Introduction

Living things use lots of different strategies for producing offspring, but most strategies
fall neatly into the categories of either sexual or asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction
generates offspring that are genetically identical to a single parent. In sexual reproduction, two
parents contribute genetic information to produce unique offspring. In this report, we aim to
distinguish sexual and asexual reproduction of some plants and animals, determine their
structures that can be used for asexual reproduction, identify other plants that have vegetative
parts that can be used for propagation and ways by which plants reproduced asexually.

Asexual And Sexual Reproduction of Plants and Animals

Asexual Reproduction of Plants

Most plants reproduce sexually from seeds, but some can be reproduced (or multiplied) by
vegetative parts such as stems, roots, and leaves in a method called vegetative propagation.
This exercise aims to distinguish the vegetative outgrowth of a plant, determine whether the
outgrowth is a stem or root and classify it as axillary or terminal.

Rhizome
A rhizome is a thick horizontally growing stem which usually stores food material. It has nodes
and internodes, scale leaves, axillary buds, adventitous roots and a terminal bud. Scale leaves enclosing
the axillary buds are seen arising from the nodal points of the stem. Some of the axillary buds develop
into branches which grow upwards into the air and then produce normal green foliage leaves. Usually
the growing points of the rhizome continue to remain underground causing an elongation of the
rhizome. Roots develop from the lower surface of the rhizome.
The Rhizomes consists of many key parts to their structure including nodes, antinodes, scale
leaves, axillary buds as well as adventituous roots, which provide it support. (3) The asexual
reproduction of rhizomes is very unique. It occurs when the scale leaves are seen rising from the nodal
points of the plant and eventually the axillary buds develop and grow into branches that spread out of
the ground and create leaves. (3)The rhizomes continue to grow underground and strengthen the root
of the newly created individual.
Potato Tubers

In late summer, underground leafless stems called rhizomes penetrate the upper layers of soil
around the base of the original plant. In fall, the tips of the rhizomes enlarge to form a swollen
object called a tuber.

Since this is a stem tip, it is not a surprise that it has an apical and many axillary buds all over its
surface. These are called "eyes" in common language. Each one of these buds can develop into a
new plant next year. In fact a whole row of potato plants can be started from just one good tuber.

A potato can be grown on its own when stem branches grow and reach into the ground, swelling
up with starch containing cells. Buds on the tubers will eventually grow into new plants. If the budding
also known as the eyes on the potato keep growing, they may even be able to create a separate potato
if given the chance due to the growth and characteristic that it can store energy.
Tuber is a swollen end of an underground branch which arises from the axil of a lower leaf.
These underground branches grow horizontally outwards in the soil. Each tuber is irregular in shape due
to the deposition of food materials (starch). On the surface of each tuber many leaf scars are seen.
These leaf scars are the impressions of fallen scale leaves. Each such leaf scar encloses an axillary bud. A
leaf scar with an axillary bud is called an eye. These eyes of potato are capable of producing new plants
by vegetative propagation

The “eyes” on a tuber consist of a tiny leaf and a bud, which can sprout into a new plant.

Katakataka Leaves
The kataka-taka plant propagate by their leaves. Plantlets are formed when there are
miniature plants established on the margin of the leaves. Eventually these leaves break off, fall to
the ground and continue growing on their own. The growing success occurs due to sunlight, rich
soil and water, and eventually the newly created individual resembles the appearance of the
mother parent.

Corms
Corms are short, rounded stems with buds located at the top. Corms are very similar to
bulbs in appearance but the only difference is that they
do not have storage leaves. Instead they have short and swollen stems, which store
energy for the plant. Similarly the stem continues to grow and create a clone of the parent.

Bulb
The stem is shortened down to a disc, often called the basal plate from which roots arise around the
edge. The leaf bases are attached to the upper surface of the stem. The axillary buds always found at
the node (where the leaves attach) can develop into new bulbs in subsequent years.
Each bulb has a stem, surrounded with leaves. In the spring time, the shoot apex begins to
grow utilizing the nutrients and energy stored in the leaves. When the onion has contained the
necessary nutrients from the parent, it slowly grows away from the parent and splits. Eventually
the newly created onion becomes an individual.
At the base of the bulb, a modified stem can be seen. Roots grow from the underside of
the base while the new stems and leaves arise from the upper side of the base.
Bulb and bulblet- onion (Allium cepa) and other members of the Lily family, tulip (Tulipa spp.)

Clove- garlic (Allium sativum)

Corm and cormel- Canna spp., gabi or taro (Colocasia esculentum), elephant’s ear (Alocasia
macorrhiza), gladiolus (Gladiolus sp.), tannia (Xanthosoma sagitifolium)

Plantlet or keiki- Anthurium spp., Phalaenopsis orchid, spider plant (Chlorophytum capense)

Advantages for the plant of asexual reproduction:

 only one parent plant is required

 young plants are identical to the parent, so that good features will always be passed on

Advantages for the plant of sexual reproduction:

 characteristics are inherited from two parents - this produces variation in the offspring;
 this gives a good chance of at least a few surviving diseases, changes of climate, etc.

Rhizome- bamboo, begonia (Begonia spp.), calla lily (Zantedeschia sp), ginger (Zingiber
officinale), turmeric (Curcuma longa)

Runner- spider plant (Chlorophytum capense), strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa)

Slip- pineapple (Ananas comosus) and other members of the Bromyliad family

Sucker- abaca
(Musa textile),
banana (Musa
spp.),
pineapple and other bromyliads

Stolon- bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), mint (Mentha spp.), Stachys spp., strawberry
geranium (Saxifraga stolonifera), zoysia grass (Zoysia spp)

Tuber and Tubercle- Potato (Solanum tuberosum), Caladium spp., Calathea spp., Helianthus
spp., yams (Dioscorea spp.)

Tuberous root- arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), cassava (Manihot esculenta), Nelumbo spp.,
sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), yam bean (Pacchirhizus erosus).

Vegetative reproduction
is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It does not involve flowers, pollination and seed
production. Instead, a new plant grows from a vegetative part, usually a stem, of the parent plant.
However, plants which reproduce asexually almost always reproduce sexually as well, bearing
flowers, fruits and seeds. Vegetative reproduction from a stem usually involves the buds. Instead
of producing a branch, the bud grows into a complete plant which eventually becomes self-
supporting. Since no gametes are involved, the plants produced asexually have identical genomes
and the offspring form what is known as a clone. In some cases of vegetative reproduction, the
structures involved also become storage organs and swell with stored food, e.g. potatoes.

The principal types of vegetative reproduction structures are bulbs, corms, rhizomes and runners.

Bulbs

Bulbs consist of very short stems with closely packed leaves arranged in concentric circles round
the stem. These leaves are swollen with stored food e.g. onion. A terminal bud will produce next
year’s flowering shoot and the lateral (axillary) buds will produce new plants.

Corms

Corms also have a short stem but in this case it is the stem itself which swells and stores food.
The circular leaves form only papery scales. As with bulbs, the terminal bud grows into a
flowering shoot and the lateral buds produce new plants.

Rhizomes
Rhizomes are stems which grow horizontally under the ground. In some cases the underground
stems are swollen with food reserves e.g. iris. The terminal bud turns upwards to produce the
flowering shoot and the lateral buds may grow out to form new rhizomes.

Runners

Runners are also horizontal stems growing from the parent plant, but they grow above ground.
When their terminal buds touch the ground they take root and produce new plants.

Advantages of vegetative reproduction

Since food stores are available throughout the year and the parent plant with its root system can
absorb water from quite a wide area, two of the hazards of seed germination are reduced. Buds
are produced in an environment where the parent is able to flourish, but many seeds dispersed
from plants never reach a suitable situation for effective germination.

Vegetative reproduction does not usually result in rapid and widespread distribution of offspring
in the same way as seed dispersal, but tends to produce a dense clump of plants with little room
for competitors between them. Such groups of plants are very persistent and, because of their
buds and underground food stores, can still grow after their foliage has been destroyed by
insects, fire, or cultivation. Those of them regarded as weeds are difficult to eradicate, since even
a small piece of rhizome bearing a bud can give rise to a new colony (clone).

Bulbs - Snowdrop

In the snowdrop and daffodil, the bulb is formed by the leaf bases which completely encircle the
short, conical stem. The part of the leaf above ground makes food by photosynthesis and sends it
to the leaf bases which swell as they store the food. In the following year the stored food is used
for the early growth of the bulb.

Life cycle of Daffodil

In the spring, adventitious roots grow out of the stem, and the leaves begins to grow above
ground, making use of the stored food in the fleshy leaf bases which consequently shrivel.
During late spring some of the food made in the leaves in the daffodil is sent to the leaf bases
which swell and form a new bulb inside the old one.

Life cycle of Tulip and Onion

In these bulbs, the food is not sent to the leaf bases but to the lateral buds. As these buds enlarge
they form two or more ‘daughter’ bulbs inside the old bulb. The leaves of the old bulb shrivel
and dry out forming the dry scales which surround the daughter bulbs. In both cases, when the
daughter bulbs grow, they form a clump, together with the parent bulb.

Corms - Crocus
Plants with bulbs store food in special leaves or leaf bases. Plants with corms store food in the
stem, which is very short and swollen. When the foliage has died off, the leaf bases, where they
encircle the short stem, form protective scaly coverings. A familiar corms is that of the crocus,
and the wild arum corm is illustrated on p.1. Since the corm is a stem, it has lateral buds which
can grow into new plants. The stem remains below ground all its life, only the leaves and flower
stalk coming above ground.

Life Cycle of Corm

In Spring, the food stored in the corm enables the terminal bud to grow rapidly and produce
leaves and flowers above ground. Later in the year, food made by the leaves is sent back, not to
the old corm, but to the base of the stem immediately above it. This region swells and forms a
new corm on top of the old, now shrivelled, corm. Some of the lateral buds on the old corm have
also grown and produced new plants with corms.

Contractile Roots
The formation of one corm on top of another tends to bring the successive corms nearer and
nearer to the soil surface. Adventitious roots develop from the base of the new corm. Once these
have grown firmly into the soil, a region near their junction with the stem contracts and pulls the
new corm down, keeping it at a constant level in the soil. Wrinkles can be seen on these
contractile roots where shrinkage has taken place. Bulbs also have contractile roots which
counteract the tendency in successive generations to grow out of the soil.

Rhizomes

In plants with rhizomes, the stem remains below ground but continues to grow horizontally. The
old part of the stem does not die away as in bulbs and corms, but lasts for several years. In the
iris, the terminal bud turns up and produces leaves and flowers above ground. The old leaf bases
form circular scales round the rhizome, which is swollen with food reserves. Lateral buds grow
into new rhizomes.

Life Cycle of Rhizome

The annual cycle of a rhizome is similar to that of a corm. In late spring/early summer, food from
the leaves passes back to the rhizome, and a lateral bud uses it, grows horizontally underground,
and so continues the rhizome. Other lateral buds produce new rhizomes which branch from the
parent stem. The terminal buds of these branches curve upwards and produce new leafy shoots
and flowers. Contractile, adventitious roots grow from the nodes of the underground stem and
keep it at a constant depth.

Runners
Plants such as the strawberry have a very short stem, called a rootstock, with thin scale leaves,.
Foliage leaves and flowers grow from the buds in the axils of the scale leaves. Some of the lower
buds produce shoots which grow horizontally over the surface of the ground and bear scale
leaves and buds. The terminal buds of these runners turn up and produce daughter plants some
distance away from the parent, the new plants developing adventitious roots. Later, the runner
shrivels away. The runner does not store food but conducts it from the parent plant to the
daughters, until they are well developed.

Stem tubers - potato

In the potato plant, lateral buds at the base of the stem produce shoots which grow laterally at
first and then down into the ground. These are comparable to rhizomes, as they are underground
stems with tiny scale leaves and lateral buds. They do not swell evenly along their length with
stored food.

Annual cycle - potato

Food made in the leaves passes to the ends of these rhizomes, which swell and form the tubers
we call potatoes. Since the potato tuber is a stem, it has leaves and lateral buds; these are the
familiar ‘eyes’. Each one of these can produce a new shoot in the following year, using the food
stored in the tuber. The old tubers shrivel and rot away at the end of the season

Stolons
Blackberry stems form a rather different type of runner in which the main shoot forms the new
individual. When the growing end of a shoot arches over and touches the ground, the terminal
bud curves up, producing a new shoot which soon develops adventitious roots.

Grafting
A bud or shoot from one plant is inserted into a cleft or under the bark on the stem of a closely
related variety. The rooted portion is called the stock; the bud or shoot being grafted is the scion.
The stock is obtained by growing a plant from seed then cutting away the shoot. The scion is a
branch or a bud cut from a cultivated variety with the required characteristics of flower colour,
fruit quality, etc.
Rose plants grown from seed would produce a wide variety of plants, only a few of which would
retain all the desirable features of the parent plant. Most of them would be like wild roses.
Similarly, most of the apple trees grown from seed would bear only small, sour ‘crab-apples'. By
taking cuttings and making grafts, the inbred characteristics of the plant are preserved and you
can guarantee that all the new individuals produced by this kind of artificial propagation will be
the same.

Cuttings
It is possible to produce new individuals from certain plants by putting the cut end of a shoot into
water or moist earth. Roots grow from the base of the stem into the soil while the shoot continues
to grow and produce leaves.

In some cases the cut end of the stem may be treated with a rooting 'hormone' to promote root
growth. Evaporation from the shoot is reduced by covering it with polythene or a glass jar.
Carnations, geraniums and chrysanthemums are commonly propagated from cuttings.

Tissue culture
Once a cell has become part of a tissue it usually loses the ability to reproduce. However, the
nucleus of any plant cell still holds all the 'instructions' (genes) for making a complete plant and
in certain circumstances they can be brought back into action. In laboratory conditions single
plant cells can be induced to divide and grow into complete plants. One technique is to take a
small piece of plant tissue from a root or stem and treat it with enzymes to separate it into
individual cells The cells are then provided with particular plant 'hormones’ which induce cell
division and, eventually the formation of roots, stems and leaves.

An alternative method is to start with a small piece of tissue and place it on a nutrient jelly
(agar). Cells in the tissue start to divide and produce many cells forming a shapeless mass called
a callus. If the callus is then provided with the appropriate ‘hormones’ it develops into a
complete plant.