5.3.2.3.

4 Unit: Hydrostatic pressure forces on planar and

curved surfaces

5.3.2.3.4.1 Unit Overview

Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces

Description of force in terms of
(a) magnitude of the force
(b) direction of the force
(c) line of action of the force
Centre of pressure (C.P.): The line of action of the resultant pressure force has its
piercing point in the surface at a point called centre of pressure, with
coordinates ( x p , y p ) .
Hydrostatic forces on horizontal surfaces:

Let us consider force on the upper surface of the plate. If γ is not a variable of depth
p gauge = γ h

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 r r
dF = − p gauge dA
Total force acting on the horizontal surface due to gauge pressure:
r r
F = − ∫ p gauge dA
A
Area can be represented in terms of the coordinate axis as
r
dA = dA kˆ z
Thus total force
r  
F =  − ∫ p gauge dAz kˆ
 A 
Or,
r  
F =  − ∫ p gauge dAz kˆ
 A 
 
=  − p gauge ∫ dAz kˆ
 A 
= (− p gauge A)kˆ
Equating moments about y-axis:
( p gauge A)x p = ∫ xp gauge dAz
A

∫ xp gauge dAz
1
A ∫A
= = xdAz = xC .G .
(p gauge A)
A
Or, x p

Similarly, equating moments about x-axis:

( p gauge A)y p = ∫ yp gauge dAz
A

∫ yp gauge dAz
1
A ∫A
= = ydAz = yC .G .
(p A)
A
Or, y p
gauge

Description of force:
(a) Magnitude is equal to p gauge A .
(b) Vertically downward.
(c) Line of action is passing through C.G.

Hydrostatic forces on inclined surfaces:

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Let us consider forces on the surface of the plate. If γ is not a variable of depth
p gauge = γ h = γy sin θ
r r
dF = − p gauge dA
Total force acting on the
inclined surface due to gauge
pressure:
r r
F = − ∫ p gauge dA
A
Area can be represented in
terms of the coordinate axis
as
r
dA = dA kˆ z
Thus total force
r  
F =  − ∫ p gauge dAz kˆ
 A 
Or,
r  
F =  − ∫ p gauge dAz kˆ
 A 
 
=  − ∫ γ y sin θ dAz kˆ
 A 
 
=  − γ sin θ ∫ y dAz kˆ
 A 
= (− γ sin θ y A)kˆ C .G .

= (− γ hC .G . A)kˆ
= (− p A)kˆ
C .G .
r
If the position vector of centre of pressure from origin is designated as rp then
Taking moment about origin o:

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r r r r
rp × F = ∫ r × dF
r r
= − ∫ r × p gauge dA
A
Referring to the coordinate
system
r
rp = x p iˆ + y p ˆj
and
r
r = x iˆ + y ˆj
Substituting different values:
( ) (
x p iˆ + y p ˆj × − p C .G . A kˆ )
( ) (
= − ∫ xiˆ + yˆj × p gauge dAz kˆ )
A

Using relationships iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj
and ˆj × kˆ = iˆ :
( pC .G. A )(− x p ˆj + y p iˆ)
( )
= ∫ − xˆj + yiˆ × ( p gauge dAz )
A

Thus x p can be calculated as:

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pC .G . A ∫A
xp = xp gauge dAz

I xy
x(γy sin θ )dAz =
1 1
= ∫
γy C .G. sin θA A ∫
yC .G . A A
xydAz =
y C .G . A
1 1 I xx
A∫ A∫
Similarly for y p : y p = yp gauge dAz = y 2
dAz =
pC .G . A
yC .G . A
y C .G . A
Using parallel axis theorem, I xy = I xy ,c + AxC .G . y C .G . and I xx = I xx ,c + AyC2 .G . , where I xy ,c
and I xx ,c are second moments about the centroidal axes:
I xy ,c I xx ,c
xp = + xC .G . , y p = + yC .G .
y C .G . A y C .G . A
Description of force:
(a) Magnitude is equal to pC .G . A .
(b) Normal to the surface
(c) ( x p , y p ) is the centre of pressure.
Observation:
I xx ,c
y p − yC .G . = >0
y C .G . A
or , y p > yC .G .
Centre of pressure is always below the centroid of the surface.

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Hydrostatic forces on submerged curved surfaces:
Let us consider forces on the upper surface of the plate. If γ is not a variable of depth
p gauge = γ h
r r
dF = − p gauge dA
Total force acting the upper
surface due to gauge pressure:
r r
F = − ∫ γ hdA
A
Orientation of the curved surface is
such that there is no projected area
in the x-direction. If dAy and dAz
are projected areas in the y and z
direction respectively
r
dA = −dA ˆj + dA kˆ
y z

Thus the force can be expressed as

r
(
F = − ∫ γ h − dAy ˆj + dAz kˆ )
A

   
=  ∫ γ hdAy  ˆj −  ∫ γ hdAz kˆ
A  A 
= Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ
Vertical force on the curved
surface:
 
Fz = − ∫ γ hdAz 
A 
 
= − γ ∫ hdAz 
 A 
hdAz → volume d∀ of the liquid
prism which stands vertically on
the area element and extends up to free surface.
The integral then represents the total volume ∀ of the vertical prism bounded on one side
by the curved surface and on the other by the free surface.
Fz = −γ∀
Negative sign represents the fact that Fz acts downward.
Similarly for horizontal force on the curved surface:
Fy = ∫ γ hdAy = γ ∫ hdAy
A A

By multiplying and dividing it by the total projected area Ay . Then

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 ∫ hdAy
Fy = γ A
Ay = γhC .G . Ay
Ay
Horizontal component of the pressure
force on a surface equals the product
of the horizontal projected area and
pressure at the centroid of that area.
Point of application of the resultant
horizontal force cannot be at the
centorid of the projected area, but
below it.

5.3.2.3.4.3 Unit Objectives

Objective 1

To define centre of pressure (C.P.) and to demonstrate that C.P. is always

at/below the centre of gravity (C.G.).

5.3.2.3.5 Unit: Archimedes principle and buoyancy; Stability of

submerged/floating bodies

5.3.2.3.5.1 Unit Overview

Buoyant Force

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The resultant force exerted on a body by a static fluid in which it is submerged or floating
is called buoyant force. Centre of buoyancy (C.B.) coincides with the centre of mass of
the displaced volume of fluid. Buoyant force always acts vertically upward.

FB = Upward force on the lower surface – Downward force on the upper surface
= γ × Volume ABCFE - γ × Volume ADCFE
= γ × (Volume ABCD)
= γ ×(Volume of solid body)

Buoyancy force does not depend on the depth of submergence provided density is
assumed constant.

Stability of Immersed and Floating bodies:

A body is said to be in a (statically) stable equilibrium position if, when displaced, it
returns to its equilibrium position. A small rotation can result in either a restoring or
overturning couple.

Immersed Bodies
When a body is completely immersed in a fluid, its stability depends on the relative
positions of the center of gravity (C.G.) of the body and the centroid of the displaced
volume of fluid, which is called the center of buoyancy (C.B.).

If the center of buoyancy (C.B.) is above the center of gravity (C.G.), any tipping of the
body produces a restoring couple, and consequently, the body is stable.

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If the center of gravity (C.G.) is above the center of buoyancy (C.B.), any tipping
produces an increasing overturning moment, thus causing the body to turn through 180°.

Finally, if the center of buoyancy (C.B.) and center of gravity (C.G.) are coincident, the
body is neutrally stable—that is, it lacks a tendency for restoring or for overturning.

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Floating Bodies
If a body is partially submerged, and is floating at the interface of a fluid, such a strict
requirement on the locations of C.G. and C.B. is not necessary. In such cases, under
certain conditions, there may be stability even when C.G. is above C.B.

Let us consider a cross-section of a body as shown. In this case, centre of gravity (G) is
above the centre of buoyancy (B´). It may appear that the body is unstable and could flip
over. If the body tilts to the right, centre of gravity (G) is in the same position, but
displace fluid volume is not symmetrical and centre of buoyancy (B) is no longer in the
plane of symmetry, thus producing a restoring moment. A body having such
characteristics is stable.

The point of intersection of the lines of action of the buoyant force before and after tilt is
called the metacentre (M), and the distance MG is called metacentric height. If MG is
positive, i.e., if M is above G, body is stable; however if MG is negative, the body is
unstable. Consider a body which has taken a small tilt angle θ.

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The lateral shift, y B , in the centre of buoyancy may be visualized as that caused by an
additional weight of water wedge OPQ acting upward, and the weight of the water wedge
ORS acting downwards- this representing loss of buoyancy. Thus, new centre of
buoyancy is the point where the net moment because of buoyancy force and the couple
acting at the ‘wedges’ OPQ and ORS is zero. Taking moment about point B´:
 
FB cos θ y B = ∫ y γ y tan θ dAz  = γ tan θ ∫ y 2 dAz = γ tan θ I xx
A 
 14243 
d∀  A

Where d∀ is the elemental volume, I xx is the second moment of the waterline area
about the axis of tilt. Again,
y B = MB ′ tan θ
Therefore,
γ I xx γ I xx
MB ′ = ≈ (for small value of θ , cos θ = 1 )
FB cos θ FB
Geometrically, MG = MB ′ − GB ′
γ I xx
MG = − GB ′
FB
Alternative Derivation:

Displaced volume of fluid is represented as ∀ . Taking moment about the plane of

symmetry (x-z plane):
y B ∀ = moment of ∀ before tilt − moment of ∀ ORS + moment of ∀ OPQ
Because the original buoyant volume is symmetrical with x-z plane, the moment for the
first term on the right is zero.
y B ∀ = ∫ y d∀ − ∫ y d∀ + ∫ y d∀
RoPTS ORS OPQ

Or,
yB∀ = 0 − ∫ y (− y tan θ dA ) + ∫ y ( y tan θ dA )
ORS
z
OPQ
z

Or,

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 y B ∀ = tan θ ∫y
2
dAz = tan θ I xx
water line

Again,
y B = MB ′ tan θ
Therefore,
I xx
MB ′ =
∀
Geometrically, MG = MB ′ − GB ′
I xx
MG = − GB ′
∀

It is clear from the obtained expression that the lesser the value of second moment, the
more unstable is the body. Therefore, stability needs to be investigated about the longest
axis of the body.

Conditions for stability:

Condition Relative positions of G and M Type of equilibrium
MG > 0 M is above G Stable
MG = 0 M is coinciding with G Neutral
MG < 0 M is below G Unstable

5.3.2.3.5.3 Unit Objectives

Objective 1

• To state Archimedes’ principle.

• To define buoyant force and its line of action.
• To state the stability conditions for submerged bodies, i.e.,
stable/unstable/neutral equilibrium.
• To derive the stability relationship for floating bodies in terms of
metacentric height.

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