 ) ~ .i t itjc*lrc~r;lfi or- 1 ) ~ r- i l i ~ ~ t b i i lrrl;rgic:~gainsi
i~~t. the gnilty nritcl~. 7%e rnec1x:tnislrr for 1)roducilig this pat{~ 1 ~ 1of 1 :rtxcusatc i )ns lay
It1 1 tlclil- ~~*;t(*"fical c~xjjc>t*ierlc.c clvthrydetttll ~ ; t - ihlnr~li~tli~ ox) witch- in the way in wllict~orscles wcrtx u ~ c o n s c - i i oliia~,ililrl;ltc.tl. i~
cat*;lfl . \\;lic\rl 1 1 1 ~;tit4 l~~r,i)ologihl 1% :illrtcirl t o t o t ~ 1 d~"tlrs' of Tllird, \rit vtl 1)eliefs had n ~rt,x.lll:~tii-c cI1Ftict) or1 I)fhhrivicnur,
it calrrs' .;-icltirt~s:tgniltst tlc~~,tIis of v i t ~ ~ l r1;illtltl
t ~ s i l r \rcngcnlrrlc. 'il'llus the morirl syst cnll ;~ricisoeinl ccrclcs \~--n.rc si11~l)oi.t ed by t lrc
1 1 0 OIIP I i r r c b t r ;rltytlii~-rir ;~!,c~ttt t l l c b Iirt
tr11.. T31;lt i t .tv;l,s riot rlifficarglt ~:1nt.tion of att r:tclt,ing iiusf,iciolr of 1% iicIler*;tft, sit-tc*ch-i.t i i c l ~ t ~ s
x.; ii
 PIT^
~i t \ I ( )11g11 t i,o I K ~ t 3 t ~ ( l t a . in(::ti~,01, s ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~h4or~ovc~r) ( ~ l ~ i ~bf2iiig
\g. 7'he -4zttnde stt~ily~crt~;til-tly c~lit~l'ibut c?d its sl1a.r~to tlllr gulf
l)c*i-\-it(41cc-lS\ : t I~I P \ ("1'i ~ ( ~ ( : r qitjq ~ )itl l~1 ~ ? ( l f01' 1l101';tl01' t ~ ~ b l ~ i c f ~ l
OXC'IISC 1)cLn-sc.n hist oluiarrsant1 ;-ill Ihr.ol)olo;?ic;ts,sillc;r. Lht: ich?:i: of' t, itch-
t l t ~ f j ~ * t rJ+~I(.I.O
;; r.i*csl)o~lsiI)ilit,y c:orlltl
11tp t~t~;~I~lisl;lr(ff. cwft as ~);irt,of i t llr,i~loost;it,ivrolrf 1.01 sj-stoln dcvsi~~ ( (iircctly 3
1 4 : ~ ;nlr.:-J$,it(:llilt'~l'*~nl;bin ilitt(:rcvtiS ~ Y C I ~ XfS1 0 l l i t ~ eI ) c ~ n in c;hoi% - fro111 it . I\br*ll;il)s1 1 0 0 1 1 ~l l i t ~golii\ f ~ l rl tl f tjllitll
~ I-"f.~ilij) bl ayer irl
i ~ Irori- ~ g ;1 ~~rc't~;~~)I~y.;i~':~l systclri~(ii)rtltlc*olt~l)~l Iw1ic.f Iry n variety j~,~l)ljiw t1r;tt) w itchllcraft t,t.~lic$'s(at 1 6 ~ ; 1 in ~ i Afi.ic.;i ill i t - : origi~~ill
of stxlf'-sr;ilitl;zti11g procccltircq. Rut 1 1 1 ~S : L I I ~ P ; ~ ~ ) ~ ) l ' ~ i %Mf a,s " l well tllltonrllcrl ~t,iklrI~t~f'orc i l l ~ S S ~ U I I : L I - ~ ((%P]I,
Y, tlliii ~ o l o r i i ~ had
ts
ltcitx 1)twJ f o i t r~lor-c:sit~1~1list i~ f ' l l l ~ ( " t i ~ ) i t i ~ilyl)ot
l hc-:+is. Tltc tlisttrrbetl i!llt. 1~alnrlc.t.)n ercX ;t frilly tiotllr:st icated P~)C'C'~OS, noti
r*r*vc~;rl*c~lri.s of R 1 i i ~RI:rrrt ialt (I!)lriJ) I !f(iT,) :rr~ilnf (jlytlc R'lit c:tltlll ti(>X)c co~ulmretiM itill the .\z ilti, I_r;~u*ope;xn sort ( I 954):
( I !)#?(i) i i r ( h r t ral Afaric.:t c:rlrltIlasixi.,rd tht: 111or;ility-snst?ti~~irsp,
"11 a ~lorr~~nll;l-
st;tblc society the ~viic*hcrnfi,
is r~feci.ii~clg-
roll-
~lorn?nt~i\r., aird t.xl)l;lti;ttor.y fiir~ntitr~~s of niici1ler;ifi. l u t t,'fl~y
;t vclit fill E1:~tretls~11ltl
t rolJt:tl. I t ;idrtijt,ticidly~~r~ovicics ;~~~xi("~its
:icl(l(ltZ ;I trc.w 1cvt.l of irlsicht.
, t hi.; ~'clnltti
tllznt sociit.t,y (2~llllot0x1) r i ~ICjlrt 11s i ~ f ' t ~ ~;I~~"011-
ill
-1rjrollg the Az:~~iilo, ~ ~ - i t ( : l ~ ( q i ' i tI)(:lic43
f% i i ( i f l ~ l it'o lie like s1,;~tir
trolled olltlcit : til~c?fi.cirlurlt~cayOJ* sci.r-wity of' ~~011vi(d~ii01ls is
rllrlc+t il ic>itty ttctiv;~tcd 1)y inir*i~lt~ii~ial ti.icaf ion, -\sfzorca,~ixl Iv:to
soln~lronl;c.l)t i~i t Elill f)o1111ds1( 1!)34. 11. 15).
:ulrl ( k"7;t (*olll~lllltlit iw I,klt"il' J)O\I CT mT:ts111ol)i ii.,cbrt l f(or t h r v ~ j ~ l i ( ~ 1
cah;l,rig,rcbi;t llc sorain1 syst crtl wo~lltl1)crit)(iic~:tlly rlrlrlrrgo. VFTl.ltbn t141c
li 2 t l~ t-i 1l;rgc rstac~tlt~l R sizcl 1:irgcr t h n i t s frail rr:solirrt3s of
:I ~ ]loriti i y C ~ OId I I ( i o ~ Ii tY ~ ,wi tJc;llc~~3:~ft ~ c * < * t,ions I I s ~ \wrcl an idio~rl
in n l~itdj~ t)lcyi):~i~iflll !)B"OCTSSof ficisiolt~(~1)111~1 k~ set going. 'l'llr-:
'An 12ngli~c2i1ant Item tlernanrls ""ie that ye love orle a1.1otllrr.r
i r r i ~ ~ n~ l 1 x ; ~ 1)ict ~ l d~ I~I ~1vi1s P OF a so(ii;tll S ~ R ~ C I pI I ~ r ~ ~ ~ ilyt ~ i e ~ l t
fertr(?~itly".13eliefi is1 the lina1ic.e of u it chcr~xftailtl i l l the -csr;xt'h
I ~ : I1.l)r>trl*iirg arclac of ill -rirlfiilritl rcll;-ttiolrslli 1's ill J$ hie11 nitrll-
of itlleestral s;;r)iritsdo more than ask this ;ts an ;net of grace;
cnr*;\fi ;~t:~*als;:\t,iolls flonr*islit:td.Now t l i i s I ~ I St1r.t-clopcd b - a~ ncav
tihey aftirrml t 1mt if you do not love onr: arlotfiol. fervelltly, rnis-
r t l o t l c l wl~ic>l-, coulti t :1;1i~ t w r n o ~ ~ oft reca~~rrclit changes in tirnc.
fortu~lewill comuc. Bad feelilig is charged with nlystical
* I t otlc3 ~ x > i l l i r. k t itii Iliqtor,~of :I, sr1l;rll f 'c*11tr:kl /\hican t~illage,
danger; r i r t uc in it sclf ~>rorli-\~ces orc3lt.r tJhrongllon t the
11 i i)c*l)c3t,;lfr rr <*~>116:i\i ions woultl I)r: rnrr. at nnotlrer point they
mnir~crse.Thci-rtgll tt chttrgc: of viitr:hcraftt .fi)r* c.ml,;sirrg a zrlis-
1% otnl(X i~ltcrrsify;ts I-ir-nlscorrtl~rtrri~ O I f>tr*tionttI * advc?ixit!nge.
forttune In my i"?ii~l_ilg~r;~t C ~ I ~ ~C sI; L ( ~ c:L ~( ~~I ~); L; JcT ~ ,lit:c 1)chlit:f
~ t" ~
i~'ii~l(livor.li. colr t i~lurlcito clot t,llc: 3's atad r1ros;;sthe t's, confirnl-
c~lll)ll:isist~st,llii threati to tlw 'vvidfl*social or(1f1~1 llirll is con-
iilg t rllrl iiscfull~rssof t Ilr g ~ ~ l ~ al31t"'ua,c41. c:ll Il ere -v,-it,cllaccusn-
tJaislod ill i rnlt~trl~;tl s i w t itnent s. Slctret: tlit: l,s~lis~.f;-, tlses.t, Fiorlle
t ior t s t\-clrr t~s;i(:(lt t) c*ltl:tllrngc tl)rtsc, of ;~uthorit,y,t,ilere to
011 111 C : ~ I ;~11cd tt-t~ltleilto olt)sen r t ltrl sot4 nl T. irt \rcfi,
III'CSS~XX'C.
st rcrlgt llr.11 it . \l\'lrel,clvtkr. hr~liof in wit cb1-rcr2aftwas fourld to
ttllt3 to ftlcl rhs right sclitirrit~nt~s, Icst tllrby s~lst~rc.t~t.cl of
tlotirii;lr, lIIP I1y1,otil.lrsi-r t TI:\ f ;-tr*cbn,.;:xt ions cvo-rtld Gcnd to c'itlsl rr
1)~iilg s$it,el~es' ( ~ i l t ~ c I c i t ~1 ;9~Z t5l, ~1). !14).
ill I iiolltxs xs I l c ~ t lsocia I w l : t~, i o l ~ si~ tirt3 i1 I tltlfi~~e(i :LII($ c o ~ n pit~i vc
t
c ~ , i ~ l (~l i o ffail l o n iwl,. l ) c * a . ; ~ , r l r r . cao121])el i l ir--rnrss nxld nml~igtlity St;~rt~ing fro111it 110111~oi.jt~ittic 111oc1rlof so(4i~"ty v l ~ i r l witelk-
iil~ l
wckrx. itfctitifif*d f)y r?icx:lll.; of wit c*ll:~ctauciations, 13uf i~rilr-it;tl)Jy craft beliefs lrely) to rulnisit,;~intlic s;t.;;tlerrl, t llc rl:nt~lr';tlvPay to
t,lrcl srr1)jt.c.t 1)r.g;trl t!i, lost1 ill1 c*lxxstn , I~%ICInrli of 1)rcrlic.tivi. powcbr* aecouiat for wit ~1l~leaf't a ~ e ~ l s n t ~get ~ s0111: of (:olltr01m as by
i o t~illg
in t 1 - r irrcf'u
~ taljlc. govr.rrlirzg lzg ~?ot~llr.;is 1s as ~m~vealcd. A t 1rr2tlirzg- reference t o ;L general brc;xftclo\v11 of tlre society. Ottrionsly, the
l)i>irlt is ltrnrIcfb(l 1 ) ~ -J)ar,yII X?ort3e7s (ctissrrrsqiorl of the Yaliij link 1)etweerl Eurr>pe;~ua n d African wit chc.r;ifi STT;LS III ac10 b y
c.osrllologj- it.: ;1 snj)cxrrlr:ktllrnlrc3orl0lrly of 1:ll~~tills iIll(l ends refc3rcric.r: to the Illt-rclnstrir-tl ft~voltxtioll iC$llrcIzrni~~l, o f " tct..
( I II2X). I 3 h . r ll:r 1,s ' I 1 r t r ~ l l c ~ r " s ; a t a ti c . l " c a I t t ..!fi.iur i1 ! ) ( i l ) . 111 IJ l r i c a l r 11c r > c i t .. 1). 15)-
111)-97, l U 1 , 102; h t t ~ ~ - eop.
c8ll:rIlcbrtgt1,.: tIsca s ~ I I I I ~ of' . t I r c k st~-r~;iIIr~d strrlril ~rrxl; ~ ~ ) ~ ) I - O ~ll;rr'li:4 :H~. 111 tjlui case of ilifric:a it3is the break-ur, off hc slxlall f i ~ w -ot- f a c ~ ' ~
tlrv ~ 1 1 ( 1 . cs)111 rtrllllitJy with the advealt of ~nissiollarics,i? ;~gch-l;i
l rour, ant3
six
t o n I I lifil Ihat 1cl1.oclilcat:s nrl ~ l t ~ l r ) t i l t ~increz~sc
l ~ ( ~ d in .ilit#clicraft tl~uraf~of t,he ficlltl rcseast11 of the 1950s ;trlcl 1960s woultl have
iL('clli;&ti01165:
fis:ll.s i t t \ t i t o he ~,ei~lt~erpre tcd. I7or Clydc 14itjclrell ( I !)liCi), Max Marrick
(1I352), J o h ~ Middlet,on
i ( IN O ) , nncf ITict3or'l'urner ( 1954) (sorne
' j \ \ ' t & ;tll filr.1 that socaichf5- f l r ; ~ t gir
;t , tss t . x t a c k s s i v r b t)~.oltliiiclic*s to of t,he best 271io~+-11) liad int,erj)retr~dthe nccusatio~iof m.itlch-
11 i l ( ' 1 1 ( ~ 1 ' ~ \ f 'tt l ~ t ~ . ; t 111. " i t \\ i t ( ; l i - ~ i ~ i ( ~ ~ 1 1
;I sic>l; ~ l ~ ( " i ( l f ) - , I " ; i l l k ~ ~its
craft) priniarily as ax1 inst,ru~n r n t f i r 1)realiiug off relations. The
I M ~ * N ' - " iLtyI ~ " ~ :I bic~l.;:~ ) P I - S O I K ;ty.
L ~ ~'I'his is chotlfir*rrletf l ) j r a n t liro-
accuser was usitlg a legitimate form of r~ttacli:m-hiell absolved
1)olo~ic::rl st ll(llc1.:\ii liiel~irt set 131.;~Ic*;tbtxs Irl;~ves l i o ~ vair ~ i ilicccttse hizn of u ~ i ~ ~ - - a no1,ligations.
ted I n so far as rootlrssncse and
irl wif ~ . ~ ~ - ~ I ~ I G I H i ~ t l r x r ~u~ldergoirlg
"1) ~I ~Hc Pl r~t ~ itit~ social br.c.ak- nlobilitly and laxitlyof rz~ol-alsc:hara,c~t,r.:rize to.icFlilife, the weapon
( l o r v ~r l ~' l l .t k 11;it i\-e\ ~w~oplcs of Soiit 11 A l f ~ a icltlring ( * i ~ the difficult of u-itchcraft accusation would hc retlundarlt. It ti-ould also be
~)lt;tseof rlr.l~;-trlis;i t i o n ~)x-o.l-idr sc*vcbr;t1c>ranc1,.i ill poillt' (&lnj-(?r. i11eEecttla1, for. i t d e ~ t e ~ ~for t l sits suecess on a rclativcl y closed
1!1*74. p. 16). circle of neighI)o~rrs,irr u-hose good opini011 tilit?accused is .;llad~
to sufcr. Thus tJhcortllodoxy of the 1!150s nralces id unliltclp that,
u itchcrnft acctnsatiotls u-onld iricrcctsc izr urban soaict,y, clscey~t
~8 ithill lilnit ed collipetit i ~ sectors. e Xor m-ould they ~,lztusibly
"f i i i ;t I 1 o t tSr Afi*icn arc IJf'ilc1li~lga religioll wlricEr increase with tlie breakdo~v~l of social ohligatio~zsand. moral
(:;\,st s o 11 t f i ~ t r , I)~if:ccionolllie i~ildsot'i~tl cllaxlges Exave so codes. It would seem diecult $0 move f m l r the tlieory of the
sh;tt t,cxr.r~cltril,;11 i t t ~ i tt lllioiis ;111~1111or;11c.oties t,hc~t,
tllle result witchcraft belief func'tionirlg as ax-r i-tistru~nen t of socir~lhealt 11
o f rs llitltx cot~t;tc*t, is in rrialry c;lis.;es (211 i t ~~rnl
t i11cre;lise iir the to tlre idea of i t as ,z syxl-rytorn of a sick soeiet?j-.For this the
clrtltttl of rt it,(4itartift,:11itl tllerofor~in tihe whole iricide~lceof theory .rtrould have Lo be exy)anded. I n stage one, in slnall-scale
tlragic: tt~llst)ug1~out t11t: gro~llt'(I!):fT,, 1 ) ~ .458, 460; see also
society, witchcraft wotlld be lrsidtr control; in stage two, m-it11
W ; L ~ IC! ) l ~
i f i ., 1). 4-7). the dislocation of socitrl life, it ~vouldrLin wild; in stage three,
r I
I ltr: gclicrtll ~)~-o~,ctsitioir that ;tn increase of r~it~(~11craft~ with the rtdveilt of large-sfscale society and ir~~person;il relations,
;1,czc*ul=-ntiorls occurs as :L syrlll)tor~iof disorder arid rrlorrtl collaljse i t wollld f a d e away. 011 this shorn-ilzg i t shoulrl liave 11ee11 at,
was ~ 1 1 ~ ~ ~tinlestr~l~lr~.
d ) l ~ 7 rY;~l.r~~i seriously i t \1;'0~1ldhave required stage two (211d well out of e o ~ ~ t , ruo1l 1 it~m-as being ol~servedin
sorrlc ;~~s:r:ssrrlerrt of dllr. 1crt.l of i-ccccrsntio-tlsbefore and after tlie Africa in t h e 1940-(50 period - ~~rccisr.ly the time it m-as felt to
c.r*r~c*i:tl j~oirlt,;lnci also mr ir1tjiel)eltclcut niensure of the static of slot so well into the Itomeostntic~filncatrionnltheory-. I t should
~noctils;mtl tlhcl rcgrllariig of soci;il ~'elat~iol~s. (3111y rlow, -rt-it11 have heell out of co1ltr.01in Engl:_t~ltl in the period leading 1x1) to
sol~llistic.;tt,ccS trlcluiicllrcbs of nctrvork alinlysis, wonrld it be the Ilndustr.in1 Revolution, that is in the later seven t ecn t h
tb1~clor.c.t ivn 1 1 ljos;-aiblcto ; k t tempt suclz ztn assessment, ;tncl tlie eerrtury, the prriod T T ~ C ~ according I, to Tceitlr Tllomas b~lIc)~?i', its
tahlc i s ( l ; ~ u ~ i t i l 111
~ g XIwt
. the ~TOI~(:CI>G of r~rorixlhealth and ~ i c k - deeli-11~u7as c:n-ell 1)cgrxn. Fu~*tlrcrdiffic11ltic.s arisc .r~-he!l tlzc
ricass,ctltl trnl to t hi.: disc~sssiotl.httis nc:\rcr beexi annlyscd. Inst (:ad, respecatire tinle-scales of antl!~.ol)ologists ant1 historia11s are
it was; f:tlsctr as nxiomt~ticthat 3 high tlrgrcc of nritcli nceusntions com~3arcd. Alan Ma cf~arlane (below) analysts cases ixi Essex
its~If'illdicat~r:d thc: luornl bre12Icdor?;~1. etc., tlrnt was ex1)ectecl villages in a period of 1 20 >-ears. No nnthroi3ologisr; (:;in dr.n~%-
to I,() c*orrcli~tort wit11 it. Con trnry evidcnrc was ignored. Morliea on case-m:~tc~.i;llover silch :L Ioilg t i l n ~ \I7)1i?t . alclj)~~r":cj the
ari (I (ioclfiey Wil.;orr Irttri Ir,lig mpo tlcrblnrccl that their rosca~.clles anthropologist as .,)art, of ;i stit1)lr 11:lt t(3r*rlo f I'cI;L~~oI~s, to t , h ~
r (:oltl~cx'bt.ltrlicl rlob suj,port ill<:view tlint witeliceaft fears
i ~ tllrb Iristoriiln is :I rklcii.ri poiilt i 11 t irncx. If iIko I+ot c.sta11t f<eforrtl:iiiot~
S C (~
~ I I ( T Z " ( Y ~ 111 ~ ~ l ~ ~oil(iitiolid
illl (l!)lCi). 31itr.c. reeclitly, a rnore ail t 0 I nrc nr\T r~lc~nr.ilts i n tlw r~lrzllsol-irty of
cic1t:tiltarf. c;~ue-;-;tiltlysr;lggc&st,stltr: s:xtnc (bTitc.l~ell,1965, 11, 201). 'r11ilor : t ~ l c i Si t l a ~ * tI ~ ~ F P so
A , arc ~ ~ o l o ~rt11~ ~ i zand
~ l ( 'l~~*istia~~it~v
I f is-it clrcar.aft,acchr~ s aions i -.\l clst intlced forriuc l to increase where neu- in i h A\fx'ictrx~
~ jri(*trll-e.7'hc 1i01nco.t atic: ~llr,[lr.l o f society
soc:i;~lutllatiolrs l i c ~ r * i t l l l tnorr
c~ difrlsc. u r ~ dxrlouc. easily broktln off, caxii~ot~ deal wit 11 Il~orrly~clrobIeri1sof tiil~e-sc~lle ( ~ c ~ 1$358).
~ ~ ~ e r ~
Nor c : ; t ~ j ;a, fll11(atio11;~1 theory ;ivoid ilul~ort~ir~g csndth itleas of sciclzt!ifie eon1 his soc:i;~l pnradigurs allci ill sctbk t o aclliwe
~~or*lltr~li t,y \I hi(>ll fllity gravt~ly dist oxat the an:;tlysis, 8s I>r consoll;tnr:c I)et\lr-clr.11 illem.
13t~itlc~lrn;tn 1 s ; roqrl~lly
~ rijrguctl ljclon (1). 351). If wcl auk n h y 15-e ;~rrthropologists1i;tvt. !)tlc~coilt8c1~lt nit11 a
"l'fjrl n r ~ t ~ l r ~ ~ o ~ ) o1~-'f10 l o g i sl t~~ ftl i p h o ~ ~ ~ c ~ s t a t i c ~ t govern
lr~ocl~l tlleoretical sclleusc u-hic4ll coml~incsso little csp1nrlato1.y valne
t llcir*I cilca1lir:g alitl i,lrir~l;illg,in apitc. of its n ~ a n y drnwbaclrs, were with sa many djscrel~;xrrcies;lrlcI gaps. ~ 5 ; tearl refer to thc3 cionsir~-
; t c ~ c : c a p t l i trg n seic:nt,ific jtnr;t(liqln in zizucll the same -\iiVny ais t,lle inlt social 11nr;~digrriof thr titnt?. lil~c.r;ilphilosol)by, arid tlo the
~ ~ ; ~ t , l ~ i staicntlis
'itjl tis tl(?;sc>riljccl Jj)yKtlh~lill llis k)o~~li T1he ~ S t r w ~ c t z ~ ~ e special position of' tlrrb i l l i i 1lso~)olugistas itis r ~ ~ ) r ~ s ~ r l t ; l t i ~ c v a ~ l c i
of i"rr-ir.i.ifi/ir, l<c?lol?ctio~~.; (l!)tiB). 0 r i c . c : tic sixsgle 12aradigni of as ~ncctint~or bt~twecrrhis ilrfosn~tllrt~;;; and jiilicir cctlollttil r.nli.rs,
c.orlc~lpt,sibll(1 t,hrtor*ics gets ado~)tlc~t3 tllrouglzotlt the field, 12~7arrs-Yritc:b;trd7uiaii*tic.le o ~ s "Viteb(:raftt' ill ilf?-ii:u (l!l35)
;rc.caorcf ing to I<ulrn, :I t,c.r*iorf of ?~or.tl~al sc:ir~ict:Vollo-cvs.in ivansetl ruissiol~ariosarlcl nclln;:ixlist rat orasnot to try t r) tit~st~roy
\-i h i t a l l scditl~~tisi,.; : I ( * ( Y ~ ~t Il~l ( ~ ~ ~ l l ' i t t111(j1~cstio11illgly
~~i~lli arid lirv~it other peol)lc'dbelicfs. e v e n if' tJhcy seem nlisguitlcd, 'I'lle
t f l t ~ l ~ s ( ~ tlo l v t(l~vf:lol
~s )ing ; ~ n dcfl~~4lii1lg its irri~)licc?if,ior~s. 7'0 new respoll&ibilty to jjrotjcet ttnd Lo preac21 t ~ l c . s t ~CM.';~S ~ r ( TI-iclely
~
sf r i c l r . 1 1 t s it, is; j,~*esclr t!r(l n F csta,~)lisI~c~cl tlogriri;t. (?llt-of-fai~llion eclloed. To ~ E I O W witell~raftl~eliefsas l~erforuliisga co~~struetive
c~o~rc~t~l)tw;trr(X I>~*o~I~P iir('
I ~ I ~itl'('ly
~ ~ ~ S C U S R C Cs~t;~ d r r r t ,itre
~ role in tt filrictioning social systetll has been o11c w-ay of cassj~-
t r.;tit~thtlt o tltivt:fol~~ x l ~iscr tbi~ifllillr he aeceptod fr:tnlt..~-orlr. irlg out this rwesy)olrsibility. Evarlu-f3it1 s Azarlcle stnrcty
JCrilrll S ~ I ~ ) I ) O S C tjhitt
~ the rncltl1or3. of tcnchirrg irr the physical nrli~iirnizer;the gulf betweerr Eusol~eszia11d ~rrixlliti&-ire c~lf~txre.
,.;c.it>rrc*c;; i s 1uor.c: lilcclly to 1)soduc.t:a xaigid "nental s;;etI7 tl~arlt,21at Oue would suppose that any e~z~l)lmsis on the gulf T\-oulclbe at
in the social scicilcrs. But everytliii~gt,hnt he says mlsout the variance with the lslnin 1,rineiylcs of liberal pliilosol>hgr.yet in
llsr of ~)arucEigtn,s irl scaiontifie t!llirlliing has strotig relevance for another serlse ant1xro~)ologiststeridcd to exaggerate the c1ic:lio-
TSrit isll atst bropology follo~-ir~g t he Sechonc3.Wor1c-t 'Cliar. tonly, since their ersthusitzsrrl for 11littivc. culttares led tllrbxn to
IVt? are now at tfic ~)rrdietc.cistlngth;it whicls tlre accrrxtsulafion take up t t theoretical pasitiorz which t veat etl co~lflick as ljenig11
of ;~lroni n1ir.s llns fi,r.r,r~cf 11s to rt.lcog~~ixt an exist irlg l~aradignlas 1x1 prirrlitive soeirlt y. c2 posj tion t,lsey ~vollIC1.rrot e x t cxid to t heir
ilj:rtlecluntc. S, I),. 1)znrzlos (1!3(iX) lxts ;ttJt~cnij)ticti to eomj,,ctre the own societj~.Azld so the I\--holeargunlcrl t a,lt,orrt "l'hcir' ~rrcntnlity
t,hirl ki;rlg of scaic>rrtists wlsilc aj,[)lyirrg their* c:ur~~ent 1)nraclignl a r ~ d'Ours' has Elad to proce~cdas if the AXnlzdc study lrrtd no
wit ls t,hr t,l~itsltirlgof Axantle on tllt sul),jcet of wit cl~crnft.FVi tjh- relevance to ourhel\?c.s arid our history, Arsot,her facbtor is the':
out>scel*;iilg t o itlelltify 1,vixnitivclnosi;; in scientific tllouglrt, Ilc speci:~l positio~iof Afiic'arr fielciwork ill t!lre llistory of an thro-
1 1 ; ~~ r a r r o w ~tlzc d gulf I I ~ ~ ~ F T - ~l)"ir~rltiz-e,;:
PII zttlci sc'itk~ltistsr~l~iclh pology. I t is itlterestillg to rcflcr-t on x~llat-r?;ouldhave h;il,l,rlied
so i~nlirclssctlI14vy-13rulll nrltl is ,.;tiill inll~o~"t;lnt, 111 tlrrt ~vorli;of in Brit islr arltl~rol~ology if' u-ark in Nen7 Gu illcia llacl d r ~ ~ c l o l ~ e d
Ikvi-st r . ; ~ ~ x i . r sItlis , sccirzs to be tlze only study which has eaxlght as yujcklp as in Afrir.n. I f Xlel;tur:siarl crlrni~alitillt of the
1,Ilc. spit-it of the i l z n t ~ d cfr)ool; nrltl :gf,l)llic.d its Icssons, Let trle luternatioisal Afr.ic:;i I 1 11lstit~rtc Itlad 1)eeli orga irized by a11
thcrt:forr: talccl ihis ol)porti~nit,~\il of a~)p)l,~.i~'~g 0 1 1 ~of hi;-; S ~ I ~ ~ C P - opposiite ~ l u ~ x ~ btoe rljuryll . I[c"~*tlc>,
tlitl hctrzzcostasin tlrrol-y corild
tio11s. Srientifi<~ t,zirttdigins, tlrgues Barnes, can marc c ~ s i l y11e surely not k i a ~ cs;ur~rivcltlfor so long 1111c.llt~llr~r1g~~(1. 111 Africln,
c:lrangc.d I h;m social ~~:~r.nclignis: colonial r u 1 ~had I I P C I ~ r~t:~l)Jibl:z~~I fijr (IV('I' fifty ye;rr,- ;r,ntl
tir*ib:ll socaieties 1r:~cl r l o ciloulit ;~(l;rj~ic>ci by III-otlucii-zgc.orltr01
irsc~chanislnsu itllir~Ih6.i tritciit ictrrtrl irist i t ut iorrs. l i w;~st3;isier
is

do overlot,lt t l r ~sigrrific>a~lc.ri of the ~ , o i s o tor*cic*al

~ ( t t ~ t l i i(lis-
a p ~ ) c " " ~ ~:tntl ' : ' 9 )aillc;ll-c*lcnilsi~~g rilovt:lllelllr; (;;1~cesi;i'ully 1.v-
~)si:ssc(l -t) 1 f ~ i i fitl 011 i f f t o otrt*rl~j~Zc ~ R I I C I I ~ ~l~resclri
1 1 1 (41 crl I)y
eargo cult's in tlllosr>j ):\rat s of &/Pel;~ucsi;r .it 21~rc1-\ iolclif rrlil lc~r~i~iirl
olrtbur-stx ofrcr. ;1 tbc,rlf i l ~ t ~ ;cihailcllgcl
il t o r ~ ( , l ~ l l i ti~rllllol'it',,
il
 In,troducf ion,
So 11111(*11fi)r 1 1 0 w~ t :~ ( < i 1 ~ 1 ( :t,o ;~(101)tik 1)rc~ratligrrl nrttl to find it 1iidividtl:tls use 1 lie :~ccusa,t.ionof witleltcraft as zli wcnpoml of
sfit i s f i t o t y . Ailti so ttluclr filr its li111 iflt~tiolls.
c a t J C U ~rrgnrtls
~I tlrr mtt)ack where rel;~tioiisliil)sare ambiguous, mid thid 1nay 1 ~ efor
rigi(l ;I / ) [ ) I i(b:ttio11of' :t \j;ira(iigln a lic?ci:ss:~ryaird uscftll sti~ge one of t.wo renuolxs. I t 1il;liy lie t,hat the rela.tionslsil)s m e i~ornlt~lly
it] s ( * i t i ~ ~ c Y' t lo. tire r*r*(itlit of' this olle wl: should chalk up t\vo competitive and rirrr.c.gul:rted. Thus 13tltrr Brown (below-) gives
l)f:11~fi t,s. 13y :~ci:(:pt,i~ ~g (:onfli~t;1";;1 I I O ~ ~ I H1);ir.t ; ~ ~ of an)- ~oci;xl us c2 glilnpse of j~::alousdons in the Late Itotnnn ICmpirc: and of
systlolI 1 \\-ti Ilnvc tlevelopotl ;L n1or.c x ~ a l i ~ t i~rlodcl. c Anthro- rhnriotloers ;~ccuxillgeach other: the aocusnt.io~ris just olio more
1)olopists hcbtic.clfi,i*t lr c.o~ivic.tt:tlo f ~~ai'-\-cti. - ~ hen
s they reportJ form of attjacli; alrtl eoutlt er-att acIc 1)etwer11rivtcl f;ic%t iolis. Or
;I c*orlfiic't- tiacliisocia.1 w j st,cxrn~t itihout i~<ldl~(lillg sp~3~ir21 evidcllcc~ it ~nznyI)e thatl sornc. class of llersons come.-; inlo a11 ultlogetlicr
t,o ])"'KC if>sor;ist,crrc.c. "I'llc Iorlg ytAnr-sof rlsic2roscol~is: atten tion tx~~orrraloue prisition of advantage or tlissrlvl~ntageso tlh;~tl t211e
to (i(^t:tilill hocial tx~l:~f ions llavo givtlrr us further soj)histication url,brelln of cotrllnrirlity protection is vrit1ldr;xnn il.(:fl~l1lre111.
allor~t tlw \vity in \vljir:li ideology rrl;~tcsbo ~ o c i a lst,ruc:trxrc. Alan Marfarlane (belo~r) tinds t11;nt do1)endt>1itwidoli-s i)tlgging
;;.lo~no lil~lclso f 1rlist;iikc;;rnntl loose tliillkirlg will br ruletl out ever1 from their neighbours were in this position irr nist,t~c~utIi-c:c.ntury
111 r,!lc. ~rl.c"setrt per~iodof 11;trkidignl eoilfn~iol~. Xsses villages: to srxspect of'%-it'ohcraftas a 1ne:c11sof justi-f\;ii~g
1f tt e .zt tit.e tlo 11l;ikc21 fresli star? to tlle classifying of m itch- %heTl'ithllolciirlg of allllfi. The a~ialysisc1ost"ly l ~ z t r ~ l l\Vliitc?'s ~ls
crsaft 1)c~liefs. drawillg or1 csistilrg fic1lc.l rcports, we would (lo well aecout1t of Luvale widon-s accused of n-itclrrrafk ( I 96 I ). P"7tr1;~le
to t)cgilr wit11 tlii: c2l;nus of itlcm t11at i t t t r i ~ ~I~elief ~t but are rrloxiey-lenders in. rural India lay tllemscl~yesopen to t he ciElarge
i r r i i c b t i v e itr 1:laril;~ii aKail's. I"cc,l~lc:may bclicve in the l~ossibility of witchcraft by their defatilding debttorsh ~ c a u s eof' lihc arlorrra-
of u i tehc~aft~, yetJnever rlr :tlie accrrsalions of wit ellcraft . Several lous advalitltge tlrey have gained (Epstein. 1969).
rlxi~lrl),l<bs :we given in this book. U. 11. tJones mairrt:rirls tfit~tifre We can takc itl that animosity agtiilrst wit,ches is ;xiways
Iho, dr~r*i~lg the 19criorl in wlticlr llr knew tllern, though they activated a t tillis irldivic;ilual Icvcl. fiow it, il-atcrvenes at the
liolicivrd ill witc:lrct.:lfi, rarely felt illelnstilves troubled l)y comrrlurrity level tle~)elirls011 t hc: locttl organizntiori. Tho acetxsa-
\\.it ii1lt.i; (1). 321 l~elow):~ n i s h r t u n etencted to he traced t o ghosts tion a ~ n o n n t sto a dclrial of colninon bonds and rcs~)o~lnibilit.y.
or. to I)I.I~;I(~II o f ritual. Alalcoltrl Ilrlril, in his ncsrount of Earlgalrg What. happnm when an accnsr2t;ion lr:ts heen made del)endi;
U-it(+t lftclliefs, r.ert1arl.r~that 13;inyung rtxrely ZLcclrse oxre arrot her or1 the state of comlnunity politics and 011 what patt.erii of rcla-
(1" 33:i). 'I'hr sit~~lc. lrns l ~ e e nsaid of the l>inl?;:li eorlcept of t,iomhips treccls rcdcfinil~ga t the tirur. For ivitchcraft bc.licfk are
\\. it\rl~car.;~ft (lilcrll\;~rc3Lt, 1951).For ot1zc.r peoples wc have ;I rrrore esselltially a means of r:larifying and ;rAir.ming social definitions.
(1) r l r i rllic* 1)icture: Johrl Middlc.torl (lWti0) 11mns deseribecl t lie Taking up Torn Bcirlclmatl's ch;illrlrgt~ t o COIIS~C~CI. the S ~ L I I -
T A ~ ~ g llcc>el~i~lg ) : ~ r ~ ~ tllcir ~ wit clr l~clit>fs irlactive dllrirrg the c~trly bolic levels of witchcraft! beliefs, 1. ~.7'0111dfirst axid f c ~ r e r ~ l o ~ t
phtzstls of lillcitgt. growtl~.but, bringi~lg!;her11 out in active fi>rrnl rolnte these 1)clic.k to dolnillnrlt, ns~,cctsof the social wtruet;ure;
218 i i X% cl:\ / ) O I L of ztitl:~(*k %+rl~C~ll political S L I C ~ C ~ S S ~axld
O I I {!hes ~ ) l i t t i ~ ~ g for wIlrr(~:is I joiir anyo~irwlro c.rit!ic:i./;rxs I)lntant ct*l.org it1
of' t hc. lit~c~ngti 7)0.-;t1 ~)rolt>lorrrs of ro1r:-tbefir~itio~~. 7'lrrk Uak~7cx.iof' funotioiralist assl~nlptiol~s. L lrlxo file[ that tho ~)ossil~ilific of
\\'tbbt ( I I I P I * ~ O ~ I.z~llo
. o~lw ( i 1 ) do111
sclcbl1 1 ~ t,(c ~ inatecl by j ~ a ~ l o ~ ~ s y firnc.tional allnlysis have not k)r.tirl e~l.i:?,~mf cd. I,il;c C!h rip t i;tn
f t .fx;~(if;t~tly
; l ~ l ( Iiii i t , ( * l l ( ~ ~ ; i$1 put ]lot lr aside M llr.11 their ccoliolx~ic ethics. it rn11 1 ) tlr.fi.ndctl
~ agai~lstits isritics 011 the g r o ~ ~ l rtlrat d
~ ~ o si oi t ~i ilrpro.irclri so tnrrc-!1 t lltxt c:orrr pet it ion M ns not, dchr:ruretl it I e 3l Y 1 1 , tI i t I t i y ;lilrd
;I t,llr~.:tt to cotrr r l l l t ? r i tj-. 1-ct 14kl\\irii A4rcie~lr.r. (bclou.) suggclst s carudity of tho l~oirleost;rt ic (*ol~tr.ol iriodt.1 iil~(ii t still 1 ) ~ ~ r ) r ~ i ( l c s
i11;11 t l l c b l,ttlic.kfs x - c k l tl;ri r l c l t l ill t litbir. c>osnlologj-,rclntly for. ac.tivr1 ntr exj11:i~ralor"y franlc-twork Ji~nsccl0 1 1 t Ire iclett of corn~rru i ic*;lt,iorl ~
~ t ~ t it.($ . 1 slrorr ltii c )cbc*;lsio~r r*rcjrlirmcl.\IVc hll:~ll1 ~ ur1l ~ 1 iat CT 1" o t llfl~fl eysterrl. I'eoj~lc~arc trying to control orlc ;i.rlot hcr. nll)cit v-itlr
I~(*li~"fk.
i ~ i q; t l ~ ( ' r - 0 1 ' c i j t l i a * : 7 1 ' ( ~ i 1 sni;~IIsllor.rss. 'I'llc~ irlcxi~of t 116. \ ~ - i t v I ris tisrvl t o a Ilil, t.hcir ow11
I\'lir~r-~~i t c-lrr,r+:tfstl ir4ir,f> :trn*ib ii ill socbiitl l i f i l , t llt~~~rb
:\cat ;\rstx t n o c>o~rs(>i<>~tc<~s or tfwsth of t11ci1-f~*it)~r(is. 'I1ji~~ ~ ~ i t ~ ~ l i - iis~ its
~~;tgt~
alrd 4 I K ~~aoitrt~~ti~iiiy.
lm fils o f '~ ~ I ~ ; I I J T ~ St .1~ i~~cli%-iflt~til r1lTtbt.t i.ivrl :is t llr i(lcx:lof t IIP ( b o l t l ~~l u
~ lityi~ st 1.011::.
 '1'1.11~ \\ i t (311 nnrf clrcoivt~r.f Ir: n s w w2l;lt is irnli~rre
is ;in ~ft,f,it(:li~~' (b) T7he u:ilclz ups an i?~t~r?z(~i! enen?,ly
; ~ l t 1)ot
l ttirt to ll;r.rn ~r-lintis 1i1n.o nrlt3 llc~lpless.'l'tlc syrill~olsof This appears with a sliglitly n.ro1.r. c:o~nl)lr.xfor111 o f soc2i;tl
11litit n t3 r~t~c~ogllizc~ across t Ilt: globe as n-i t elrcritfi all I ~ uItil 011 tlie ouytinizatiutl ill which tjwo or Inore fit(.ii(i~iwtrernll,~-;tc~i~d -vvitaltilz
t llc~ticof ~.-iilriclrai)lt% ill tlerxial goodtress ntlt;rc*li;edljy cxtlon~nl
tlze con]riitiiii t ! ~ 131"
. tthorc are RC:T.-er;tl t~l;ty;.,of'sius~)or4
ilig it c.1ic.s
1x)wt;r-131lt tlt~sf:sj*~nl,olsvary ;%ceortliirgt o local pat.t,miis of wiflhilr the. cotniii~ulity. 7'hc nytnl,mls of t I I ( ~;r t ttt\c.l<I)y wi tcl1icnr.rbf't
I H ( Y L H i11g ;tn~l,ahovc a1 I, ac:cortli~~g to variations in the soc.iaX ttelicl to makc the liody of' the cictit~linfo : ~ i r im;r,gc of Iho
st r-ttct I ~ I ~ ONot . it11 witc*l~es rich. I)roo~~~st~i(dlis, not a11 llc2~-r~ ) ~ I o c Y ; I - I:)t:t1r~tycde o ~ ~ i ~ l l u ~ lits
i t > i- :~ l t ~ r ~st1rc~~gt,1i
~itl issWkthil 0111 or
t ioir, not ; ~ l ilicel) fwlrilinrs, not all R U C the ~ vital jlljc:es of t llcir poisolled I)y sorlileolic ~ l z (:an o get into very closi. tont act.
t-itti,i tll;;. idt:rl,rot, &llciiev n rintioiis, 11s;);-c2honxr:lyt ic irlsights
sIro.rlltlwait I I I , ~ I I . soc.i;~li~nalysis.For. the j)syc:Ilc conrrnon to 11s (i) Tflc wit cli as tnct-iil)er of a rival fact ion
;rll ikilI I I I O O by its rt lbuut,rrre~ ~ l ) l i ourt i l ~diftilrel~ces.Tht: t hcrnes of Exr~ml)les:Sllavtnrlte (Itivibrc, 1)ciom-),
il~sitfo:trlcl outsitlc, rr~;tlrifr,still m it (>It sy~liboliisnl,are not e x - (Mitcflell, 1(,)5C;)3
Y i t ~

hallst ocl ljy the c>ltiltl7s esl~ericncr.of lii: lrody and his ~nother'w,or:
ljy tr~livv~-sully t$xtrh~ldiug t1hrscclxj)orio~lcrsas an i~lt~erl,rc.t.atix-e
1);) t't v r ~ .t4'0r ii~sitlc and oiltsitlc ciLil bc chaxged with Inore
~'om-~rfirl ~n~.;~~ byl i tlI~r
i ~ gcxl)cricrlc*oof n I~o~ultled soc:inl unit. or rculign Sac*tion fricrarcl~yor s l ~ l i t o o n ~ i ~ ~ ~ l ~'I'ltis
i i b yis
.
1 firztl it, ~iscfillto uotc tn-o rli:lin ~)at,tcrns of witch I~elief:(a) prcstlum"by wliere t l ~ rz~cusat-ions
r lodged ag:tir~stclrsriotr~crs
~i Iltlrc? t It<.\-\-it is an ot1tsidc.r; (I,) where Ireis the ilrternalcllexny. in the rlatcr J%orlrarzErnpire sllorlld ~ " I a s ~(firowil).
ec~
(ii ) 'I'he witl& as LL dzll~gerousder~izrt1.t
Exr;~rnples:dangerously powerful or rich -
~ v-ould c:xpect the irrrpt~tcdfornl ol' ;1,1t,ack I t ) 11~3the
1 f ~ r . cotlt: 13t~ls;wer.i(A4rcfener,k~elow) ,
scar1 (ling o f long-ra r lgc: nlissilcs, M ' C Z L ~ O I I Stllnt, in trudc into tire fifymorc usuress (l(:l)xteiri, 1 959);
Ijoily of the virbtiru. Onc worxltl nssoci;ttc the 1)rlicf with ;t very dangerous15- tfcrurrrtlrding - -
;;n~;~ll-sca;tlo ;trlcl s i n l ~ ~ forirk
le of ol*gsL~iizatimTflc function of lzssex in the ~ixteerrt~ll cent s ~ r y
tlit: ;~c:c.rlc;;~f ion i s to rriaffirt~~ groul) 1)ottticltrrics and solidari3. (Mncf~trlnr~c, below),
l ' h c it it c a l l \I.-onltl1.a r ~ l y11c icltlil t ifieril. More n t tc~ntionwolnltl I)c l-lz:t~lrTc(I<v-;x~ls
-Pritleh:trcl, 1 !):3E7)).
1)aitl to c.t~ririg t lto viet irlr or. ~)r;t("fi j~illg I O I Z ~ - P " ~ I I ~ C
~"itltli~l Hi1arrc>tir)l,of acclu,cntiorl: f o colltrol (IcvVi;~lltsill Ilie lliirile o f
\-(3~lg,r(x;tll('~. ~ i i t i"t t ~ ( : ~ ~ t i is
TZutj s o ~ ~ ~ ~ f , i tthe t i oIrvc~llrd
l~ a t ;r eoln niuiiity v;tlmc,ls.
l ~ iof t 1~ g r o 1)
~ r t ~ lI)PJ~ ~ who is f'ortIl~ v r i i 11 tIcr~o~~ll~c:cl ixssan in t~-~i(lc>r
fr~otlir~llt~siclc.. '1'11is gis-ci; u s l,m 6, srtl~--I~ypr~~:
(i) \Tit ($11 tlot itlc.~tt~ificltl
or. l)t~rtishcltl (iii) 7'hc n-itch :IS nri it~tcrnttl
I+; \;I,III 1 ) l ~ N;i,vaIlo
: u itch
*f:~r-a\v;~j.' c l l c ~ l ~npit11 or_lt,nitle1i;iisolle
111 1 0a t t ; i ~ k sw i t 11 i ~ r(tsi~-(\
~ t t~liwiiiw l<xarl~j~lc:
; i l ~ c * l ; t t ~ (Eilt,rgc).
l
jliltrr*lcltoliti. 19 3-t).
( i i j \Vit(all ~ ~ x ~ ) ~ l l ~ ~ ~ ~
l4:.i:rrrr lilcl: 'i'r-io 1%i t r a h n I t o w ivtb:ipotls
: I I Y > .i cirsi):\l- t lilt. carlr*.ac* ( IZis i6w. 1)t~10w).

l 4 ' 1 t ~ 1 t * if111
t 4)l' ; t ( + ( b ~ i * : ~ i itj11 (i) : i ~ ( (ii):
l
to ~ - c a t f i b f i r ~ r bI ~ o ~ r r l t l : r.r * ~
 il/lcr ry Douglas
?'he Abolnm are esl>ct;idlyinteresting in this series l~ec:~ust% la~rguagcof tllr Azmrde, this usage is cutnbernc)rl~ein 1311plish
of' t 110 ~)~'c(aisc: ~)li~,y 11 11011 int trnttl nlid extcr~lnldangers in their since tJhe-verb 'to k)evvitrh7is coln~no~tly used for eitlller case. I t
1;yln!jolizi1lg01 n it chc:r;lft (see Forgr. below). Each lctntler ~ n a k e s is, moreover, difficult to maintain ic-hell disc~lsiiirlg widely
his n ;ry bj. ~)o~vartbl trade oollitcctiolls out.side t ltr: village altd diEere1lt cultures only some of whit-h make the disrrirninnt ion,
is (:olifi-oirt.cd by i)lli: or sevcr;~lrivals ill itis own vi1l;tgo. F1vt:ry and i t is not easily tlranslatledirlto French.
~lc.;~this illLcl-1)~'ete:'i as l~ihillgt*uusetl by the tr.t.t~clieryof a11 On the face of it. a separate allocation of rl;urgcrons ~ O M - O I to
*~

illt:~"~'llitl riv:il who lias stoleit soure bodily rejects of the victim separate social sectors is a n a y of illsulntirlg tlre latt,er Fronr
l ~ r ~seitlt tl then] ar\ay to a foreign sorcerer vr ho corrlbilies them additional coollfliet. If we find that women use ollc kind of power
firtally w it11 magic paint. Paint, the essent.inl exl~resaiollof the and men are thought t o use c-t~iot~ller, comlllollers one kind and
o ~ ~ t ~ d iextcnl:tlde, f'a,q;de ; L I I ~of C O I I ~ C ~ ~ Xcotrlrn~x~licatio~~, LS has royalty ;%nother,we can sujjpose that the dii-itinetion eliters into
t,o I)o nlixcd with the leavings of tlrc victim, especially with his thc definition of the sexes i-ill of political classes and expresses?
or l ~ i scxil;ll r sec~.et.ious.Tht:re eo~rldhardly be ert rnore ex1,licit the separatir,~~ of' their roles. When n r find that only one kind
sttlterneitt of consciorls ;btt!acEr front tlic outside upon tllc: urr- of witchcraft is believed, i ~ n dthat it is tllr~uglltto be ;~rrtil;tble
cfiorisc.iotxs,~rnslisj)tx":i~~g, interior self. 'I'lle Abelarn leader, who to any man, WOIII~II, or chilcl, we would suj~post: luck c
is t l l o ~ ~ y t,o h t tli~vc.eollectclcl laving.; fiorn all the members o f his i~lsulation, s t,otal coml3ctitiveness runni~lg right throng
onrl x illagrl, lias tlrerrt ill his slower i ~ eEectively s as the B a h c r i society. Alas, for that too facile answer!
s~rrc:cssfi~l illill1 lli~dI ) O M . C ~O Y C ~i~ hut full o f zo~nbiesworkitrg Gonja women are 11ot rrorrnally in corn-
ti)l8llinl. 1c0r all t1n.c 1)tx)pl~. their insidrs are nt t,lit1 mercy of petition with men for chiefly ofiice, snd
t l l c b t3r*;iil or. yet, t)hey are b l a m d for using the same
S o it .tr.o~iltl sectu that the way the ivitlcllworks, his sources of liind o f magic. Esther Goody convinces us
yo\%el,, the ~ ~ n t u of r e his i ~tack t CHI his viutirrl, all these can be that#they would fare better by establishing
rrtlatetf to a11 illlagc of the c.o~nnluriityanti the frirlti of attack that they have no access to specifically m a l r medic:ilir.s. The
tic, $5 hiralr conr~nlllii ty valllrs ; L ~ Cs ~ r l ~ j ~ ( a t . Cjonja case in a n unusual one, and clonrr analysis s11on.i; that the
I lolac. n c have 1):nrt of tllc cxl,l:~rrntion sought l)y Esther Liinds of rrledieine attriljuted to female -u-itcllesdiffer frsorn tlrzose
( : o o ( i ~( I ~ r l o ~ns r ) to n 115. thtx (:ol~j;r t.orldolrc tho lctlial inngic ~rsedby men. 111societies in x hirfi two kinds of wif,rherc?~ft~ are
of' t 3 1 ~ t 4 t111ct11f'olk
s ; I I I ( ~ I~rut~~ilIy ptnlish LT itj(*llvrafLin wornw. By recogl~ized,froni m-hat has been said uTewould expcct the forli~s
tlio (;or~jar systjr:rxi trf s l l ( ~ ~ ~ ~ s sofYic.e i o t ~ .c.ir.rralstes l~ctwcir.~s of ~vitcht>raftt o exl3rcss so~nethingabout the social sit,~~at!ion. '
~ l ~ - l l i ~ ~t t i < a S ~ s l ) i ( * i oof' l ~ ~~xlillci tvitcl~(*mftI?Xl)resS I n the (lollgo, nlnong the I3nshorrg, Inell eornpefc for prrliticd
~ - i ~ : t l ~ - iSLCIYMS
(" "~~("gtlic~lit, l ) o ~ r ~ l ~ l and ; t ~ ia,i ~r n~a~l ~witch is not adv;l~rt!agrin n rrrp rvell-nrtIiclllattjdsj~stcrnof c)fiices: tlloq- :we
I)I*o ttali t t o 1)ooli fix alltlgtitl killir lg.;, silice tllt?se are ni ntle 0x1 t,horlgtlt to use mt~gicagnilrst one :ljtlot,1lcrill the norm;tl c:o~xrsc
1~.11:1lf o f llis O R I I s(xttle~iti n t l w rii':bl R C ~ ~ YTile I ~ I1)ic;ture
I ~ . is of affairs; t,o tlieir wornell tliej- at tril~utclet ha1 psychic ptiwers
IHOI-C' likt' t lit' ~ a s t : of t l ~ ~ f l ~ ; ~ above, ~ o witc.11 is an
~ ; \ l !I1hc harnessed 1.0 jenlouny botn-cen (:oaivrs (Vsnsinn. 1969). This
o~~t,si(lw, ;111(l tIlit: liw of rutlgir a 111c1.c:cbxtenision of 110~"rilrctl sitrlation is depictcd in the diapr:tln n l ~ o vin~ which a thirlr
j ~ o l i ifa:il
t :tggrcssio~i.
N o u 1%t1 ("at1 :I j)f)ro;t(>lltJlrtl tl ifficw It cijurst ion of wily, ill soultA one :cccus;xt ions tr gairl~twolucn.
c a r l l f rlr8cw, {listi t i c t i c - r b lci~~cls of rs ifc e 1 1 1 ~ * i ; ~ f ' f 2 1 1 " ;~llo~a!ed
~ to difrercxlt 'I'hc s t t ~soc.iologic.al
l~~ tlistinctiotl ;tl~t)lic>s t o tire -1l)c.ltllll lx.lit1-f
s to of o r . l o I fix tjllis (listirlct ion rlraliy nllthrcj- .in t J ~ Olcinds of 1% itcll(>~*ixfi
: j ) s y ~ ~J ~l o~Li ~~- ~~~ ~I IS* PJJJ~~ \\-c)rjlcli, anti
~)ol~)gi~;f~pi 11:1 V P fi~llozt rvl I{: V;LIIS 1'"r.i t c*li;lrvt3's trrirr~lat~iorl of' A m x h CT~CPIIILI lllilgi~1 1 ~ ~j 1 ~ i l c l l l in f~~t~tllt\r;~tlc><> of z ~ ( ~ r ~ c ~ ~ ) t a ! ~ [ c ~
(bon(~el)tjs a n d IISO(I 'so~*(afxry' for l ) l i t ( ~ l c~riagicand '~vit(~1lrraf't' for 1x'lilio;~I ol)jectives. I'e l.tx~* Mc,rtolb \villi;~111~ ill a l~rivat c COIH-
i l i t ! c ~ r ~j)sycl~ic>
~ ~ ~ l 1 4 0 1 ~ ~ ~to 1 - ~ I L L ~IV11:it'c~i~er
III. it I ~ ~ Z L J - be ~ I Ithe? municat ion tells me that tlw zrliocat ion of siliister l)sycliic
xxix
1)owcr ""(1 rrsngic: ill11o ~ tlll:
g Yoruba follows the s;;Llnelines, Tllc Al~lrdc,co~l~j~cll~illg for the fiivonr of ea1)riciort;i l~atroilsin littlil
snlne L L I ) ~ I ~ G t,o
S tlrc ~lxarirlc.'I'rying to gclleralize frorr~this; 1 villago courts, have ; ~ c~lt~ircly u uirrc1inl)lc:social n-orliX of 1)tclat:t.
lmvc tlrawn the prec.cdirrg dingrarns with thick and i,lrin lines r~volut~ious, pal;ttre fa vou~.itc:s,;ind cqntijl~yconsl)ii*;ttors. 'I'llrair
in ;tal nt t c m p t to inclic<tte tgllo social niches al)r)rollriate to coswvlos is eioxtlinated by tlre idea of ~n:tlieio~rs ll~1lli117~5 itcl1cs
(1itllgrir()us extcrt~al magic. ;tntl c;l;rl.rgerous ~ j s y r l ~ ipower. c I arrtl velrgefinl ghosts.
snggcst, for fi~rther.testing, that, wl1r.n t l~tisource of witcahernft Here, surely, art: ~ r n n l ltribal ~nic~roeoslns of tlrc sllift, in
~)ou-vris 11lougllt t,o ctolrlc. fro111 irlsitlo tho witch, ~,nrtlicnl;~rly cosnlology ~rhiclltook 1)l;tcebetwclers the ~lliddleof the sistel:llilr
from it11 area 1C)fly011(l~ C ) I Z S ~ : ~ Uv UoStrol ~ . the socirtl situnt,ion n-ill : ~ l t ( i the ~nitlelltiof t lil: st"vt.11teent1llc x l r t r q - ;taloiig tllc intt~1lcc~tu:lI
cbo1*r.cis1)o~d t to tj-pc b(ii) ~ ~ l i ~ o\\-here v e , the n-itcl~is seen a,s arr le;ulcr.s of I<i~ropc.l'reror-I'uol~rr,onr of the most sociologically
j i ltt:r*lr;~l c>rlrrny,riot as t i z~reuil)c~r~ of ;I riv:ll f;tc:tio?l. '1'hi.s is well sensitive of our Ilii;tol.it~~~s, hi18 Iiighlig Ilt c!d the a p1j:tr.ent 1)ar:tdox
i l l114ti";~t,~~tI fly 13ri;in Sy)oonr~r*;-: s~rnr unnrsj- of icltians ;i'l~ou l t 'nc tliat wit ell I)c.litfs lrai3, tho suj,l3ort o f tlle most l l i p h 1 ~e(lilci:tte~J
14:vjl 142y~k ( 1 ) o l o i ~ ~1 1)1~Js1:imic c a o11111ilii ~ ~ ~i w . tllr~stJr:ti~g<3r u it11 nre~ia t the end of' the sixteenth ccntory (1!)6'i. (:linl,ter :().
(.\ il I ~ J - P ,s i ~ l p ~ ~in l n riI )tiar";Lrrc'r, ;tl)t, to Slii~l'~ ~';tl,h~ l Jr l ~ to :~~~ 'Iirlstentl of I,c:irrg oc,tlsisi!elitlg-:tnd c:onlillu;tlly a,gainc;t ;i tiestruc-
~ ~ l ~ill ~litdt lc< c.tr11i . 1-4 ,l ,i' h i s ~vit~*lrtn.;r!'i 1)ow~';s.is not: a ~ n r l l)r.~. n live srxl)erstitiol~to -sclrir:tt t lxe ig11ora.11t subsc;ril)ocl, they ~ ~ l ~ l l c l t l
r r I t ) - irrtvr~ialfirc;t ion. Ilis glrtl~c~t' shoot^ out tl:t~ignrfro~r?il~sitle mid arde~rtlyi,rol)t~gale'iit. Ollly ill bhp mi(l-sovclltecn tll ccn t.ur)-.
Il i 1 1 1 . I ri of 21t.r u o1-tl9.I hc3sor.inl q - a t l l,olism of insi(le ; i l ~ t lolrtsidc with the triurll1)ll of the laity over the clergy. onlj. with tlic
is ;ll,l)lictlnot only to t11e si~fjFeri~ig~ of the vic;t,itlr's botiy but to -sv:trlillg of' tl.ic ideological -wtrfttre ljotwccn (jlrlr.istiialls,1.shich
1)1~ I)i,(lj-of thil witch as 1%-ell, int.vital,ly rlourished Is:tte and k a r , only then was it pos~ihlet,o
NOWto ~~cturrr to thc (:rxltl~rr~ in u llieh ~ ~ i t ~ i .I~cliefs
11 ;tr~ either. er1tcrt:lin a ~rrodtwl idea of Goti op~hl+ntingin a mc?clrn.~lical
ili;acst,isc. or tiottnllv ;I k~scnt. 1f ~vif~hs'rixft slrarpeils cliefi11i.tion universe strippet1 of angels as u-ell as of deltlons. To 'I"rc\.i-ol--
15 I l r * ~ . r b r*r)l{ic; ;tre ill ticfitlrd. .is wotlltl r:r pcet it)to f)e ahsent wllcre ftoper's profount1 insightis wt: rxsay vrnt urc to oRc:r orlc fi0131
I jlrtr(1 i q t l o (<tit for ( a l t * ; i ~ - ( I r f i ~ l i t i ol'llras ~ ~ . ninotlg 11coldlr17.11011nve the co~nl,arisotrof Nuer-1)ililin ancl Anutzk. h r , as llc irzsi~t~s in
\-pjsys / ) ; i ~ *ir~*(lg~~l:i~* s~, S O ( ~ ~eo~ktZ I ~ iI('t$= t C O S I I I O ~is lilcply to IF liis int rcttluctiorl. the si?rti.clrtll rerltilry ct~nllotljc uritierstootl if
lpss clrjrtlin:~tcltll I)y tho iclo;t o f tl;r~lgcla,ot~i;: Ilulllnn beings t,hur~i l l thcb grc;~twitoh crnaxcis ig~sored.Each periorii nlust I)c seen its ;L
:t &c,c.ic.tyi ~ ullic.11 t itrtlrlnll i ~ r t ~ t * ~ * ; t c >i st i(*~oRc*.
o~i \Ye wol~lilmf)ecit whole. l11~c~reft>re mc. should take his strot.killg account of horv
;l,l ;trr.ooo~nor\ll~it~ jrltlits of' JWJJ c r t t ) (lorn irm t cl M hc1.c. hnlrr:t~ls the rnirlds of higllly rstcernctl sc.l~ol;-n.swere in thrall t n the
IUY.~' ~~lo-;ply ul)o~lonr3 ;r~rothor...I1111 if flheso illtcrlsiv-tl sovial w i t*r;llc~-:tft cc,ss~trlogg long with his other clla1rtt.r. on the
,yxl:\(ii,tl.: ;\IT i t - r ~ l l ~lc~ti~lc~tf. WP ~ r o ~ l l (t.spc1c.t
l thc nnt111-c?po- ge~leralcrisis of tho n~id-sn\-elitt:cntllcentury ( I 96S; pp. 46-89),
Illc,qjlriqn~ of the c30srtro; t,o hc. ~*c.nrrlr:tf~iic:, to nl,lrold tllc r.uo~-al I3cl.e bc describes h o tilt: ~ orderly.
~ rusl~)~~"ihle cities o f thc early
: 1 1 1 ( { "ic)pi:~l~ " o t l f ~ j \ t , ~ tit~l(~l:st ral 11 t";tt 11; M II(:X'OR,S. i f i11t~c~1si~e rlellaiss;~llooIJ rxre sl11)pl;illted XIS t llr. J-:cl~;liss:lncae1)1'i11(:es. I~CSM*
d n , r b i ; \ l il~ttlracatioil i s ill cltlfirrc~tl.u cl 11 o i r l t i tAxpet.t ;I u~itchr'r-aft- t,he estr;s\.;~g;altc.r.of the mltirs w;!s suutttincid 11y a sj-ntr.rtl c-J'
c t t l ~ ~ l i r i ; ~ icbos1nos.
tt~sj 'I'l~i.: rrrgitllit~~t i i s~iggt~sted rttstl hr?nlltBifiljly f i tc i o I h i tt to ; 1 1 ) 111th 1)l*ua~jorii J - fjf tllc
illrlrtr.:rto(l in :I l i t t lrl-lr~~orv~l :trst it*lcx I)y Cctr3ficy 1,icnhardt. ~ > e o ~A, sl ~ ~ .s t : v e ~ ~ t ~11(( ~Y ~~ItiI~11-j-
ill(% t n ~ ~ ~ ~ t~lwir o :i1ic31*t3a,si1lg
t c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .
i t a l l j s cb ;trr3 g l ; tl~ to t.ttf)r.ocl~tc.c hcbrsib. Z-lc aai,ttlj):lrcs tlsc Nrrrr- s ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ll(3igll ( l ot ~ ~ c ~i11ct l~*igucl-rii
l ~i ~r ~the ides1 a t tr~osl~llc~rc of i,l~c)
1 l i l l \ t : ~1t7orl~ivi(hv+ . in ir l l i ( 4 1 1%itvh~~r;tl'l 111at 1 0 ~I-(~I*J-s l i t 1 lp. ~ y i t , l ~ cao1rr.ts: g~?uatfi)ririrlrs \1-c3r*otlratli~alrcl spclrt. arid great t l i l l l l e s
\ , < i t o!' t i r ~~ ~ oi f i\it l . i~i l i ~
i s i g \ i { b ~ Iovilrg
~ ~ A ! ~~~ t ~ :tb ! < a : ill f lie M a k t of f lleil2 ~ ) : ~ t ' r n lflvt"ll
r t I t.1 t l j ~ ; i ~ t . t.1~\111~1 l ~ . 111 III'C
N , I ~ Ii I~i t-1 1 ~ : tsot~i;il i t orl(/ i s s j ) : ~ ~ ~ sj ~t ~d l~y: ~( l j~i fhlti~k
' j ' i I t b 1 ~ ;~I-P l)rrr>ar*io1rs, I I C ~ ~ C ~ S ( RTI ~~ ~C ~) CI " ~OiligJ \ 1r;lill of clerics arlri cborrrt
l ~ ~ I i q-n\ i Jt hiii ~ / 4~ ~ ~~ ~ \ f J i ~t t ~~i f s~~lbilo ~ S t~ ; I - ~ ) I ~a11cl
Y l):tsi ttrtks i~fiiieirls, 'l"Ilr*sch ";L (*t'tLf f l i~~tj~*ll<*("t
~ \ i d s 1$~120 fi~ilrtdt,o slr:lli~~ t llc*lrl-
: L E I I~ ' l ~ t h i ~ n(aohit~os
O ~r / ~ i s (Ionii11:tt~d( * o r ~ ~ f ~ s j ~ o1))- ~ t :I( ldii bf f~;tlrg lt ~ ~ .ir.lvf>s 2 of i t i,f>lirifs. 1 i~~so(.n~arl c h o ~ ~ ~ i ) ~ ~f o il r i t o r s
(~111cll 110t f1111~- : ~ ~ ~ t l ~ i * o ~ ) o ~ clt3ity.l~(~r~ 011 i ( *o) t l l t ~1~311tl.t IIP
j l ltlw L ~ ~ ~ tot) cvt%ilysax\ the u t ~ i i - c ~as
~ ) ; ! I I ~ O ~ I : o~lly ~ s;It ~(aoi~llterl)i~~at of
XXX xxxi
 t llcbi~~ ~o(*ict~;~'. 7j711(:i1~oos11-10~ w:xs (hi11inatJctI, not by God as ~1 and ulrf;~irco~l~l~etit~ioll was wid(xsprcad,Tlllts n-e mnay start, to
sl)iritli;cltltlniv;!lt*lit of':^ iirighty ~xriroll.1)ut I)y otllcr ( i ; ~ t r g e r o ~ ~ cxplaill why t'lleir bclic?fb were ~ ~ rotlt o tnined.
~ 1%ithin their own
l r [ ~ I ~ I ; L J( I:~o~ t n ~ing) ~ (;l,g;~il~stt,ll('m i~llfiti~-l~r v,-ith d01~0ilitbI)OWCL'R. circles but wc1.c:ui~leclisltledM itll st1cll des t r-tnetiveviolellcc: abroad.
\ 4 ' ~i.r~cog,rnizest1 A ~ i t i ; t l zsty lc of cosnlology filling t'lilc rnirrds of It nlay f)e a gloonly collclusio~lillat t31c people least likely to
t)(lol>lr?i l l ;ti1 -4rli~itlist!-ln of ~ ~ ( . i i~l il t ~ ~ ~ a ?'t1i1e o i 11arad0~
~. of believe in -sx;it'c,hctsare those wllose lcwl of social iilt eraetiotl is
i 11 t
r1lllrbc.t rtal s 11 1)port fix ~vit~c11~r;~f't be1 iefs is resol v ~ d since , it so low and so irreg~rlnrtll2r.t they lln!-t. little ~leeclof socirtl
i.r c,rtl!l 1 ) t x p;bt,ently ;11)snrcl to expt*et z t Nucr-I)i~~k& COSIIIO~~~JT delinitlion. 71re Mlju tli ~,ygrnies~~rlitlrrr hclictrc in -nit eLles nor
1 1 1 ; i l l ~IllIIitkM M < ~ ( " J ~ 0111y . 11llt"ll t ~ revoltntic)11~
h ~ of tJhe irlid- cllijoy R, riellly orgnrrizc.d set of cosrrro1ogir::ill ideas (("l'urrtl)~~ll,
c d c k r l t 1rt-y tlwt tSojr d the 1ni3t1 lilt~rlltissitt~ve stJates .;!-a9 n ncw kilrtll 196Ci). 'I'llcir cnsc swggt?st;,.i that TTC ,iho-nld reject, the eolrl-
of irlit c.1 l~c*tu;il to c:trlc:rgc. ljro~)o"i'lg a Jtew kind of cosruios to fit, 1)ensatol.y theory of whiil,(lflcbr;~f't ~I~'o~/IOS byC~~ iZ\';~(1~1 (1952).
1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 socit" ( ~ 1 ~ y, r l ' r t ? ~ ~ ) ~ -S lLt Io ~~~)YC S ~ 1)nt for the Iltefor-
~tllttt Accordjxig tlo this vicw, ~vit~hcl'cclft is ill1 alterilixtive rnetl~odof
?tiatio11;tn(l f,lic*(lon1ltt~r.1.efor111i1t~io~1, which artificially sustaiiled csplaini~igmisfortune., whicll sul~sti t8iite8 for r n y tlwlogicnl or
t Ilrl cl:r.r*liclrill tlc.l loctJrltil s,y~lt,l~c>si~. I l ~ e: l ~ l ~ r ~ ; l i ~rn t l ~ ~have
s :ight e scientific exl)l:txlatiol~s.B u t the j3ygnliew prove tllat, there is no
l ~ t ltlit-clc>tt,o the li:illiglrtr.~tr~~c~~it~. 'I'bc: two great figures he reasall to believe thtit! if oire clecliltes tlre oilrer \-sill pop up in its
t~.;p(:(:i;~lly siliglc:: o l ~ till this c.1~:vt~lol)nierlt are Erasnlus atrd place. People can do ~vithontexy)lantitio~rsof luisfol~tunc,They
I )tvc.ar.l c.s. 1 l o w nruc3h~rrorelilie the si>r.:ict,yof i-Io~riadic~ ~ n s t o r a l - call live in tolerance ;ancl anlity and withoni ~llet~al~hyaical
ii;t s i r rlrrxt 1 1 irn ~ ~rrctli;it,c social worlds of these tllinkclrs. E~&SIIIUS curiosity. The precoriditioli is that tikey should be free to more
1l;td his fi~r-fillng ;rl"angfL o f schc~irarlycaorrcts-;~)~irdetlts. lic travelled away Proln each other wi~e~rever straiilis appear. The price of
:~nn itl(tly. 'l'llo ti;~il,v~~rr.ss~rt-cs of irlr~st:nl)ablc~, lo~lg-tarrn,f:t,~ce- such a benign eosn~oiogyis a low level of orgalljr/,,?tio~l,
n crci tot llis ~tlol)lr.tt~.
f i t - f > ~ ! i t . r*c~l;:l,tic~rls Fie Li1rer.y. tflc caprice of Hut this is not the: only ~ v a yto control wilicll 7n)eliefs. Allother
t)tiillclrv ;i trtl ~ ~ l ~ ' ( l but i ~ ~ectulrl
i t l ~ evstclc its efrecats. 113 his t,mrn, is by means of' ;L highly orclcrccJ system of ascribed rolcls. 3-ct if
I)c~s!::~rt,os.in his clloscin vm~;ltiotlof scholar t~n101xg solcIierfi. these are too ilrflexiblc, other grotcisquc be1it:f's tt1q)e;xr. loan
l i r i k t l i n rrblalivt. isol:ttiorr. 'I'liis abovr all sc3enlsto be tllc rcyuirc- TAewis(l~etott-, 1). 300), eolinl)nri~igbc1ic.f~ irr attac.1~by iclcntificcl
r,lckl\ t for cti>rltc2nr[)l;tting 21 t"o~:k\lorlc coslllos not sul~jectt Q tl-itjcheswit11 bt3lief's i r l att,;~ckby l~nidcntifieclc;j)irits,relates the
; I I I I~t~o~)ofi~or~~lli(~~~i~igs..
~ latter to rigid role btrnctures. I$c describes worz-~c~~ T+ ho use their
I 1r;i t s i ~ t ~ ~ f v ~1 tlt ~~ lr ly:~c~;tclc~rr
1 1
- c ~ ~ ~ics should have held 111ore illnesses as a rrletzns of ~ x a c t ~ i i tilore lg gerzeroufi trca tilnerlt fro111
st 1*01~1y to M ik.11 /)f~lii~C~ t 1l;tl:l 1311'.g t ~ ~ trun ~ ~ of~ :the
\ l pol)ulat ion their husbn~lds.?'lli;-.,is llalf-cs-a,ybctueell attack and reroncilia-
i s rlo 1or1gr.x.:1 1,;lrutlox. "I'llcy recall their prec-lcct$sgorsin I,cxt,e tioxl. Ile indicates the role structure ixl nhicltl i t n ould be an
Al 11i i (1 t ~ iyl 1% 1r.o voj)ic~loiitJ sorco~~y and a~lt'i-~orccry tclcall~ri(ju~s aj)jr"rol~*iate strategy - onc mfllere tllc wtlalicr party in a relatliorl-
1 :i(>cht~sc\(
: il (~ 1 tJllciir rix-als of' 111~11i~~iously clf3st9royiiig t,heir s11ip seolrs, not to 11reak it off'. but to ~riiP,ignteit's r i g o ~ ~ r .
c~lo{jui~r~cic., I"(%t.r ISror~r l 1 1 ; ~filull(1 ~ that f he 1 e g ; ~ ~ofy writillgs R711ere tl.lel*(lis wi t("11~~itft t 11(3r0 ia 11slrally ~ v i t -cle;ln$:i~~g.
( 4 1 1

;~,l)outsorr:erj- f *otrl tillis pt'"x<o"d(scat. lxlow) e m be traced to a One of TCci tlr llliorxl;~i;'sinsiglrt w into t flc 1)ost-l<cforrr~;i tion
st.1 c )f' tlr:fi~lnl soc>i;tl~ljelltts-- t l ~ o s rof rrcn~lerni(*s
r l c b arrd il~sccrxr*e illr>rcnsein l<nglish -wit c:hc>laaftncc.~rs:ltior rs l~ttitltsto i he loss of
( Y J I I I * of1ivi:tls.
~ ( ' l l : i ~ - i o t ~ ~ iii t~*lss or a r ~ g ~t(l 1 ~ l $5 it 11 c o ~ i f ) e i -
~ e n l sVPS r*eligioms trel~nic~rnt~s for clettli~lgwit 11 l)cr~onttll)rolilr.rlrs: 1~011-
i~lril;f2tc.t icjlih ;irlrl Itlc:ii* st nttrs IT:^:: also ill tlefirlr3d. Iri Idate Llitlti- fession n ~ i dii1)solutiorl. exorc*is~ll iu1t3 ~ ~ r o t c ( " iI ~I -~~c>~ s Illr.vi11g
~~I~R
ciuiiy t hit o tlwr IIIY<;LS of' sovieiy ("iljc)ychd v-ax7(*111)011 I~T-C" of 1,cc~onrt.rnrrav~til;nlt~lc~, n-ittillcraft fcanrs 1vcr.c less easily c~o~~trollcct.
~ T ~ I ' I I S ~ H soI - tlrat (Iot~ltisll feitr~of ~)cr5;~:eut11o1r t ~1ns~3-cr-
1 1 i ~110 131 r l f ~ j i ~ina f l r ~(1'olo11ic11 period, ?il hilc orrlcala 1% crc oiit l;tst ccl.
ing r * r x ~ j ) o rill ~ s t~llci ~viriur.~)ol~ml;il ion, ltrlt at t lli~encj of tllr w i t cIrc.r;-cl't was ~ o l l~oIIcYI.
t f Ijy other*xncnrls. It oy
t o S O J ~ ~~C* xmf.
sixi(~111i 11 ( w i t IW>- ;I great 1)eriod o f < > ~ ~ ~ ; L I I S v~i OasI I c;oi~li~lg to i h IVillis (1)rlow) gis-cis a l)~$itlf overall ~)c~rsl)ec~livc of tlxt~scrlro.1.c.-
c>lo;c*. 'l'llc. :~c;i~tft%rilii.s' c~spc:.r.iclr~c.r~ of illscbca~r~*ity~ Ilutntun c.al~r.iuc.. rrlellts wlliclz arise ttrrcl sl~rcallo r r r .r-;tst itr~a,": of'12fi"ic:~;l tu1c1 d i e
 o t ~ t .f If*( * O I ~ I I ) ; L I - P S~ I ~ O J Ii1ltiirwt I i~lgly nit11 i~lillellnia,l c1dts. thinks hi111s ~ l f1 1 ~ : tt,cX~ed.
~i 'I'lte re\-cssi1)f.e~.olesof' t Ilc 1% it clr
, \ l i s o ~I :~f ~ l ~ t r ; ~(1)t'lou ~ - l l ( ") biLI:~l1('C'"i~lih Iollg ~ i w v1jy ;I t:lo~t:-~ip and the victim in t,he ordeal and the Ilinlia's strong rcluctttnce
of' t lir. ca:it3txrxsof' 1);lJr*fic.i11:ti3c!ivirlc*r*. fft~tlol~s SI i l l itllil for ;i 1 0 1 1 ~ to call any man a witch, secrn to mo t)o be ti reeog~iitiorithat
t i l r l r b l ( j c:orut? i ~ rI<;ta;t, ;\fii(.:l,. Iqlgrir L ~ CS ~ ~ Y fro111 I I ~ . Il~lll~breds of' :t mall who easily t,llillks himself fiatrd is one irrllo easily
tn ilci ;irt..;ty to cotls~rlt,( '11 il.;;r~tgc~ a l ~ otr t~lrrir fillllilit?~2i11d their hat)es, and that ;I man who spes otjllers ns bearing nlaJice
illric+scls iind t o I l ; t \ r i tlir~iir.o w n nrtrlles clcarctl of nit,el~c~r.aft, towartls hinrself is one wlio hirnself feels rlinlice. This is the
k~~~lritbiotl. situation of ~lirit~ches. . . . The night wit cjll is an outla~l-t-t>cn~rse
, \ I I ~lir*ol,olr~gi.;t .: 1l:t'irt" 11~11ilIIy:1!)1)1~r,n(dl~t"~i. '17 i f ~411~'r;ift froin Itr en~k~odics t,llost%apl~ctit,esand ~1;~ssions in c?vcry r11a11
t l l t l I 'oil ~t of \ i c a i r r of t , 1 1 ~;~c*c~us;;c.i., :1Iv ~\ib>-l: ~ ~ s s i l r ~ lt,I~;rt
i ~ l g I lrcb ~vlrich,if ungos-enled, would rlt.stuoy any nxora.1 law. 7111~
: ~ c j c x ~ l . ; l t t i c ) r l i s f ' i l l ' - i t x . 'I'lris Ilits ~t-rrtdt: i t llnrtl for* rls tto iiiterpret, night witch may thus he sccn to c:rirrt~spc:)ut1 to the concoaled
\\ it,c~llc~s;r f"l c a o r lfibssic 111s.'I11rrczt2s tto ji,r;~c.tiseT\ i t vl~craftagainst illtelltinu, t l ~ c:lnlosalit,,y ; ~ l r i lh.cllt~tllc. iip1)osition t o sl~a,x"r:d
; \ I I ( q tl(:ny, t lli:hfqn ~ v ? ~ \ Lint I C X " ~ ~ I its ' P ~~ n l p t yl>o~~sijimg. But t,l~(: ~lzoralrnltlrs ~+-llicll rrlal.it1 c o ~ r l n ~ty~ u~ ~ oi s s j l ~ofl ethe
. uzriqlxe
idfi;-rt Ilitt t l pfbl'soll11iiI3.' ~ i i i c f ~ t i)clicxv61 ~ly hirliself a ?vitc:h A,IIC~go self, C X ~ Sting a11(t ;tvt8ing;rs 511("11,80 iilthrfugh, I I L ~ ~oC~ )~ (in Sl ~
10 ;t tlivirlcr to 1 ) c~ u r d of his st ate is di-lficult ltio understurld one IT-tty,tlic night, w itch is a fin~lt~asy, ullderstiood ill allot,ll~"r
11 it E t j n t 1 1 t.t.1-rrrs ~ of our ur1;tlysis. 'I'llis i s 110 clouht T~T,fly 13arltara way he is illdeccX a rcalit>y which tlle llizlkn li11o~7.11 is
\\T;tr~tl's k-ivitl tlr3seri[)lion of -M. itch -uol~ft's~i011 elllts in A~11;~lit i u n c e r t c l n l e that 1 1 ~ should be associ:~ted '~vit,hciefornicd
( I !):>ti) tri:ttlt? no little iinpact at, the tirue. 'I'her.t:li>se I csl,ecially and i1111)erfect treat I ~ V C T~ V, ~ Oby their. very nat lire cannot be
c:ilrxt: t 1 1 t ~ ~ t ~ 0 o l l f 1 i l ) l 1 t , ito o l ithis
s voltlrlle which describe cultures full niernber~of society' (1951, pp. 317-318).
i t ) \t lrlic*ll it, is i1nl)ossihlc not Lo mul)pow (oncsc3lf a 1)oterrtialwit ell.
I:jol)o~'tIEsni~t111;iki" d5i(%seof i h rt)lf" ~ ~ thitt eliil~brc~r play (1)rit)ed Tlllls ljIin1ia ~vitchcraftcotlcepts scj~reseutan zssassi~ientof
1 ) ~ . promiscis of' fi~otl)i r l rtii~ir~t a i ~ i i ~ tl lie
g adult w ~ r I ( view l by ~lormalIiun~annnt~ircancl self-npl)raisal. For them, l~ell(>a11
tlrchir* tlor-siij'illg cvc,~ili~ssii~rls of t~it~cllcr.:tft. But eonfcssions are lie within them ~clvcs.TII ~vitcbc.rafd-d011:1 ilia t ed cosruologies, in
t ~ o t alii , li y s t*xtt~%crf. 11)- 11ril)r~s ;\rid tll~.c:ttn. .Jnliall Pit t-Rivers (wntritst, PIIVY zmd ~ l l a l j r "and ~ all cvils arc a t tributcd t,o
:t11~1NI;~lcolinftncbl dcsc#riZ)c c.osrriologicv+.0 1 1 ~in C'ctltrul Arrlericn, ;~lonormnlrreighbolxrs. For tllem, hell is ot htkr 1)eople. L k i -
o ~ l t :ill ilfrirt~, ill M lli(4i t=;2(11 l l ~ l t l i t l1las ~ one or aer-trill were- i";trc"t11ss has reeerrt Iy renlltrlieill tlia t this fa1rnc,ris cfictunn of
:~~lirtt:llj)crsollali t1io:: :LI t rik)tlte(l to Ililll. 'llhc truestioll at ally I"iartlraehas 110 rrriiversnl value but i s ~tlri*clyan trt 2rnogr.n y)'rlic:
tirule is 0111j~ iirllcithcr. orle'*s altirnal st.lv-es are ~~emeenble or co~nrlrer-rton a pc2rtieular v~llttrrc:(IU(i8. 11. 422), E ~ e r y t h i n gwe
d;bxljic~rons. llrtve ssid RO far 11ca.r~him out. Sottte ~ 1 1 1 ures 1 are I ) ~ C ) I I Cto 11 i tell
J t stkelns tll;-\tiall tht. 1.ic:l1fibllti~syof f)P;~r~yn,l~g M-ere-axlirnals I)eliefs, otl~ersare not. T.Vc arc i~IltIOf32 rc2ncly t)o state tl~t-. j,rc-
c1oc.s not rrorntr~llj1.rsrll1irr \\ it t~llcraft;-ctccusatiot~g. 'I'he tJlireciion d i s ~ t o s i ~social ~ g st ~~uc~t~mrcs, kVhcrc soci rtl in t er:t,et ion is i n t erlsr:
irl vllic*11 the: X~cllic-:fk1~)iirltis 'to t ~ c r s o ~ ~rcs1)orrsit)ility tll nllcb and ill defined, therc we may C X ~ G C ; :to ~ find ~ ~ i t ~ 1 1 ~ r1)clicfs. r"lft
11f>1*~01iitl it~rl)li(+:i t ion. I L I I ~not (~1ir~vtI-y t ~ least)
t t'c) the hostility FVhere hnrnan rrlalions are sl'amse alltl tlifY~l.ic>, or -i~l~crc. rolrrs
of ot1lc.r~'. 'I'hi.; ct.lloc~i;iioclfrcy IAic~ttI~arclt7s nc:cBountof" I)illk;l arc -very fully aseri1)ed. n-c n-oul(l 110t CXI)C(" to fi~lil"it'it,~l~(-raft
ivi(c*llci*nft( 1 O ; i l ) . I)i~lliax \vitvl~tb.iarc ~ n ~ i ~al~ollyiljous lly alrtl 1)elit.f~.,!f'tfxr* this, it i s iclrlll)ti ~ l gZ o c*ollcc>totlrr.~*irlit;irlrcs of
t r ~ t i r l r l r l it f i f a c t . 'I'llr. t:oric:ckt)t o f t lli. 1-iiicll is notrc the less very \vit,olx - l l r ' c h c c*rtsnlolr,giclsa11(l s(Y:X.~ t ~ i tt l ~ ~ tby
to : t ( ~ ~ o t for l l N~IIC~PT~PG
r b ' z l ) l i c * i t . I t is rrbtktl to rsi>rrlirltl (.;~(>11r r l m of' tllc tla~rgemiii Itiltlsc4lf': of' c~cmflict.aZ)scrlc~c~ of chornl)t.ti t iorl, or*:rl)srrlc.c.o f iallli)iguity ill
13oles ox* of coilt r;idieiioli i n ~ lt ilzrnlc l g ~ t ~ i"tX l'l~
lc.; ~ r p l l ~ n c l lrit ill
t t t l i t : 11s cluittcb :i long ~ a y but , 11ot c l l l i l c ~ f ; cl~iotxgll:
~ for lht.
f3slry;tllg of t h tVes ~ t ( ?a~~i~hroc>~l usca t l l ~idea o f tllc u-it cTs Irl ore
as a. rilirror to their o w n c~oti~cio~lcc; :ntitl yet (riulike dlr. 1)ilil;;t)
 I d r-odz~c f ion
t 1lf.j-lire wit.ll (bo111j)tlfit i o t l i l ~ l di ~ ~ r l l ) i g l ~ Ii t y
cherish
. t hoir r a r e -- 19-49, 7'he Ranusi oJ ('?/?-e7.~nica.Lolltlon: OxfortZ TJni~ersity
-
;IS :I \r:tr.lli~rq:rg;tir~fit, ;L too rigid so(ai;rl dt:t,c.rr~lirtii;ln. l~rcss.
r~
I Ilr old ~ ~ n rdig111; r il;rs srratltl it.; ~ H I I - L J O.2s W .1 : ;i
~s M it ahcraft 195fi. N ~ L Clioligioli
T 0 ~ i k ) s ~( ~l :l : i r ~ ~ li '(rlt o ~ ~ s~.
hf nilicn nrn ~r)tl(~r*r.nr?(l. flu. firlld in o p c ~ sto allyone who cnreir to - -. 1!I(i5. ?'hca?.i~sof' f ' 1 iv"ilico Rcligi017. Oxford: (:l;tr(*~l(+o~~ 1'1 tabs.
r.11 iPT i 4.. A l l tl~ro~)i)logisf~s ~lrlerlno longer fcar t h e 11ist.ori:m as 'it Irttnz)tc, ~ ) a r i s - ~ rl!l58. ,. Sl)iritfi, 1Vitc.lit.s atrd 8orc.c.i'ers i t ) t l ~ t .
~ w r s o n~ 7 l i o . i/ 0~1 1 it i s 1.0 ili~t.ro?-t h e o t l ~ c rfellosv's gr11erc21'I Z ~ - Srtp(*rn;lfrl19alE c o n o ~ uoj ~f t Yalici, Jou/*~r,cnl
l l c b OJt l l ~Ro!jc~l ,l?zlhr.o-
n . p. 7!1), mltl hisborinns rlrcd not be m-arrrert
t iorl' ( l < c ~ i ~ ~ i r1a!!5li, poloyitni: /,lstit?ct~,88 ( 2 ) :185-1'78.
;r.gxirist c o l ~ j ~ i s1;~vi~;JIIy
~lg OLW s ~ ~ c * i h c:iliCf I s ~:OI~CIIUS~O~IS. The cx ELI,;N ~ n E,, lf358. Tinreb : i ~ l c t 7'1ieory ill Social Arzt 1iro~)olog~.
rlistillgllih~~(~ (~o11f.rib111
ci ~ U I ~oSf ilislloria~ss to this volunle s~lggest ,!!find 67 (266): 182-202.
l'iLi(1illg f ~ r t b p:IS illnr:h ;LS t l * i l ) l ~ t .snlut,es.
i~~ \?ie PiLIl ~olsfid(:~~t,lg 1: xi c II x A X . M , 1965. CYus?to7i~
IA ( t r ~ dCo~ljfii'f liil I - l f ~ iOxfi)~'rl:
~ ~ . 131ack-
t h:rt ihe till1 ilisip11t.sof t Irr Azailclc book ~willbe exploit,cd
~ k . \ ~ ) c v ' t
n-ell.
irl rrlnlry ot llcl. tlisc:il)lruc~i;. x I, u c 4 i II o 11 N , c L Y 1) F: . 1944, iVtrzjilho I.Cvii(*kr.?.nJ'f. l'ea ll~otlyM usclarn
Yztpc~s.FE~z'vRI'cI lT~liversity.22 (no. 2 ) ),

K U II 3,T. H. 1962. 7 % ~ ~ S t ~ t l ~ ti' t oj' i i(ntiji'i' 111(~o11~tIo~1.s.

2 ~ ~jl( C:~LI('U~O:
U ~ ~ i r e r s i ot ~f yGIiI~agoP r i " ~ .
1. I I, t,lrls int rotl~lctiont l w t f > r r rir,~it cllc.rrzft i s uscbtl io cox rr all forms of ho1ir.f li 61- r - S T T < A ~ J S S ,C , 1968. L ' O f z ' y i ~ zdes ~ ~,inzii~r.ri; tic t c ~ b l ~ ii2jtho-
.
in sl)vll I)inclirrg, Insc>irr:it ion t)?; e\ il vyc, a r l t l f)r:uitrhirrg. When i t is ncccsenry loyiqtte.s I I I . ikaris: f"lo11.
t o t11scx.irnirlstc betxr c a m tlr ffi.rrmt kirrtls, dcs;icri~)ti* crt plrmscs are rtsocl. I n tllc
r,IE N rinxz n T . a. c:, 1951. s o m e Not it)rl~of' \\Fitellcraft aillong t'llc
stlltst:rrltt\ t. p r t of t l ~ chook, hon r v w , most of tho rolttrr hutors I1;~x-euwci
't.iiLr*llcritft'to rcxf6.r. oxrlr~si\-cly to irltrrrrnl psychic power t o harm, and Dirllia. A,fi.icn 21 (4): 303-318.
by mi-:arw of extcr~taliigmbols, ullethcr by spells,
"sc,rt:c~)' for br..~*itc~lli~lf: n s ~ t u - I C KM.. G . 1952. The Social Cont)ext of Ceca JVitcli I3elicf~.
c.ii:tr.nis, or ~)r)tlo~ls. kffi.ica 22 (2): 120-135, ( 3 ) :2 15-233.
- 1966. ~Sorrery in i t s Socicrl iCTetti?ig: A ~ Y t u d yof the ~liTo?-ther.n
Rhodesia)? Ce&cr. 3lanelrt:stt:r.: 3llanrllestr~uTTnirr>rsitylE"r.t~ss.
M A Y E X , P I X I L I P . 1(,3.?4. Ff-itches, Iilitllg~ll'ill I l o ( * t ~ l r1XX1odt'~ ~.
linivcrsity , Grallau~ston11.
M I D 1) L E 'r 0 N, J 0 II N. 1960, Lugbarn &f31iyio92. Lolldon: Oxford
Univc~vsitj-I+rcs (fir t l ~ cJut cr-rial iorral ,4f ~ i i e l ~Ilrstijt ~r ulc),
n l l r e r l E L L . C ' I , Y I ) E . 1956. The Z'ao Ivill(lyt: A Ntudy i , f~ h Social ~
~ ~ l t 7':1l1rb
~ ~r:.r 1!133
~ ; v ~ n . ; - ~ ~ r ~ i ~ r . tri:. , . Iirtc:Ilcc:tu;~listi
(ii:lrglishj 111tc.r.- kStrztct?,ire a i\-yc~.i;cnl(nn(l l j T r i D p , If;tllcl~c~stt~: il.I[;~x~clk(-"st ex' U~iiver-
p t ~att iotl of R l , z . i i ~ l h ~ l l ~ tofi ~P'/u f u?t;j of L f 7 t . ~ ( 2 ) . gyp^ iaIl sity II'ress-;.
CTtiiv(>rsitj-,Cairo. l!$(i;4. 'l'llr. 11earling in n'3fsf01tu11~~ for IJI-X)~II Afr.ic:ill+. l ~ 3'1. r
~ l ~ l ' i of J'rirt~itive 3li~ilt;ility.BulletitL r f
I!):l-k. I i l - v ~ y - l l i ~ ~ Tli(.ory 1 T o r . t ~St~ (.:. I)i~t~f>rfc\ll ( c * ~) ,s ._/il,iric(xj~S?~?IS/ P ) ? ~ I ; of T7~07l,qht.
Faculty c,J' ~ l i - f ,2s (1). 1Ggj ~iarl ) lilrrivt~rsiiy.C:;riro. Ilondon: Oxfortl L'nivlhrsity IY5.c.r~(tor t llc Irltt3nitltioual African
If)Re3.1Vitchcr;~fi.A,kriccx 8 (-4): 417-422. Institute),
1!1:37, ilvilch(*rcqff, .
Ortrc-lcsand d/cx!yica (x)ilonfjt h ~l : ~ l / d p . Oxforci: li A r) n I,, s . IT. 1952. \\'itcllcraSt in F'olxr. Af ~-ic.nn 6ocicit ips: An 13ssay
( '1;i 1 ' ( * 1 ~ ( 1 0 t ~l"l"("$. in Ilonr jiarjsoil, ,4 ??~el*irn 12 ,4 ?I tlr~~opo'logii~l 54 (1j: 1 8-29,
i4 . 7 1 :o I t 0 1 f i .VI/.I/ iia ] ) ( O ~ I / ~ J . x t ~ r s m n ~D A , V I I , . 1956. C ' ~ ) ~ ~ d t ~ -(11117 a i ) l t I-(tri~'t:j i j i i l ? ) 2 ~ i i r ( i ~ ~
o\f:~~"(l:
~ ' l ~ ~ i>lY%s.
r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ l I$ducatio~~, Lirrcolri. Nibb,: LT1ri.c-clr+it ,y of Nc~l)r*;xskin, 1"x.css.
l!IfOl). N I I ~ Tof'
r I ' l ~ ~ b t l ~ I I ~ * I W 8iid;~ii 111 !I f T o ~ * t (&~ ~I{ 12.
SOIIIh
ns crr nn 13 ,is, A, I . 19:36. A n4ocIct.r~ Rlovr~nscrlt of' \I'itcllfiutlt~rs.
j41i ans- I'rif<*1i:il (1 ( t b f l * ). i r u ~ !i ) ~ / i t i { i5r!/\f(1~~2
~ ( ~ l 9. J)JI" 272-2%1(;, ,l,Pii.a 8 (4):448-461.
Ilo~ltlo~l: 0sfor.tl Cillit7cr.sity I'X'OSS ( fiw the Ixltcrlzttt ional A2fricarl TI<I C \ ~ O -I< R O Y E R . t ~ . 1967. f?c/iqiotzs i l t ~ l?(h)7 { ~ ? u t i o uu. t t d ,Yo(*i(tl
Irrrtit~lte). ('lbcr~rye.I,orrt-toli: &Iacruillan.
,r rr rt r j I: u r, I,, c q or,r w ilr 19fi6. TT'/y,y?un~dS ~ r v f r ncf. 1,otltlorl: Eyrc &
,ijf'O"tt,i~i?O O t l l ~ .
t i ~t n r r , v. w. 1!).?4 S C ~ I S(D
13; r i lId C ! o i ~ t i ~ l u i ti
1!2j 1111 ,4J1,icn~rSocniutj/:
.1 r " r Y ? ~ r / g
(f I 'illnqi ],;.I;. J'lar~c:llc~stc~:
IV(I'PII/I)IC r\'I;-t~lclic*st
er
l Jrlii cvsit,p I%r.~,s
J !)ti-$. \Vit,c*llclr;tf't a1rt1 ~ O T P ( T J - . r17;ifro~iol~iy \ ~ * t ~ - s ~J );)
i i :I ~ L ~ H I ~ V S ,
.fJi irtr 34 (4). 314-325.
i, Z N S I N A , J. 1!3Ci!3. ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ Itbi~orlOrtical of tlzt: Uuullo~lg.I n It'. M.
I<at)t:r+ry P;; h'l. 1)otzgl;ts (ctls.), lllm i l ~ if a . X~OXIC%OII:
A+$) Tavi,rt,ock
I3ltbieat ion$.
1 %1% '~1). 13 A R N ,113~2. 1956. some Ohservut ions on f%ttIigioui:(:ult,s in
Aslra~lhi.r l f r i c a 26 (1): 47-60,
rt I -r I:, M . w. l!?fil. ICillc~~~c??zt,~ ii,~,L i ~ v c r k Bc?li~jscn.rid Rit~culs.
NEnnehc3sCor.: i\lalrclic~~tcr.I I ~ ~ I ~ t ~ rI'1 s"i1btsys (for tliix R110dt"-
I,ivitzgstoric Inst itirt,c.).
\t I 1,s o N, 111tu A N K. (("1.). liI(i'7. 1 ) ~ n f t r ~of ) i siC:ric'tt~rirc?bi~sr~i, 1A032d0i1:
Iltbinc~r~lalrn.
\ Y I I , o~ v , r: o 1-1lr7n e 1- & ar o N r c A. 1945. Y7he A ?zuly;i.irsqf Social
('jtnnyr.. I ~ ~ 071~ Ot).~~?'liatio~?.~
s P ~ i t ) C~nt?*aE i-pica. Calnk~ridge:
Carrl"r,r.iclg?rt? Univclrsi ty 1'rr.r~~.

@ Mary 1)ouglaii 1970