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A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

InternationalSpaceDevelopment Conference
Albuquerque, NM, 24-28 May 2001

Seth D. Potter John Fikes Steve Sutherlin

Mark W. Henley Connie Carrington Phil Beason
Sonia Gutierrez David Smitherman Sverdrup Technologies
The Boeing Company Mark Gerry Huntsville, AL
Huntington Beach, CA NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center
Huntsville, AL

ABSTRACT

The cost of access to space beyond low Earth orbit can be lowered if vehicles can refuel in orbit. The
power requirements for a propellant depot that electrolyzes water and stores cryogenic oxygen and
hydrogen can be met using technology developed for space solar power.

A propellant depot is described that will be deployed in a 400 km circular equatorial orbit, receive
tanks of water launched into a lower orbit from Earth by gun launch or reusable launch vehicle,
convert the water to liquid hydrogen and oxygen, and store lip to 500 metric tonnes of cryogenic
propellants. The propellant stored in the depot can support transportation from low Earth orbit to
geostationary Earth orbit, the Moon, LaGrange points, Mars, etc. The tanks are configured in an in-
line gravity-gradient configuration to minimize drag and settle the propellant. Temperatures can be
maintained by body-mounted radiators; these will also provide some shielding against orbital debris.
Power is supplied by a pair of solar arrays mounted perpendicular to the orbital plane, which rotate
once per orbit to track the Sun.

In the longer term, cryogenic propellant production technology can be applied to a larger LEO depot,
as well as to the use of lunar water resources at a similar depot elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION

The cost of access to space beyond low Earth orbit can be lowered if space vehicles can be refueled at
a Propellant Depot that receives water and uses solar power to convert water into liquid hydrogen and
oxygen (LH2 and LOX), then stores and transfers these cryogenic propellants. The basic concept for
production of LH2 and LOX is through an electrolysis process commonly used in fuel cells. The
process "cracks" the water to form hydrogen and oxygen gas, which is then refrigerated at cryogenic
temperatures to convert it into liquid propellants. It is expected that such a depot can be deployed in
approximately the year 2015. In the nearer-term, a Propellant Depot that only receives, stores, and
transfers cryogenic propellants can demonstrate the technology required in a space environment.

The first of these types of Propellant Depot will be emphasized in this paper. It is more complex,
requiring significant advances in technology, but it avoids the large volume and safety issues related to
containment of cryogenic propellants during launch. Water, in the form of liquid or ice, takes up one
third of the volume that would be needed to contain the same mass of liquid hydrogen and oxygen.
S. Potter, et al. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

Cryogenic propellants are hazardous; hydrogen is extremely volatile and flammable, and liquid oxygen
is a very powerful chemical oxidizer. Water, in contrast, is chemically inert. As an incompressible
liquid, or as solid ice, water can also sustain high payload accelerations during launch. Future high
velocity projectile launch systems could potentially accelerate capsules of water, at several hundred g,
to reach orbital velocity. Repeated launches of such a system could potentially transport large masses
of water into orbit at a much lower cost than conventional space transportation systems.

In addition, a Propellant Depot that converts water into propellants could serve other future NASA and
commercial needs:
• The production concept follows science exploration goals for "following the water". Finding water
in the solar system means there is a chance at finding life and sustaining human life. Development
of such depot technology will enable sustainable human missions at any location where water can
be found, (i.e., the Moon, Mars, Europa, etc.).
This baseline concept is for a cryogen production facility in low-Earth-orbit designed to supply
human, robotic, and commercial missions with liquid hydrogen (LH2), and liquid oxygen (LOX)
for high thrust chemical engines, LH2 for solar thermal propulsion, and excess LOX for human
habitation at other stations.
• Production capabilities would enable new commercial markets for reusable high-energy upper
stages, satellite services, and water and oxygen for ongoing human operations.

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

The Water-Ice to Cryogen propellant production facility requires a very high power system for
"cracking" (electrolyzing) the water and condensing and refrigerating the resulting oxygen and
hydrogen. For a propellant production rate of 500 metric tons ( 1,100,000 pounds) per year, an average
electrical power supply of 380 kWe was required. To make the most efficient use of space solar
power, electrolysis was performed only during the portion of the orbit that the Depot was in sunlight,
so roughly twice this power level was needed for operations in sunlight (slightly over half of the time).
This power level mandated large solar arrays, using advanced Space Solar Power technology. A
significant amount of this power had to be dissipated as heat, through large radiators.

The propellant state at launch was ground-ruled to be either water (in the form of liquid or ice) or
cryogenic propellants. Considering the unknown ascent heating loads and unknown time in orbit
before reaching the depot, it was assumed that water was received at the depot as a liquid (with a
temperature at the melting point of 273 K). This appears to be a conservative assumption, for if water
was received in the form of solid ice, a heat exchanger could make use of the "heat of fusion" (energy
absorbed as ice melts) to reduce electrical power and radiator surface area requirements of the
Propellant Production Depot. Cryogenic propellants were assumed to be near their normal boiling
point at sea level atmospheric pressure, rather than being sub-cooled (which would make them less
subject to boil-offduring launch and transfer).

Depot oxidizer to fuel (O:F) mass ratios were a consequence of the propellant state (water or cryogen)
at launch. The O:F ratio inherent in water is approximately eight to one (8:1), as each molecule of
water contains one atom of oxygen, with an atomic weight of 16 and two atoms of hydrogen, each with
an atomic weight of 1. An O:F ratio of roughly 6:1 is normally used for chemical H2:O2 propulsion.
The Propellant Production Depot is thus expected to produce surplus oxygen gas, which could be
vented or could potentially be used for industrial space processes, cold gas station-keeping propellant,
S. Potter, et al. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

or for human life support (breathing). For this study, the Propellant Production Depot was assumed to
liquefy all of the oxygen, and store LOX and LH2 at the 8:10:F ratio, whereas the Cryogen Storage
Only Depot was assumed to store LOX and LH2 at the 6:10:F ratio.

Propellant quantity requirements are determined by Propellant Depot Mission Requirements.

Prospective Depot-supported missions are illustrated below in Figure 1. The Depot refuels Orbital
Maneuvering Vehicles (OMVs) for maneuvers in LEO, such as satellite and payload transfers, satellite
servicing and orbital debris removal. The Depot also refuels Orbital Transfer Vehicles (OTVs) for
transfer of payloads between LEO and more distant orbits, such as commercial and government
missions to geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO), science and exploration missions to the Moon, and
large telescope delivery to the Earth/Sun L2 LaGrange point.

Refuel OMVs for transfers in LEO Mars Depot propellant will

Refuel OTVs for transfers to GEO also be required to
Refuel OTVs for L2 and
support Mars missions,
Lunar missions Moon the most demanding of
-_--_... which is an all-
propulsive (Abundant
Chemical Propulsion
Stage) mission,
expected to require
roughly 1,000,000 kg
Propellant for Mars Missions of propellant. While
Commercial Missions this enormous quantity
- Satellite transfers may be reduced in
alternate Mars mission
- Satellite servicing

- Orbital debris r_ scenarios, this

Figure 1. Propellant quantity requirements are requirement was
determined by Depot Mission Requirements. considered in
Propellant Production
Depot sizing. As the Mars Hohmann Transfer departure window occurs every 2.2 years,
approximately 450,000 kg of cryogenic propellant would need to be produced each year to support this
mission. For our purposes, the round number of 500,000 kg of was established as a requirement for
propellant production per year. As the Mars Transfer Vehicle would be assembled on orbit in advance
of the mission, and it could store some of its cryogenic propellant, prior to launch our Propellant
Production Depot storage requirement was assumed to be the 500,000 kg of cryogens produced in one
full year of operations.

Considering that a 6:10:F ratio is generally used for Oxygen: Hydrogen propulsion; in contrast to the
8:10:F ratio for the Propellant Production Depot (PPD), the Cryogen Storage-Only Depot (CSOD)
requires a smaller quantity of propellant (the same amount of hydrogen, but less oxygen) to support the
same mission model. The corresponding mass of propellant for a 6:10:F ratio depot is calculated
using the formula:

M csoD = (6 parts 02 + 1 part H2)/(8 parts 02 + 1 part H2) x M ppD= 7/9 x 500,000 kg = 389,000 kg

In-orbit assembly requirements were considered concurrently with analyses of propellant tank size and
launch options. The Propellant Production Depot was baselined to use eight (8) tank-sets, each
S. Potter, et al. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

holding 50,000 kg of propellant, whereas the Cryogen Storage Only Depot was baselined to use two
(2) tank-sets, each holding 195,000 kg of propellant. Automated on-orbit assembly is assumed to be
required for the Propellant Production Depot, as its large systems cannot be launched together and
requirements for manned (EVA) assembly or telerobotic assembly would tend to make the systems
heavy and expensive. The assembly approach is one of automated docking of system elements, with
prescribed interfaces for power and fluid transfer between the various elements. The cryogenic
storage-only depot is compact enough that two tank-sets can be launched together as a unit; thus it
does not require assembly in orbit.

Propellant tank size was derived based upon the propellant quantity and diameter of available
cryogenic propellant tank tooling. In general, because the quantities of propellant are large, large
diameter tanks are desired to minimize surface area (heat influx) and mass. The Space Shuttle
External Tank (ET) diameter (8 meters) was considered, but the full ET volume was too large for this
application, and no practical way was evident to carry shorter ET-derived tanks into orbit. The 5 meter
(200 inch) diameter cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen tanks being developed for the Delta IV
expendable launch vehicle (ELV) was next in size, and could be launched directly into orbit (see
section 1.5). Corresponding propellant tank-set lengths of 12 meters for the Propellant Production
Depot, and 30 meters for the Cryogenic Storage-Only Depot were calculated based upon the required
propellant mass and volume requirements were calculated reserving some volume (5%) for ullage gas
and assuming reasonable separations between tanks.

Depot launches, carrying 5 meter diameter propellant tanks to orbit, were made feasible by using the
depot tanks to hold propellants for launch to the final orbit (where they arrive nearly empty). It is
assumed that, in the time frame of depot operations, a launch site will be available at the latitude
necessary for launching directly into the chosen depot orbit inclination. Depot tank-sets, with an
engine, launch in place of a standard Delta IV Heavy cryogenic upper stage. The payload volume,
above the full (upper stage) tank-set, is occupied by an additional (empty) tank-set. Other components
of the Propellant Production Depot launch using standard Delta IV Heavy ELVs. The total number of
launches required is seven. The Cryogenic Storage-Only Depot uses larger tanksets, but because there
are only two of them, it may be possible to place the entire depot into orbit in one launch, provided that
one (or both) of the two large tank-sets carries propellant for launch.

Orbit altitude was selected to be 400 km circular, based on a preliminary analysis that balanced
propellant requirements with atmospheric drag. The altitude is high enough that the Depot in the
absence of on-board propulsion, would not re-enter the atmosphere in less than two months, even in
the worst (2 sigma) case of solar activity (which increases the thickness of upper atmosphere). A
relatively low orbit altitude is desired to minimize the propellant used in OMV retrieval of water
payloads or in RLV transportation of cryogens directly from Earth to the Depot.

An Equatorial orbit inclination was baselined for both types of Depot because of inherent launch and
orbit transfer performance benefits, and other advantages. Equatorial orbit offers benefits for
conventional launch, from a launch facility on the Equator, including a slight decrease in energy
required to reach orbit, large expanses of ocean downrange (for range safety) and a launch opportunity
every orbit (about every 1.5 hours). For launch of water payloads using a rail-gun or gas-gun, along a
fixed track, an equatorial inclination is essential, as it allows transportation of sixteen payloads into
orbit every day (16/day), as opposed to one per day (1/day) for any other orbit inclination. For OTV
transportation between the Depot, in an equatorial inclination, and geostationary orbit (GEO, also in an
equatorial inclination) the delta V for GEO circularization is reduced substantially. (The required
S. Potter, et al. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

GEO circularization velocity for an OTV departing from a Depot at 0 degrees inclination is about 1
km/s less than that for an OTV departing from the ISS inclination of 51.6 degrees, or about 300 m/s
less than that for an OTV departing from 28.5 degrees).

Depot propulsion propellant requirements are relatively small, compared to the large masses of
propellant stored in the Depot for other uses. The LH2 and LOX stored on the depot can be used for
chemical propulsion in a periodic re-boost strategy. For the Propellant Production Depot, with plenty
of excess electrical power, continuous, low thrust solar electric propulsion (SEP) for drag make-up
would require even less propellant, in the form of xenon/krypton. Another alternative for this type of
depot would be to use the excess 02 as a cold-gas (or potentially, heated gas) propellant. In the case of
the Cryogen Storage-Only Depot, H2 is allowed to boil off, without active refrigeration, and this
excess gas can be used for cold-gas (or hot-gas) propulsion. Notably, the heat flux and H2 boiloff rate
is higher on the sunlit side of the orbit, when atmospheric drag is also higher, which is when
propulsion is needed.

Electrical power requirements were derived for the Propellant Production Depot considering that
roughly 500 metric tons of propellant would have to be processed per year. If the conversion process
were continuous, this rate would equate to 15.87 grams per second, however the system is simpler and
more efficient when electrical power is used for conversion only during the sunlit portion of the orbit.
The 400 km equatorial orbit is in sunlight 61.5% of the time, thus the system must convert water at a
rate of 25.8 grams per second while it is in sunlight (15.87 g/s / 0.615 = 25.8 g/s).

Power requirements for this process depend upon design details, but, for our design concept, they are
separable into the power requirements for electrolysis (482 kWe), for the hydrogen refrigerator's
compressor (55 kWe), and for the oxygen refrigerator's compressor (78 kWe). These major
contributors combine to form the basic electrical power requirement for propellant production (617
kWe). To account for power management and distribution losses, potential growth, and other systems
which will use relatively small power levels (communications and data handling, electric propulsion,
etc.) a margin of 15% was added, to reach a total power requirement of 708 kWe while the Propellant
Production Depot is in sunlight.

For the Cryogen Storage-Only Depot, the electrical power requirements are much lower. These
requirements depend upon design details, and were not assessed in detail.

Solar array area requirements for the Propellant Production Depot are estimated assuming that
NASA's SERT (Space Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology) program matures related
technology sufficiently that an efficiency of 40% will be possible by the year 2015, when the Depot is
launched. Considering a slight offset of array pointing, the area required to supply 708 kWe is
approximately 1,660 square meters. For the Cryogen Storage-Only Depot, we surmise that solar array
area requirements are small enough that body-mounted solar arrays will be sufficient to supply
electrical power for this type of depot.

For the Cryogen Storage-Only Depot, body-mounted solar arrays are integrated on the East- and West-
facing surfaces of selected rigid structures, and solar array orientation is determined by Depot
orientation. In equatorial orbit, the East-facing surface generates power for roughly 20 minutes at the
beginning of the orbit's passage into sunlight. Similarly, the West-facing surface generates power for
about 20 minutes towards the end of the orbit's passage through sunlight.
S. Potter, eta[. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

Depot orientation was selected through design trades to be fixed with respect to local vertical and the
local cardinal points (North South, East and West), using gravity gradient stabilization. The primary
reason for is that gravity gradient induced accelerations are sufficient to settle the propellants in large
diameter tanks at moderate distances from the center of mass.

Radiator area requirements were derived for the Propellant Production Depot based upon heat rejection
from the propellant production process and other heat generating sub-systems. To reject a total of 290
kWt in thermal energy, a radiator area of 1,560 square meters was needed, with both sides free to
radiate. Body-mounted arrays were selected to avoid the complexity of passing working fluids through
rotating joints, so only one side of each radiator was free to radiate, thus the area requirement doubled
(3,120 me).

Radiator orientation for the Propellant Production Depot, with body-mounted radiators, is on the
North- and South-facing surfaces, which never are exposed to direct sunlight at high angles of
incidence. In the selected Propellant Production Depot design concept, these surfaces offer a large area
for body-mounting. The radiators in this orientation also provide some added protection against orbital
debris penetration of the tankage.

Propellant launch system analyses included options to send a payload from Earth into a low altitude
orbit, and an Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle (OMV) to carry the launch system's payload from an initial
orbit to the Depot. A variety of water delivery methods are possible, depending on the time frame and
technology development level for the various systems. For the Propellant Production Depot, water
delivery systems could include reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) and gun launch methods (see Figure
2).

The RLV architecture

consists of eight steps
from beginning to end.
First the RLV delivers a
water- or ice-filled tank to
an orbit lower than the
Depot (nominally 200
km). At 200 km, an OMV
captures the RLV's
payload and then
maneuvers it to the
Propellant Depot. Water
is then transferred to
holding tanks on the
depot. The transferring
tank is returned to the
RLV or is de-orbited and
the RLV returns to its
Figure 2. Waterice launch architecture for Propellant Production
launch site. Water is then
Depot using RL V or Gun Launch
converted into LH2 and
LOX propellants, which are then transferred to OMVs and OTVs and. Finally, OMVs and OTVs
transfer to other destinations using this propellant.

6
S.Potter,
etal. ACryogenic
Propellant
Production
Depot
forLowEarth
Orbit

Using an RLV, it is anticipated that over 35,000 kg of water would be delivered per launch, requiring
roughly 15 launches per year to maintain a baseline propellant production rate of approximately
500,000 kg per year. The OMV propellant requirement is estimated to be 1,266 kg per round trip.
OMV propellant analysis by Craig Cruzen of NASA MSFC is included as an appendix to this report.
The RLV's large mass is not required to be transported to the Depot orbit and back, and there is no
requirement for RLV docking at the Depot.

The Gun-Launch Architecture will complete its mission in six steps. The gun delivers a water
projectile to orbit where and OMV captures the projectile and delivers it to the depot. Water is then
pulled from the projectile and cracked into LH2 and LOX propellants. Water projectile is then de-
orbited and propellants are transferred to OMVs and OTVs. The OMVs and OTVs then transfer to
other destinations.

Several gun launch concepts have been considered, including blast wave, "slingatron", and
electromagnetic methods. Each delivery method uses an ice filled projectile with a circularization
stage. The projectiles measure approximately lm in diameter by 10m in length and contain 250 kg to
500 kg of water-ice, which would require 1000-2000 launches per year (i.e., roughly 3-6 launches per
day), to meet the Depot's 500,000 kg per year requirement, excluding any propellant required for
OMV operations.

Each projectile is launched to a target orbit at 25 km to 75 km below the depot. It is required to have
on-board propulsion for an apogee burn to circularize the orbit altitude. A reusable OMV performs
rendezvous maneuvers to collect projectiles and deliver them to the depot. The water-ice in the
projectile is heated and pumped into storage tanks on the depot.

Six to nine OMVs are required to deliver 4 to 8 projectiles per day to the depot to maintain a 2000 kg
per day accumulation rate. About 25% of the water will be required for use as cryogenic propellants to
fuel the OMVs. The remaining 75% will be accumulated at the depot for cryogen production, storage,
and delivery to other vehicles.

SYSTEM DESIGNS

Platform Trade Studies

Several alternative concepts were considered for propellant settling, including rotating, solar inertial,
and gravity-gradient facilities. These general approaches are illustrated in Figure 3.

The rotating depot consists of two, three, or more tanks arranged in a spoke-like fashion that rotate
around a central hub to generate g-force through a centrifugal effect. It therefore does not need the
presence of a planetary gravitational field for propellant settling. However, it requires a de-spun
docking port.

The gravity gradient depot utilizes the change in a planet's gravity with altitude for stabilization and
propellant settling. As a gravity gradient oriented depot orbit rotates (once per orbit, while keeping the
same orientation with respect to the Earth) roughly one third of the "gravity gradient force" is actually
due to system rotation. Docking can take place at the ends or center.
S. Potter, ct al. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

A solar inertial depot maintains a fixed orientation with respect to the sun. Its advantage is that it does
not require alpha/beta joints for its solar arrays to track the sun. Its disadvantage is that it requires
zero-g cryogenic propellant acquisition, a technology that has been studied extensively, but has not yet
been demonstrated in space.

Rotating Depot Gravity Gradient Depot Solar Inertial

\ \.

.....

I ..J"

1
• Suitable for Deep Space • Any orbit • Sun Pointing
• Requires de-spun docking • Marginal settling for H2 • No alpha/beta joints
• Docking at Ends or Center • Requires zero-g
propellant acquisition
Figure 3. Several approaches were considered for cryogenic propellant settling.

Propellant Production Depot System Design Overview

The Propellant Production Depot system design configuration is illustrated in Figure 4. Its gravity
gradient configuration allows for propellant settling, while the in-line configuration minimizes drag.
Seven key subsystems are called out in this illustration. LOX/LH2 storage tank sets are mounted in
eight locations, and each contains docking port for Orbital Transfer Vehicle propellant transfer.
Radiators are mounted flush with the tanks, which also minimizes drag. The solar arrays rotate once
per orbit to track the sun. Two docking ports are provided for orbital maneuvering vehicles to transfer
water on the central structure, which also contains water storage tanks and an electrolysis system.

Because this Depot is assumed to become an operational in the year 2015, it is designed to use many of
the Space Solar Power technology advancements that are planned over the next decade. The system is
expected to utilize SSP-related advancements in the areas of solar power generation, power
management and distribution (PMAD), advanced structures, robotics, and propulsion. The power
system is sized with two large "abacus"-type arrays that produce over 700 kilowatts of power at 150
volts. As the arrays rotate with respect to the gravity-gradient-oriented part of the system, this power
is transferred across slip rings. Advanced inflatable structures are used on the solar array and
advanced composites are used in other supporting structures. Robotic operations are anticipated for
assembly, vehicle docking, propellant transfer, and maintenance functions. Solar-electric propulsion
and control moment gyros are shown as the choices for controlling the altitude and attitude of the
Propellant Production Depot. The total dry mass of the Propellant Production Depot using the
technologies considered here is about 69 metric tonnes, as shown in Table 1. Many of these subsystem
technology choices could be revisited in further study.
S. Potter, et al. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

1. LOX/LH2 Storage Tank

2. Transfer Vehicle Docki

3. Radiators

4. Solar Arrays

5. Water Docking Port

6. Water Storage Tanks

7. Electrolysis System

Figure 4. The Propellant Production Depot design includes seven key subsystems.

System Element Mass (MT) Comments

Electrolysis Conversion Devices, Structure; Input Power = 706 kWe

Storage (H20 tanks) 9.001
Conversion 4.593
Radiators 1.534
Cryocooler 1.693
Structure 0.508
Add'l Structure Allowance 0.520 Allowance = 3%
Solar Conversion SLA
Solar Concentrators/Arrays 0.562 Unit Height= 3 m, Width = 10 m, Mass = 0.012 MT, Power= 0.016 MW
Add'l Structure Allowance 0.017 Allowance = 3%
Telecomm & Command 0.338 One set per solar array node (8 sets)
Add'l Structure Allowance 0.010 Allowance = 3%
LOX/LH2 Tanks 18.64 8 LOX/LH2 tanks
Insulation, structure, etc. 8.000 Tank skirts, intertank, vapor-cooled shield, insulation
Integrating Structure 4.790 Abacus, Prop & H20 Tank Structures
PMAD Cabling & Power Conversion, SPG Power = 706 kWe; Advanced PMAD
Cabling 2.203 Total Length = 3 km @ 0.881 kg/m, Voltage = 0.15 kV
Array Converter Mass 1.011 Mass based on 48 Switches (150 V to 0.15 kV), 0.016 MW Power Out
Electrolysis PMAD Mass 5.503 Mass Includes Voltage Converters, Switches, Harness & PMAD Thermal
Rotary Joints, Switches, Etc. 0.357 Scaled from 79 SPS Study
Attitude Control/Pointing Sensors, Computers, Control Effectors
Dry Mass 0.701 Thrusters, CMG's, Sensors etc.
Propellant 0.516 10 years, Krypton
Robotics 1.900 7 units @ 200 each, 500 kg infrastructure
Add'l Structure Allowance 0.021 Allowance = 3%
Docking Ports & Structure 6.405
Add'l Structure Allowance 0.192

Satellite Mass (MT) 69.015 Without H20 or LOX/LH2

Table 1. Propellant Production Depot Mass Estimate.

S. Potter, et al. A Cryogenic Propellant Production Depot for Low Earth Orbit

CONCLUSIONS

Technology developed for space solar power can enable efficient cryogenic propellant production from
H20, and can pave the way toward further robotic and human exploration and development of space.
Production of cryogenic propellant from H20 in Earth orbit avoids volume and safety issues related to
containment of cryogens during launch and it allows high acceleration of payload (H20/ice) during
launch. Major components of a cryogenic propellant Depot, such as tanks, can be based on existing
technology and launched using vehicles that will become available within the next few years.

In the nearer term, flight experiments can be performed on "expended" cryogenic upper stages, on the
International Space Station, and/or on the Space Shuttle. This can be followed by deployment of a
sub-scale storage only Depot in LEO.

In the longer term, cryogenic propellant production technology can be applied to a larger LEO Depot,
and potentially, to the use of lunar water resources at a similar Depot elsewhere (on the Moon, in lunar
orbit, or at an Earth-Moon LaGrange point).

REFERENCES

Kessler, T.L., P. Frye, and R. Patch, Solar Thermal OTV-Applications to Reusable and Expandable
Launch Vehicles, 50 th International Astronautical Congress, Oct. 4-8, 1999, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands.

Kohout, Lisa L. Cryogenic Reactant Storage for Lunar Base Regenerative Fuel Cells. Presented at the
International Conference on Space Power sponsored by the Intenaational Astronautical Federation,
Cleveland, OH, June 5-7, 1989.

Schuster, J. R., F.O. Bennett, M.W. Liggett, C.N. Torre, N.S. Brown, Evaluation of On-Orbit
Cryogenic Propellant Depot Options for the Orbital Transfer Vehicle. Presented at the 6 th Cryogenics
Symposium AIChE Annual Meeting, Miami Beach, Florida, Nov3-7, 1986.

Schuster, J.R., et al. Long Term Orbital Storage of Cryogenic Propellants for Advanced Space
Transportation Missions. Presented at the 20 th IEEE Annual Electronics and Aerospace Systems
Conference, Washington, D.C., October 14-16, 1987.

Schuster, J.R., T.J Alton, N.S Brown, and U. Heuter, Evaluation of Cryogenic System Test Options for
the OTV On-Orbit Propellant Depot, Paper AIAA-87-1498. Presented at the AIAA 22 nJ
Thermophysics Conference, Honolulu Hawaii, 1987.

Schuster, John R., et al. Orbital Cryogenic Depot for Support of Space Transfer Vehicle Operations.
Presented at the 39 th Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, Bangalore, India, Oct 8-
15, 1988.

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