Fayum mummy portraits

Mummy portraits or Fayum mummy portraits (also Faiyum mummy portraits) is the modern
term given to a type of naturalistic painted portrait on wooden boards attached
to Egyptian mummies from Roman Egypt. They belong to the tradition of panel painting, one of the
most highly regarded forms of art in the Classical world. In fact, the Fayum portraits are the only
large body of art from that tradition to have survived.
Mummy portraits have been found across Egypt, but are most common in the Faiyum Basin,
particularly from Hawara in the Fayum Basin (hence the common name) and
the Hadrianic Roman city Antinoopolis. "Faiyum Portraits" is generally thought of as a stylistic, rather
than a geographic, description. While painted cartonnage mummy cases date back to pharaonic
times, the Faiyum mummy portraits were an innovation dating to the Coptic period at the time of
the Roman occupation of Egypt.[1]
The portraits date to the Imperial Roman era, from the late 1st century BC or the early 1st century
AD onwards. It is not clear when their production ended, but recent research suggests the middle of
the 3rd century. They are among the largest groups among the very few survivors of the highly
prestigious panel painting tradition of the classical world, which was continued into Byzantine and
Western traditions in the post-classical world, including the local tradition of Coptic iconography in
Egypt.
The portraits covered the faces of bodies that were mummified for burial. Extant examples indicate
that they were mounted into the bands of cloth that were used to wrap the bodies. Almost all have
now been detached from the mummies.[2] They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or
head and upper chest, viewed frontally. In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more
from Greco-Roman artistic traditions than Egyptian ones.[3]
Two groups of portraits can be distinguished by technique: one of encaustic (wax) paintings, the
other in tempera. The former are usually of higher quality.
About 900 mummy portraits are known at present.[4] The majority were found in the necropoleis of
Faiyum. Due to the hot dry Egyptian climate, the paintings are frequently very well preserved, often
retaining their brilliant colours seemingly unfaded by

History of research[edit]
Fanciful but inauthentic depiction of the mummies' discovery by Pietro Della Valle

Pre-19th century[edit]
The Italian explorer Pietro della Valle, on a visit to Saqqara-Memphis in 1615, was the first European
to discover and describe mummy portraits. He transported some mummies with portraits to Europe,
which are now in the Albertinum (Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden).[5]

19th century collectors[edit]

Although interest in Ancient Egypt steadily increased after that period, further finds of mummy
portraits did not become known before the early 19th century. The provenance of these first new
finds is unclear; they may come from Saqqara as well, or perhaps from Thebes. In 1820, the Baron
of Minotuli acquired several mummy portraits for a German collector, but they became part of a
whole shipload of Egyptian artifacts lost in the North Sea. In 1827, Léon de Laborde brought two
portraits, supposedly found in Memphis, to Europe, one of which can today be seen at the Louvre,
the other in the British Museum. Ippolito Rosellini, a member of Jean-François Champollion's
1828/29 expedition to Egypt, brought a further portrait back to Florence. It is so similar to de
Laborde's specimens that it is thought to be from the same source.[5] During the 1820s, the
British Consul General to Egypt, Henry Salt, sent several further portraits to Paris and London.
Some of them were long considered portraits of the family of the Theban Archon Pollios Soter, a
historical character known from written sources, but this has turned out to be incorrect.[5]
Once again, a long period elapsed before more mummy portraits came to light. In 1887, Daniel
Marie Fouquet heard of the discovery of numerous portrait mummies in a cave. He set off to inspect
them some days later, but arrived too late, as the finders had used the painted plaques for firewood
during the three previous cold desert nights. Fouquet acquired the remaining two of what had
originally been fifty portraits. While the exact location of this find is unclear, the likely source is from
er-Rubayat.[5] At that location, not long after Fouquet's visit, the Viennese art trader Theodor Graf
found several further images, which he tried to sell as profitably as possible. He engaged the
famous Leipzig-based Egyptologist Georg Ebers to publish his finds. He produced presentation
folders to advertise his individual finds throughout Europe. Although little was known about their
archaeological find contexts, Graf went as far as to ascribe the portraits to
known Ptolemaic pharaohs by analogy with other works of art, mainly coin portraits. None of these
associations were particularly well argued or convincing, but they gained him much attention, not
least because he gained the support of well-known scholars like Rudolf Virchow. As a result,
mummy portraits became the centre of much attention.[6] By the late 19th century, their very specific
aesthetic made them sought-after collection pieces, distributed by the global arts trade.
Archaeological study: Flinders Petrie[edit]

Detail of a portrait within its mummy wrappings, Metropolitan Museum of Art, discovered by Flinders Petrie in
1911.

In parallel, more scientific engagement with the portraits was beginning. In 1887, the British
archaeologist Flinders Petrie started excavationsat Hawara. He discovered a
Roman necropolis which yielded 81 portrait mummies in the first year of excavation. At an exhibition
in London, these portraits drew large crowds. In the following year, Petrie continued excavations at
the same location but now suffered from the competition of a German and an Egyptian art dealer.
Petrie returned in the winter of 1910/11 and excavated a further 70 portrait mummies, some of them
quite badly preserved.[7] With very few exceptions, Petrie's studies still provide the only examples of
mummy portraits so far found as the result of systematic excavation and published properly.
Although the published studies are not entirely up to modern standards, they remain the most
important source for the find contexts of portrait mummies.

Late 19th and early 20th century collectors[edit]

In 1892, the German archaeologist von Kaufmann discovered the so-called "Tomb of Aline", which
held three mummy portraits; among the most famous today. Other important sources of such finds
are at Antinopolis and Akhmim. The French archaeologist Albert Gayet worked at Antinoopolis and
found much relevant material, but his work, like that of many of his contemporaries, does not satisfy
modern standards. His documentation is incomplete, many of his finds remain without context.

Museums[edit]
Today, mummy portraits are represented in all important archaeological museums of the world.
Many have fine examples on display, notably the British Museum, the National Museum of Scotland,
the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Louvre in Paris.[8] Because they were mostly
recovered through inappropriate and unprofessional means, virtually all are without archaeological
context, a fact which consistently lowers the quality of archaeological and culture-historical
information they provide. As a result, their overall significance as well as their specific interpretations
remain controversial.[8]

Materials and techniques[edit]

A majority of images show a formal portrait of a single figure, facing and looking toward the viewer,
from an angle that is usually slightly turned from full face. The figures are presented as busts against
a monochrome background which in some instances are decorated. The individuals are both male
and female and range in age from childhood to old age.

Painted surface[edit]

Portrait of a boy, identified by inscription as Eutyches, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The majority of preserved mummy portraits were painted on boards or panels, made from different
imported hardwoods, including oak, lime, sycamore, cedar, cypress, fig, and citrus.[9] The wood was
cut into thin rectangular panels and made smooth. The finished panels were set into layers of
wrapping that enclosed the body and were surrounded by bands of cloth, giving the effect of a
window-like opening through which the face of the deceased could be seen. Portraits were
sometimes painted directly onto the canvas or rags of the mummy wrapping (cartonnage painting).
Painting techniques[edit]
The wooden surface was sometimes primed for painting with a layer of plaster. In some cases the
primed layer reveals a preparatory drawing. Two painting techniques were
employed: encaustic (wax) painting and egg-based tempera. The encaustic images are striking
because of the contrast between vivid and rich colours, and comparatively large brush-strokes,
producing an "Impressionistic" effect. The tempera paintings have a finer gradation of tones and
chalkier colours, giving a more restrained appearance.[8] In some cases, gold leaf was used to depict
jewellery and wreaths. There also are examples of hybrid techniques or of variations from the main
techniques.
The Fayum portraits reveal a wide range of painterly expertise and skill in presenting a lifelike
appearance. The naturalism of the portraits is often revealed in knowledge of anatomic structure and
in skilled modelling of the form by the use of light and shade, which gives an appearance of three-
dimensionality to most of the figures. The graded flesh tones are enhanced with shadows and
highlights indicative of directional lighting.

Subjects and social context of the paintings[edit]

People of Fayum[edit]
Under Greco-Roman rule, Egypt hosted several Greek settlements, mostly concentrated
in Alexandria, but also in a few other cities, where Greek settlers lived alongside some seven to ten
million native Egyptians.[10] Faiyum's earliest Greek inhabitants were soldier-veterans
and cleruchs (elite military officials) who were settled by the Ptolemaic kings on reclaimed
lands.[11][12] Native Egyptians also came to settle in Faiyum from all over the country, notably the Nile
Delta, Upper Egypt, Oxyrhynchus and Memphis, to undertake the labor involved in the land
reclamation process, as attested by personal names, local cults and recovered papyri.[13] It is
estimated that as much as 30 percent of the population of Faiyum was Greek during
the Ptolemaic period, with the rest being native Egyptians.[14] By the Roman period, much of the
"Greek" population of Faiyum was made-up of either Hellenized Egyptians or people of mixed
Egyptian-Greek origins.[15] Later, in the Roman Period, many veterans of the Roman army, who,
initially at least, were not Egyptian but people from disparate cultural backgrounds, settled in the
area after the completion of their service, and formed social relations and intermarried with local
populations.[16]
A portrait from the late 1st century AD. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

While commonly believed to represent Greek settlers in Egypt,[17][18] the Faiyum portraits instead
reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the elite Greek minority
in the city.[14] According to Walker, the early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and
adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as
Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek.[19] The dental
morphology[20] of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was also compared with that of earlier
Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians
than to Greeks or other European populations.[21]
The portraits represent native Egyptians, some of whom had adopted Greek or Latin names, then
seen as ‘status symbols’.[22][23][24][25][26]DNA studies show genetic continuity between the Pre-Ptolemaic,
Ptolemaic and Roman populations, indicating that foreign rule impacted the town’s population only to
a very limited degree at the genetic level.[27]
Age profile of those depicted[edit]

Man with sword belt, British Museum.

Most of the portraits depict the deceased at a relatively young age, and many show children.
According to Walker, C.A.T. scans reveal a correspondence of age and sex between mummy and
image. He concludes that the age distribution reflects the low life expectancy at the time. It was often
believed that the wax portraits were completed during the life of the individual and displayed in their
home, a custom that belonged to the traditions of Greek art,[28] but this view is no longer widely held
given the evidence suggested by the C.A.T. scans of the Faiyum mummies, as well as Roman
census returns. In addition, some portraits were painted directly onto the coffin; for example, on a
shroud or another part.

Social status[edit]
The patrons of the portraits apparently belonged to the affluent upper class of military personnel, civil
servants and religious dignitaries. Not everyone could afford a mummy portrait; many mummies
were found without one. Flinders Petrie states that only one or two per cent of the mummies he
excavated were embellished with portraits.[29] The rates for mummy portraits do not survive, but it can
be assumed that the material caused higher costs than the labour, since in antiquity, painters were
appreciated as craftsmen rather than as artists.[29] The situation from the "Tomb of Aline" is
interesting in this regard. It contained four mummies: those of Aline, of two children and of her
husband. Unlike his wife and children, the latter was not equipped with a portrait but with a gilt three-
dimensional mask. Perhaps plaster masks were preferred if they could be afforded.
Three-dimensional funerary masks of painted plaster from Faiyum (1st century), Montreal Museum of Fine Arts.

Based on literary, archaeological and genetic studies, it appears that those depicted were native
Egyptians, who had adopted the dominant Greco-Roman culture.[27] The name of some of those
portrayed are known from inscriptions, they are predominantly Greek. Hairstyles and clothing are
always influenced by Roman fashion. Women and children are often depicted wearing valuable
ornaments and fine garments, men often wearing specific and elaborate outfits. Greek inscriptions of
names are relatively common, sometimes they include professions. It is not known whether such
inscriptions always reflect reality, or whether they may state ideal conditions or aspirations rather
than true conditions.[30] One single inscription is known to definitely indicate the deceased's
profession (a shipowner) correctly. The mummy of a woman named Hermione also included the
term grammatike (γραμματική). For a long time, it was assumed that this indicated that she was a
teacher by profession (for this reason, Flinders Petrie donated the portrait to Girton
College, Cambridge, the first residential college for women in Britain), but today, it is assumed that
the term indicates her level of education. Some portraits of men show sword-belts or even pommels,
suggesting that they were members of the Roman military.[31]

Culture-historical context[edit]

Fragment of a gold wreath, c. 320-300 BC, from a burial in Crimea

Gold glass miniature portrait of a woman, probably 3rd century. One of a small group of such portraits, some
probably made in Alexandria

Changes in burial habits[edit]

The burial habits of Ptolemaic Egyptians mostly followed ancient traditions. The bodies of members
of the upper classes were mummified, equipped with a decorated coffin and a mummy mask to
cover the head. The Greeks who entered Egypt at that time mostly followed their own habits. There
is evidence from Alexandria and other sites indicating that they practised the Greek tradition
of cremation. This broadly reflects the general situation in Hellenistic Egypt, its rulers proclaiming
themselves to be pharaohs but otherwise living in an entirely Hellenistic world, incorporating only
very few local elements. Conversely, the Egyptians only slowly developed an interest in the Greek-
Hellenic culture that dominated the East Mediterranean since the conquests of Alexander. This
situation changed substantially with the arrival of the Romans. Within a few generations, all Egyptian
elements disappeared from everyday life. Cities like Karanis or Oxyrhynchusare largely Graeco-
Roman places. There is clear evidence that this resulted from a mixing of different ethnicities in the
ruling classes of Roman Egypt.[32]

Religious continuity[edit]
Only in the sphere of religion is there evidence for a continuation of Egyptian traditions. Egyptian
temples were erected as late as the 2nd century. In terms of burial habits, Egyptian and Hellenistic
elements now mixed. Coffins became increasingly unpopular and went entirely out of use by the 2nd
century. In contrast, mummification appears to have been practised by large parts of the population.
The mummy mask, originally an Egyptian concept, grew more and more Graeco-Roman in style,
Egyptian motifs became ever rarer. The adoption of Roman portrait painting into Egyptian burial cult
belongs into this general context.[33]

Link with Roman funeral masks?[edit]

Some authors suggest that the idea of such portraits may be related to the custom among
the Roman nobility of displaying imagines, images of their ancestors, in the atrium of their house. In
funeral processions, these wax masks were worn by professional mourners to emphasize the
continuity of an illustrious family line, but originally perhaps to represent a deeper evocation of the
presence of the dead. Roman festivalssuch as the Parentalia as well as everyday domestic
rituals cultivated ancestral spirits (see also veneration of the dead). The development of mummy
portraiture may represent a combination of Egyptian and Roman funerary tradition, since it appears
only after Egypt was established as a Roman province.[34]
"Salon paintings"?[edit]
The images depict the heads or busts of men, women and children. They probably date from c. 30
BC to the 3rd century.[35] To the modern eye, the portraits appear highly individualistic. Therefore, it
has been assumed for a long time that they were produced during the lifetime of their subjects and
displayed as "salon paintings" within their houses, to be added to their mummy wrapping after their
death. Newer research rather suggests that they were only painted after death,[8] an idea perhaps
contradicted by the multiple paintings on some specimens and the (suggested) change of specific
details on others. The individualism of those depicted was actually created by variations in some
specific details, within a largely unvaried general scheme.[8] The habit of depicting the deceased was
not a new one, but the painted images gradually replaced the earlier Egyptian masks, although the
latter continued in use for some time, often occurring directly adjacent to portrait mummies,
sometimes even in the same graves.

Realism and convention[edit]

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Together with the painted Etruscan tombs, the Lucanian tombs and the Tomb of the
Diver in Paestum, the frescoes from Pompeii and Herculaneum and the Greek vases, they are the
best preserved paintings from ancient times and are renowned for their remarkable naturalism. It is,
however, debatable whether the portraits depict the subjects as they really were. Analyses have
shown that the painters depicted faces according to conventions in a repetitive and formulaic way,
albeit with a variety of hairstyles and beards. They appear to have worked from a number of
standard types without making detailed observations of the unique facial proportions of specific
individuals which give each face its own personality.

Style[edit]
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Mummy portrait of a man from Fayum, Hawara, modern-day Egypt. The portrait was painted in encaustic on
limewood. Roman, AD 80-100. The British Museum, London

Mummy portrait of a woman from Fayum, Hawara, modern-day Egypt. The portrait was painted in encaustic on
wood. Roman, AD 300-325. The British Museum, London
In the virtual absence of other panel paintings from the period in question, it is difficult to make firm
statements about the stylistic context of the portraits. While it seems clear that they are not in
continuity from Egyptian precedents, the same cannot be said for the northern shores of the
Mediterranean, where such material is less likely to have survived, due to climatic conditions there.
Evidence from frescoes, mosaics and other media suggests that stylistically, the mummy portraits
broadly fit within the prevailing Graeco-Roman traditions then dominant around the Mediterranean.

Coexistence with other burial habits[edit]

The religious meaning of mummy portraits has not, so far, been fully explained, nor have associated
grave rites. There is some indication that it developed from genuine Egyptian funerary rites, adapted
by a multi-cultural ruling class.[8] The tradition of mummy portraits occurred from the Delta to Nubia,
but it is striking that other funerary habits prevailed over portrait mummies at all sites except those in
the Faiyum (and there especially Hawara and Achmim) and Antinoopolis. In most sites, different
forms of burial coexisted. The choice of grave type may have been determined to a large extent by
the financial means and status of the deceased, modified by local customs. Portrait mummies have
been found both in rock-cut tombs and in freestanding built grave complexes, but also in shallow
pits. It is striking that they are virtually never accompanied by any grave offerings, with the exception
of occasional pots or sprays of flowers.[36]

End of the mummy portrait tradition[edit]

Portrait of a man

For a long time, it was assumed that the latest portraits belong to the end of the 4th century, but
recent research has modified this view considerably, suggesting that the last wooden portraits
belong to the middle, the last directly painted mummy wrappings to the second half of the 3rd
century. It is commonly accepted that production reduced considerably since the beginning of the
3rd century. Several reasons for the decline of the mummy portrait have been suggested; no single
reason should probably be isolated, rather, they should be seen as operating together.

 In the 3rd century the Roman Empire underwent a severe economic crisis, severely limiting the
financial abilities of the upper classes. Although they continued to lavishly spend money on
representation, they favoured public appearances, like games and festivals, over the production
of portraits. However, other elements of sepulchral representation, like sarcophagi, did continue.
 There is evidence of a religious crisis at the same time. This may not be as closely connected
with the rise of Christianity as previously assumed. (The earlier suggestion of a 4th-century end
to the portraits would coincide with the widespread distribution of Christianity in Egypt.
Christianity also never banned mummification.) An increasing neglect of Egyptian temples is
noticeable during the Roman imperial period, leading to a general drop in interest in all ancient
religions.
 The Constitutio Antoniniana, i.e. the granting of Roman citizenship to all free subjects changed
the social structures of Egypt. For the first time, the individual cities gained a degree of self-
administration. At the same time, the provincial upper classes changed in terms of both
composition and inter-relations.
Thus, a combination of several factors appears to have led to changes of fashion and ritual. No clear
causality can be asserted.[37]Considering the limited nature of the current understanding of portrait
mummies, it remains distinctly possible that future research will considerably modify the image
presented here. For example, some scholars suspect that the centre of production of such finds, and
thus the centre of the distinctive funerary tradition they represent, may have been located at
Alexandria. New finds from Marina el-Alamein strongly support such a view.[6] In view of the near-
total loss of Greek and Roman paintings, mummy portraits are today considered to be among the
very rare examples of ancient art that can be seen to reflect "Great paintings" and especially Roman
portrait painting.[8]
Mummy portraits as sources on provincial Roman fashion[edit]

Depiction of a woman with curly hair, wearing a violet chiton and cloak and pendant earrings. British Museum.

Provincial fashions[edit]
Mummy portraits depict a variety of different hairstyles. They are one of the main aids in dating the
paintings. The majority of the deceased were depicted with hairstyles then in fashion. They are
frequently similar to those depicted in sculpture. As part of Roman propaganda, such sculptures,
especially those depicting the imperial family, were often displayed throughout the empire. Thus,
they had a direct influence on the development of fashion. Nevertheless, the mummy portraits, as
well as other finds, suggest that fashions lasted longer in the provinces than in the imperial court, or
at least that diverse styles might coexist.

Hairstyles[edit]
Since Roman men tended to wear short-cropped hair, female hairstyles are a better source of
evidence for changes in fashion. The female portraits suggest a coarse chronological scheme:
Simple hairstyles with a central parting in the Tiberian period are followed by more complex ringlet
hairstyles, nested plaits and curly toupées over the forehead in the late 1st century. Small oval
nested plaits dominate the time of the Antonines, simple central-parting hairstyles with a hairknot in
the neck occur in the second half of the 2nd century. The time of Septimius Severus was
characterised by toupée-like fluffy as well as strict, straight styles, followed by looped plaits on the
crown of the head. The latter belong to the very final phase of mummy portraits, and have only been
noted on a few mummy wrappings. It seems to be the case that curly hairstyles were especially
popular in Egypt.[38]
The plaited hairstyle of this elite woman makes it possible to date this painting to the reign of Trajan (AD 98 -
117). Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
Depiction of a woman with a ringlet hairstyle, an orange chiton with black bands and rod-shaped
earrings. Royal Museum of Scotland.

Clothing[edit]
Like the hairstyles, the clothing depicted also follows the general fashions of the Roman Empire, as
known from statues and busts. Both men and women tend to wear a thin chiton as an undergarment.
Above it, both sexes tend to wear a cloak, laid across the shoulders or wound around the torso. The
males wear virtually exclusively white, while female clothing is often red or pink, but can also be
yellow, white, blue or purple. The chiton often bears a decorative line (clavus), occasionally light red
or light green, also sometimes gold, but normally in dark colours. Some painted mummy wrappings
from Antinoopolis depict garments with long sleeves and very wide clavi. So far, not a single portrait
has been definitely shown to depict the toga, a key symbol of Roman citizenship. It should, however,
be kept in mind that Greek cloaks and togas are draped very similarly on depictions of the 1st and
early 2nd centuries. In the late 2nd and 3rd centuries, togas should be distinguishable, but fail to
occur.[39]

Jewelry[edit]
Apart from the gold wreaths worn by many men, with very few exceptions, only women are depicted
with jewellery. This generally accords with the common jewellery types of the Graeco-Roman East.
Especially the Antinoopolis portraits depict simple gold link chains and massive gold rings. There are
also depictions of precious or semi-precious
stones like emerald, carnelian, garnet, agate or amethyst, rarely also of pearls. The stones were
normally ground into cylindrical or spherical beads. Some portraits depict elaborate colliers, with
precious stones set in gold.
The gold wreath was apparently rarely, if ever, worn in life, but a number have been found in graves
from much earlier periods. Based on the plant wreaths given as prizes in contests, the idea was
apparently to celebrate the achievements of the deceased in life.
There are three basic shapes of ear ornaments: Especially common in the 1st century are circular or
drop-shaped pendants. Archaeological finds indicate that these were fully or semi-spherical. Later
tastes favoured S-shaped hooks of gold wire, on which up to five beads of different colours and
materials could be strung. The third shape are elaborate pendants with a horizontal bar from which
two or three, occasionally four, vertical rods are suspended, usually each decorated with a white
bead or pearl at the bottom. Other common ornaments include gold hairpins, often decorated with
pearls, fine diadems, and, especially at Antinoopolis, gold hairnets. Many portraits also
depict amulets and pendants, perhaps with magical functions.[40]
Art-historical significance[edit]

Tondo with images of Septimius Severus and his family. Antikensammlung Berlin.

The mummy portraits have immense art-historical importance. Ancient sources indicate that panel
painting (rather than wall painting), i.e. painting on wood or other mobile surfaces was held in high
regard. But very few ancient panel paintings survive. One of the few examples besides the mummy
portraits is the Severan Tondo, also from Egypt (around 200), which, like the mummy portraits, is
believed to represent a provincial version of contemporary style.[41] Some aspects of the mummy
portraits, especially their frontal perspective and their concentration on key facial features, strongly
resemble later icon painting. A direct link has been suggested, but it should be kept in mind that the
mummy portraits represent only a small part of a much wider Graeco-Roman tradition, the whole of
which later bore an influence on Late Antique and Byzantine Art. A pair of panel "icons"
of Serapisand Isis of comparable date (3rd century) and style are in the Getty
Museum at Malibu;[42] as with the cult of Mithras, earlier examples of cult images were sculptures or
pottery figurines, but from the 3rd century reliefs and then painted images are found.[43]

Gallery[edit]

Faiyum mummy portrait of a young man. Antikensammlungen Munich.

 

Portrait of a woman, on display at the Museo Egizio.

Portrait of a man holding a plant, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Dijon.

Portrait of a woman, Louvre.

 

Portrait of a young man, Pushkin Museum.

Portrait of a man, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Portrait of a bearded man Edinburgh, MoS 1911.210.1, Royal Museum of Scotland

 

Portrait of Demetrios, 100 C.E. Brooklyn Museum

Portrait of a young boy, early 3rd century, Antikensammlung Berlin

Portrait of a man, Eton College Collections.