20180615EXP Blackhole

January 16, 2018 09:20 Speeding171229v1 Sheet number 1 Page number 0-0 AW Physics Macros
1 Chapter 1. Speeding
2 1.1 Special Relativity 1-1
3 1.2 Wristwatch Time 1-3
4 1.3 Ruler Distance 1-7
5 1.4 Lightlike (Null) Interval 1-8
6 1.5 Worldline of a Wandering Stone; The Light Cone 1-10
7 1.6 The Twin “Paradox” and the Principle of Maximal
8 Aging 1-12
9 1.7 Energy in Special Relativity 1-16
10 1.8 Momentum in Special Relativity 1-21
11 1.9 Mass in Relativity 1-22
12 1.10 The Lorentz Transformation 1-24
13 1.11 Limits on Local Inertial Frames 1-26
14 1.12 General Relativity: Our Current Toolkit 1-28
15 1.13 Exercises 1-29
16 1.14 References 1-38
17 • What is the key idea of relativity?

18 • Everything is relative, right?
19 • “Space and time form a unity called spacetime.” Huh?
20 • Do people in relative motion age differently? Do they feel the slowing
21 down/speeding up of their aging?
22 • What is the farthest galaxy I can possibly visit in person?
23 • Can an advanced civilization create a rocket to carry “humanity”
24 anywhere in our galaxy? How soon can we on Earth learn of their
25 discoveries?
26 • How do relativistic expressions for energy and momentum differ from
27 those of Newton?
28 • When and why does special relativity break down, and what warns us that
29 this is about to happen?
30 DOWNLOAD FILE NAME: Ch01Speeding170508v1.pdf

CHAPTER
1 31 Speeding
*
Edmund Bertschinger & Edwin F. Taylor
32 I’ve completely solved the problem. My solution was to analyze

33 the concept of time. Time cannot be absolutely defined, and
34 there is an inseparable relation between time and signal
35 velocity.
36 —Albert Einstein, May 1905, to his friend Michele Besso
1.137 SPECIAL RELATIVITY

38 Special relativity and general relativity
Special relativity
distinguished from 39 Special relativity describes the very fast and reveals the unities of both
General relativity 40 space-time and mass-energy. General relativity, a Theory of Gravitation,
41 describes spacetime and motion near a massive object, for example a star, a
42 galaxy, or a black hole. The present chapter reviews a few key concepts of
43 special relativity as an introduction to general relativity.
Begin relativity with 44 What is at the root of relativity? Is there a single, simple idea that
a stone wearing 45 launches us along the road to understanding? At the beginning of Alice in
a wristwatch. 46 Wonderland a rabbit rushes past carrying a pocket watch. At the beginning of
47 our relativity adventure a small stone wearing a wristwatch flies past us.
48 The wristwatch ticks once at Event 1, then ticks again at Event 2. At each
49 event the stone emits a flash of light. The top panel of Figure 1 shows these
Observe two events 50 events as observed in the laboratory frame. We assume that the laboratory is
in laboratory frame. 51 an inertial reference frame.
52 DEFINITION 1. Inertial frame

Definition: 53 An inertial reference frame, which we usually call an inertial frame, is
inertial frame 54 a region of spacetime in which Newton’s first law of motion holds: A free
55 stone at rest remains at rest; a free stone in motion continues that
56 motion at constant speed in a straight line.
57 We are interested in the records of these two events made by someone in

58 the laboratory. We call this someone, the observer:
* Draft of Second Edition of Exploring Black Holes: Introduction to General Relativity
Copyright c 2017 Edmund Bertschinger, Edwin F. Taylor, & John Archibald Wheeler. All
rights reserved. This draft may be duplicated for personal and class use.
1-1
1-2 Chapter 1 Speeding
(t1lab, s1lab) (t2lab, s2lab)
s2lab − s1lab
[t2lab − t1lab]
TICK! TICK!
Event 1 Event 2
LABORATORY FRAME
(t1rocket, s1rocket) (t2rocket, s2rocket)
s2rocket − s1rocket
[t2rocket − t1rocket]
TICK! TICK!
Event 1 Event 2
ROCKET FRAME
FIGURE 1 A free stone moves through a laboratory at constant speed. The stone wears
a wristwatch that ticks as it emits a first flash at Event 1 and a second flash at Event
2.Top panel: The laboratory observer records Event 1 at coordinates (t1lab , s1lab ) and Event
2 at coordinates (t2lab , s2lab ). Bottom panel: An unpowered rocket ship streaks through
the laboratory; the observer riding in the rocket ship records Event 1 at rocket coordinates
(t1rocket , s1rocket ) and Event 2 at (t2rocket , s2rocket ). Each observer calculates the distance
and time lapse between the two events, displayed on the line between them.
59 DEFINITION 2. Observer ≡ inertial observer

Definition: 60 An inertial observer is an observer who makes measurements using
inertial observer 61 the space and time coordinates of any given inertial frame. In this book
62 we choose to report every measurement and observation using an
63 inertial frame. Therefore in this book observer ≡ inertial observer.
64 The top panel of Figure 1 summarizes the records of the laboratory

65 observer, who uses the standard notation (t1lab , s1lab ) for the lab-measured
66 time and space coordinates of Event 1 and (t2lab , s2lab ) for the coordinates of
67 Event 2.
68 The laboratory observer calculates the difference between the time
69 coordinates of the two events and the difference between the space coordinates
70 of the two events that she measures in her frame. The top panel of Figure 1
71 labels these results.
72 Next an unpowered rocket moves through the laboratory along the line
73 connecting Event 1 and Event 2. An observer who rides in the rocket measures
74 the coordinates of the two events and constructs the bottom panel in Figure 1.
75 Now the key result of special relativity: There is a surprising relation
76 between the coordinate differences measured in laboratory and rocket frames,
Surprise: 77 both of which are inertial frames. Here is that expression:
Both observers
calculate the same
wristwatch time
between two events.
Section 1.2 Wristwatch time 1-3
2 2 2 2
τ 2 = (t2lab − t1lab ) −(s2lab − s1lab ) = (t2rocket − t1rocket ) −(s2rocket − s1rocket )
(1)
78 The expression on the left side of (1) is the square of the so-called wristwatch
79 time τ , which we define explicitly in the following section. Special relativity
80 says that the wristwatch time lapse of the stone that moves directly between
81 events can be predicted (calculated) by both laboratory and rocket observers,
82 each using his or her own time and space coordinates. The middle expression
83 in (1) contains only laboratory coordinates of the two events. The right-hand
84 expression contains only rocket coordinates of the same two events. Each
85 observer predicts (calculates) the same value of the stone’s wristwatch time
86 lapse as it travels between these two events.
87 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 1. Chapter 2, Section 2.6,
88 shows how to synchronize the clocks in each frame with one another. Or look
89 up Einstein-Poincaré synchronization.
1.290 WRISTWATCH TIME

91 Every observer agrees on the advance of wristwatch time.
92 Einstein said to Besso (initial quote): “Time cannot be absolutely defined . . .”
93 Equation (1) exhibits this ambiguity: the laboratory time lapse, rocket time
94 lapse, and wristwatch time lapse between two ticks of the stone’s wristwatch
95 can all be different from one another. But equation (1) tells us much more: It
96 shows how any inertial observer whatsoever can use the space and time
97 coordinate separations between ticks measured in her frame to calculate the
98 unique wristwatch time τ , the time lapse between ticks recorded on the
99 stone’s wristwatch as it moves from Event 1 to Event 2.
100 DEFINITION 3. Wristwatch time = aging

Example of 101 Equation (1) and Figure 1 show an example of the wristwatch time τ
wristwatch time 102 between two events, in this case the time lapse recorded on a
or aging 103 wristwatch that is present at both events and travels uniformly between
104 them. Wristwatch time is sometimes called aging, because it is the
105 amount by which the wearer of the wristwatch gets older as she travels
106 directly between this pair of events. Another common name for
107 wristwatch time is proper time, which we do not use in this book.
108 We, the authors of this book, rate (1) as one of the greatest equations in
109 physics, perhaps in all of science. Even the famous equation E = mc2 is a child
110 of equation (1), as Section 1.7 shows.
111 Truth be told, equation (1) is not limited to events along the path of a
112 stone; it also applies to any pair of events in flat spacetime, no matter how
113 large their coordinate separations in any one frame. In the general case,
114 equation (1) is called the spacetime interval between these two events.
115 DEFINITION 4. Interval

Definition: interval 116 The spacetime interval is an expression whose inputs are the distance
117 separation and time separation between a pair of events measured in an
118 inertial frame. The term “interval” refers to the whole equation (1). There
119 are three different possible outputs, three types of interval:
120 Case 1: Timelike interval, τ 2 > 0 this section

2
121 Case 2: Spacelike interval, τ < 0 Section 1.3
122 Case 3: Lightlike interval, τ 2 = 0 Section 1.4
123 These three categories span all possible relations between a pair of
124 events in special relativity. When (t2lab − t1lab )2 is greater than
125 (s2lab − s1lab )2 , then we have the case we analyzed for two events that
126 may lie along the path of a stone. We call this a timelike interval
127 because the magnitude of the time part of the interval is greater than
128 that of its space part.
129 What happens when (s2lab − s1lab )2 is greater than (t2lab − t1lab )2 in
130 (1), so the interval is negative? We call this a spacelike interval
131 because the magnitude of the space part of the interval is greater than
132 that of its time part. In this case we interchange (t2lab − t1lab )2 and
133 (s2lab − s1lab )2 to yield a positive quantity we call σ 2 , whose different
134 physical interpretation we explore in Section 1.3.
135 What happens when (s2lab − s1lab )2 is equal to (t2lab − t1lab )2 in (1),
136 so the interval has the value zero? We call this a null interval or
137 lightlike interval, as explained in Section 1.4.
Measure space and 138 Note: All separations in (1) must be measured in the same unit; otherwise
time separations 139 they cannot appear as separate terms in the same equation. But we are free to
in the same unit, 140 choose the common unit: it can be years (of time) and light-years (of
which you choose. 141 distance). A light-year is the distance light travels in a vacuum in one year. Or
142 we can use meters (of distance) along with light-meters (of time). A
143 light-meter of time is the time it takes light to travel one meter in a
144 vacuum—about 3.34 × 10−9 second. Alternative expressions for light-meter are
145 meter of light-travel time or simply meter of time.
Speed of light 146 Distance and time expressed in the same unit? Then the speed of light has
equals unity. 147 the value unity, with no units:
1 light-year of distance 1 meter of distance
c= = =1 (2)
1 year of time 1 light-meter of time
148 Why the letter c? The Latin word celeritas means “swiftness” or “speed.”
149 So much for the speed of light. How do we measure the speed of a stone
Stone’s speed: 150 using space and time separations between ticks of its wristwatch? Typically
a fraction of 151 the value of the stone’s speed depends on the reference frame with respect to
light speed 152 which we measure these separations. In the top panel of Figure 1, its speed in
Section 1.2 Wristwatch time 1-5
fastest cosmic ray (3 x 1020 eV) 1

108 [1− v (proton) = 5 × 10 −24 ]
106 orbital speeds, PSR1913+16 binaries 10-2

(7.75 hour period)
104
speed of Earth in orbit 10-4
(30 000 meters/second)
fraction of light speed

speed in meters/second
102
land speed record
(1228 kilometers/hour)
10-6
1
highway auto speed
(100 kilometers/hour)
10-8
human relaxed walking speed
10-2 (1.4 meter/second) 10-10
Galapagos tortoise walking speed
10-4 (0.08 meter/second)
10-12
10-6 10-14
speed of grass growing
(10 centimeters/week)
10-8 speed of human hair growing 10-16
(15 centimeters/year)
10-10 max speed of continental drift
10-18
(100 millimeters/year)
FIGURE 2 The speed ladder. Some typical speeds encountered in Nature.
153 the laboratory frame is vlab = (s2lab − s1lab )/(t2lab − t1lab ). In the bottom
154 panel, its speed in the rocket frame is
155 vrocket = (s2rocket − s1rocket )/(t2rocket − t1rocket ). Typically the values of these
156 two speeds differ from one another. However, both values are less than one.
157 Figure 2 samples the range of speeds encountered in Nature.
158 Equation (1) is so important that we use it to define flat spacetime.
159 DEFINITION 5. Flat spacetime

Definition: 160 Flat spacetime is a spacetime region in which equation (1) is valid for
flat spacetime 161 every pair of events.
162 The interval in equation (1) has an important property that will follow us
163 through special and general relativity: it has the same value when calculated
164 using either laboratory or rocket coordinates. We say that wristwatch time is
165 an invariant quantity.
Sample Problems 1. Wristwatch Times

Again, the wristwatch time for the particle is less than the time
recorded in the laboratory frame.
PROBLEM 1A
An unpowered rocket ship moves at constant speed to travel PROBLEM 1C
3 light-years in 5 years, this time and distance measured in In Problem 1B the two events are separated by a distance of
the rest frame of our Sun. What is the time lapse for this trip 4 meters, which means that it takes light 4 meters of light-
recorded on a clock carried with the spaceship? travel time to move between them. But Solution 1B says that
the particle’s wristwatch records only 3 meters of time as the
SOLUTION 1A
particle moves from the first to the second event. Does this
The two events that start and end the spaceship’s journey are
mean that the particle travels faster than light?
separated in the Sun frame by s2Sun −s1Sun = 3 light-years
and t2Sun −t1Sun = 5 years. Equation (1) gives the resulting SOLUTION 1C
wristwatch time: This difficulty is common in relativity. The phrase “time
between two events” has no unique value (initial quote of
τ 2 = 52 − 32 = 25 − 9 = 16 years2 (3) this chapter). The time depends on which clock measures
the time, in this case either the laboratory clocks, which
τ = 4 years
measure laboratory time separation t2lab − t1lab , or the
particle’s wristwatch, which measures lapsed wristwatch time
which is less than the time lapse measured in the Sun frame.
τ . Equation (1) already warns us that these two measures
PROBLEM 1B of time may not have the same value. Indeed a particle
An elementary particle created in the target of a particle that moves faster and faster, covering a greater and greater
accelerator arrives 5 meters of time later at a detector 4 distance s2lab − s1lab in the same laboratory time lapse
meters from the target, as measured in the laboratory. The t2lab − t1lab , records a wristwatch time τ that gets smaller
wristwatch of the elementary particle records what time and smaller (Sample Problems 2), finally approaching—as
between creation and detection? a limit—the value zero, in which case a light flash has
replaced the particle (Section 1.4). But for a particle with
SOLUTION 1B
mass, the distance s2lab − s1lab it travels in the laboratory
The events of creation and detection are separated in the
frame is always less than the laboratory time t2lab − t1lab
laboratory frame by s2lab − s1lab = 4 meters and t2lab −
that it takes the particle to move that distance. In other
t1lab = 5 meters of time. Equation (1) tells us that
words, its laboratory speed will always be less than one, the
speed of light. No particle can move faster than light moves
τ 2 = 52 − 42 = 25 − 16 = 9 meters2 (4)
in a vacuum. (Convince the scientific community that this
τ = 3 meters statement is false, and your name will go down in history!)
166 DEFINITION 6. Invariant

167 Formally, a quantity is an invariant when it keeps the same value under
168 some transformation. Equation (1) shows the interval between any pair
169 of events along the path of a free stone to have the same value when
170 calculated using coordinate separations in any inertial frame.
Definition: 171 Transformations of coordinate separations between inertial frames are
invariant 172 called Lorentz transformations (Section 1.10), so we say that the
173 interval is a Lorentz invariant. However, the interval must also be an
174 invariant under even more general transformations, not just Lorentz
175 transformations, because all observers—not just those in inertial
176 frames—will agree on the stone’s wristwatch time lapse between any
177 two given events. As a consequence, we most often drop the adjective
178 Lorentz and use just the term invariant.
179 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 1, Spacetime: Overview

Section 1.3 Ruler Distance 1-7
Sample Problems 2. Speeding to Andromeda

At approximately what constant speed vSun with respect to Equate the first and last expressions in (5) to obtain
our Sun must a spaceship travel so that its occupants age τ2
only 1 year during a trip from Earth to the Andromeda galaxy? 1 − vSun ≈ (6)
2 (t2Sun − t1Sun )2
Andromeda lies 2 million light-years distant from Earth in the
Sun’s rest frame. IF the spaceship speed vSun is very close to the speed of
light, THEN the Sun-frame time for the trip to Andromena
SOLUTION The word approximately in the statement of
is very close to the time that light takes to make the trip: 2
the problem tells us that we may make some assumptions.
million years. Substitute this value for t2Sun − t1Sun and also
We assume that a single inertial frame can stretch all the
demand that the wristwatch time on the spaceship (the aging
way from Sun to Andromeda, so special relativity applies.
of the occupants during their trip) be τ = 1 year. The result
Equation (1) leads us to predict that the speed vSun of the
is
spaceship measured in the Sun frame is very close to unity,
the speed of light. That allows us to set (1 + vSun ) ≈ 2 in 1 year2
1 − vSun ≈ (7)
the last of the following steps: 2 × 4 × 1012 year2
τ 2 = (t2Sun − t1Sun )2 − (s2Sun − s1Sun )2 10−12

(5) = = 1.25 × 10−13
" 2 # 8
s2Sun − s1Sun
= (t2Sun − t1Sun )2 1 − Equation (7) expresses the result in sensible scientific
t2Sun − t1Sun notation. However, your friends may be more impressed if
2 2
you report the speed as a fraction of the speed of light:
= (t2Sun − t1Sun ) 1 − vSun vSun = 0.999 999 999 999 875. This result justifies our
assumption that vSun is close to unity. Additional question:
= (t2Sun − t1Sun )2 (1 − vSun ) (1 + vSun )
What is the distance (s2rocket − s1rocket ) between Earth
≈ 2 (t2Sun − t1Sun )2 (1 − vSun ) and Andromeda measured in the rocket frame?
1.3
180 RULER DISTANCE
181 Everyone agrees on the ruler distance between two events.
182 Two firecrackers explode one meter apart and at the same time, as measured
183 in a given inertial frame: in this frame the explosions are simultaneous. No
184 stone—not even a light flash—can travel the distance between these two
185 explosions in the zero time available in this frame. Therefore equation (1)
186 cannot give us a value of the wristwatch time between these two events.
Use simultaneous 187 Simultaneous explosions are thus useless for measuring time. But they are
explosions to 188 perfect for measuring length. Question: How do you measure the length of a
measure length of 189 rod, whether it is moving or at rest in, say, the laboratory frame? Answer: Set
a rod. 190 off two firecrackers at opposite ends of the rod and at the same time
191 (t2lab − t1lab = 0) in that frame. Then define the rod’s length in the laboratory
192 frame as the distance (s2lab − s1lab ) between this pair of explosions
193 simultaneous in that frame.
194 Special relativity warns us that another observer who flies through the
195 laboratory typically does not agree that the two firecrackers exploded at the
Relativity of 196 same time as recorded on her rocket clocks. This effect is called the relativity
simultaneity 197 of simultaneity. The relativity of simultaneity is the bad news (and for many
198 people the most difficult idea in special relativity). But here’s the good news:
199 All inertial observers, whatever their state of relative motion, can calculate the
200 distance σ between explosions as recorded in the frame in which they do occur
Spacelike 201 simultaneously. This calculation uses Case 2 of the interval (Definition 4):
interval σ
σ 2 ≡ −τ 2 = (s2lab − s1lab )2 − (t2lab − t1lab )2 (spacelike interval) (8)
2 2
= (s2rocket − s1rocket ) − (t2rocket − t1rocket )
202 The Greek letter sigma, σ, in (8)—equivalent to the Roman letter s—is the
203 length of the rod defined as the distance between explosions at its two ends
204 measured in a frame in which these explosions are simultaneous.
205 Equation (8) does not define a different kind of interval; it is merely
206 shorthand for the equation for Case 2 in Definition 4 in which τ 2 < 0.
207 Actually, we do not need a rod or ruler to make use of this equation
208 (though we keep ruler as a label). Take any two events for which τ 2 < 0. Then
209 there exists an inertial frame in which these two events occur at the same time;
210 we use this frame to define the ruler distance σ between these two events:
211 DEFINITION 7. Ruler distance

212 The ruler distance σ between two events is the distance between
Definition: 213 these events measured by an inertial observer in whose frame the two
ruler distance 214 events occur at the same time. Another common name for ruler distance
215 is proper distance, which we do not use in this book.
216 Equation (8) tells us that every inertial observer can calculate the ruler
217 distance between two events using the space and time separations between
218 these events measured in his or her own frame.
219 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 6, Regions of Spacetime
1.4
220 LIGHTLIKE (NULL) INTERVAL
221 Everyone agrees on the null value of the interval between two events connected
222 by a direct light flash that moves in a vacuum.
223 Now think of the case in which the lab-frame space separation (s2lab − s1lab )
224 between two events is equal to the time separation (t2lab − t1lab ) between
225 them. In this case anything that moves uniformly between them must travel at
226 the speed of light vlab = (s2lab − s1lab )/(t2lab − t1lab ) = 1. Physically, only a
227 direct light flash can move between this pair of events. We call the result a
228 lightlike interval:
τ 2 = −σ 2 = 0 = (s2lab − s1lab )2 − (t2lab − t1lab )2 (lightlike interval) (9)

= (s2rocket − s1rocket )2 − (t2rocket − t1rocket )2
229 Because of its zero value, the lightlike interval is also called the null interval.
230 DEFINITION 8. Lightlike (null) interval

Definition: 231 A lightlike interval is the interval between two events whose space
lightlike interval
or null interval
Section 1.4 Lightlike (Null) Interval 1-9
Sample Problems 3. Causation

Three events have the following space and time coordinates two locations, with a fragment of the explosion reaching Event
as measured in the laboratory frame in meters of distance B at the scheduled time, and so forth. Our analysis says only
and meters of time. All three events lie along the x-axis in the that Event A can cause Event B, but it does not force Event A
laboratory frame. (Temporarily suppress the subscript “lab” in to cause Event B. Someone standing next to an object located
this Sample Problem.) at the x-coordinate of Event B could simply kick that object at
Event A: (tA , xA ) = (2, 1) the scheduled time of Event B.)
Event B: (tB , xB ) = (7, 4) The interval between events A and C is:
Event C: (tC , xC ) = (5, 6)
τ 2 = (5 − 2)2 − (6 − 1)2 = 32 − 52 (11)
Classify the intervals between each pair of these events as
timelike, lightlike, or spacelike: = 9 − 25 = −16
(a) between events A and B
The space part is greater than the time part, so the interval
(b) between events A and C
between the events is spacelike. Neither event can cause
(c) between events B and C
the other, because to do so an object would have to travel
In each case say whether or not it is possible for one of the between them at a speed greater than that of light.
events in the pair (which one?) to cause the other event of the
pair, and if so, by what possible means. The interval between events B and C is:
SOLUTION τ 2 = (7 − 5)2 − (4 − 6)2 = 22 − 22 (12)

The interval between events A and B is:
=4−4=0
τ 2 = (7 − 2)2 − (4 − 1)2 = 52 − 32 (10)
The space part is equal to the time part, so the interval
= 25 − 9 = +16 between the events is lightlike. Event C can cause Event B,
but only by sending a direct light signal to it.
The time part is greater than the space part, so the interval
between the events is timelike. Event A could have caused Challenge: How can we rule out the possibility that event B
Event B, for example by sending a stone moving directly causes event A, or that event B causes event C? Would your
between them at a speed vlab = 3/5. (There are other answers to these questions be different if the same events are
possible ways for Event A to cause Event B, for example by observed in some other frame in rapid motion with respect to
sending a light flash that sets off an explosion between the the laboratory? (Answer in Exercise 1.)
232 separation and time separation are equal in every inertial frame. Only a
233 direct light flash can connect these two events. Because these space
234 and time separations are equal, the interval has the value zero, so is
235 also called the null interval.
236 Comment 1. Einstein’s derivation of special relativity

237 Divide both sides of (9) by (t2,frame − t1,frame )2 , where “frame” is either “lab” or
238 “rocket.” The result tells us that the speed in any inertial frame is one,
239 vlab = vrocket = 1. Einstein derived (9) starting with the assumption that the
240 speed of light is the same in all inertial frames.
241 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 6, Regions of Spacetime.

1.5
242 WORLDLINE OF A WANDERING STONE; THE LIGHT CONE
243 A single curve tells all about the motion of our stone.
244 Grasp a stone in your hand and move it alternately in one direction, then in
245 the opposite direction along the straight edge of your desk. Choose the xlab
246 axis along this line. Then the stone’s motion is completely described by the
247 function xlab (tlab ). No matter how complicated this back-and-forth motion is,
248 we can view it at a glance when we plot xlab along the horizontal axis of a
249 graph whose vertical axis represents the time tlab . Figure 3 shows such a curve,
250 which we call a worldline.
251 DEFINITION 9. Worldline

Definition: 252 A worldline is the path through spacetime taken by a stone or light
worldline 253 flash. By Definition 3, the total wristwatch time (aging) along the
254 worldline is the sum of wristwatch times between sequential events
255 along the worldline from a chosen initial event to a chosen final event.
256 The wristwatch time is an invariant; it has the same value when
257 calculated using either laboratory or rocket coordinates. Therefore
258 specification of a worldline requires neither coordinates nor the metric.
259 Comment 2. Plotting the worldline

260 Figure 3 shows a worldline plotted in laboratory coordinates. Typically a given
261 worldline will look different when plotted in rocket coordinates. We plot a
262 worldline in whatever coordinates we are using. Worldlines can be plotted in
263 spacetime diagrams for both flat and curved spacetime.
264 In the worldline of Figure 3 the stone starts at initial event O. As time
265 passes—as time advances upward in the diagram—the stone moves first to the
266 right. Then the stone slows down, that is it covers less distance to the right
267 per unit time, and comes to rest momentarily at event Z. (The vertical tangent
268 to the worldline at Z tells us that the stone covers zero laboratory distance
269 there: it is instantaneously at rest at Z.) Thereafter the stone accelerates to
270 the left in space until it arrives at event P.
271 What possible future worldlines are available to the stone that arrives at
272 event P? Any material particle must move at less than the speed of light. In
273 other words, it travels less than one meter of distance in one meter of
Limits on 274 light-travel time. Therefore its future worldline must make an “angle with the
worldline slope 275 vertical” somewhere between minus 45 degrees and plus 45 degrees in Figure
276 3, in which space and time are measured in the same units and plotted to the
277 same scale. These limits on the slope of the stone’s worldline—which apply to
278 every event on every worldline—emerge as dashed lines from event P in Figure
279 3. These dashed lines are worldlines of light rays that move in opposite
280 xlab -directions and cross at the event P. We call these crossed light rays a
281 light cone. Figure 4 displays the cone shape.
282 DEFINITION 10. Light cone

Definition: 283 The light cone of an event is composed of the set of all possible
light cone 284 worldlines of light that intersect at that event and define its past and
Section 1.5 Worldline of a Wandering Stone; The Light Cone 1-11
FIGURE 3 Curved worldline of a stone moving back and forth along a single straight
spatial line in the laboratory. A point on this diagram, such as Z or P, combines xlab -location
(horizontal direction) with tlab -location (vertical direction); in other words a point represents a
spacetime event. The dashed lines through P are worldlines of light rays that pass through P.
We call these crossed lines the light cone of P. For the cone shape, see Figure 4.
285 future (Figure 4). We also call it a light cone when it is plotted using one
286 space dimension plus time, as in Figure 3, and when plotted using three
287 space dimensions plus time—even though we cannot visualize the
288 resulting four-dimensional spacetime plot.
289 THE LIGHT CONE AND CAUSALITY

290 . . the light cone provides a mathematical tool for the analysis
291 of [general relativity] additional to the usual tools of metric
292 geometry. We believe that this tool still remains to be put to
293 full use, and that causality is the physical principle which will
294 guide this future development.
295 —Robert W. Fuller and John Archibald Wheeler
296 More complete explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 5, Trekking

297 Through Spacetime
stone
worldline
tlab
future
light light cone
E
light past
light cone
xlab
ylab
FIGURE 4 Light cone of Event E that lies on the worldline of a stone, plotted for two space
dimensions plus time. The light cone consists of the upward-opening future light cone traced out
by the expanding circular light flash that the stone emits at Event E, plus the downward-opening
past light cone traced out by a contracting circular light flash that converges on Event E.
1.6
298 THE TWIN “PARADOX” AND THE PRINCIPLE OF MAXIMAL AGING
299 The Twin Paradox leads to a definition of natural motion.
300 To get ready for curved spacetime (whatever that means), look more closely at
301 the motion of a free stone in flat spacetime (Definition 5), where special
302 relativity correctly describes motion.
Twin Paradox predicts 303 A deep description of motion arises from the famous Twin Paradox. One
motion of a stone. 304 twin—say a boy—relaxes on Earth while his fraternal twin sister frantically
305 travels to a distant star and returns. When the two meet again, the
306 stay-at-home brother has aged more than his traveling sister. (To predict this
307 outcome, extend Sample Problem 1A to include return of the traveler to the
308 point of origin.) Upon being reunited, the “twins” no longer look similar: the
309 traveling sister is younger: she has aged less than her stay-at-home brother.
310 Very strange! But (almost) no one who has studied relativity doubts the
Section 1.6 The Twin “Paradox” and The Principle of Maximal Aging 1-13
311 difference in age, and every minute of every day somewhere on Earth a
312 measurement with a fast-moving particle verifies it.
Being at rest is one 313 Which twin has the motion we can call natural? Isaac Newton has a
natural motion. 314 definition of natural motion. He would say, “A twin at rest tends to remain at
315 rest.” So it is the stay-at-home twin who moves in the natural way. In
316 contrast, the out-and-back twin suffers the acceleration required to change her
317 state of motion, from outgoing motion to incoming motion, so the twins can
318 meet again in person. At least at her turnaround, the motion of the traveling
319 twin is forced, not natural.
320 Viewed from the second, relatively moving, inertial frame of the twin
321 sister, the stay-at-home boy initially moves away from her with constant speed
Moving uniformly 322 in a straight line. Again, his motion is natural. Newton would say, “A twin in
is another natural 323 uniform motion tends to continue this motion at constant speed in a straight
motion. 324 line.” So the motion of the stay-on-Earth twin is also natural from the
325 viewpoint of his sister’s frame in uniform relative motion—or from the
326 viewpoint of any frame moving uniformly with respect to the original frame.
327 In any such frame, the time lapse on the wristwatch of the stay-at-home twin
328 can be calculated from the interval (1).
329 But there is a difference between the stay-at-home brother on Earth and
330 the sister: She moves outward to a star, then turns around and returns to her
331 Earthbound brother. So when her trip is over, everyone must agree: It is the
332 brother who follows “natural” motion from parting event to reunion event.
333 And it is the stay-at-home brother—whose wristwatch records the greater
334 elapsed time—who ages the most.
Natural motion: 335 The lesson we draw from the Twin Paradox in flat spacetime is that
Maximal 336 natural motion is the motion that maximizes the wristwatch time between any
wristwatch time. 337 pair of events along its path. Now we can state the Principle of Maximal
338 Aging in flat spacetime.
339 DEFINITION 11. The Principle of Maximal Aging (flat spacetime)
Definition: Principle 340 The Principle of Maximal Aging states that the worldline a free stone
of Maximal Aging 341 follows between a pair of events in flat spacetime is the worldline for
342 which the wristwatch time is a maximum compared with every possible
343 alternative worldline between these events. The free stone follows the
344 worldline of maximal aging between these two events.
345 Objection 1. Why should I believe the Principle of Maximal Aging? Newton
346 never talks about this weird idea! What does this so-called “Principle”
347 mean, anyway?
348 Response: For now the Principle of Maximal Aging is simply a restatement
349 of the observation that in flat spacetime a free stone follows a straight
350 worldline. It repeats Newton’s First Law of Motion: A free stone at rest or in
351 motion maintains that condition. Why bother? Because general relativity
352 revises and extends the Principle of Maximal Aging to predict the motion of
353 a free stone in curved spacetime.
354 Objection 2. Wait! Have you really resolved the Twin Paradox? Both the
355 twin sister and the twin brother sees his or her twin moving away, then
356 moving back. Motion is relative, remember? The view of each twin is
357 symmetrical, not only during the outward trip but also during the return trip.
358 There is no difference between them. The experience of the two twins is
359 identical; you cannot wriggle out of this essential symmetry! You have
360 failed to explain why their wristwatches have different readings when they
361 reunite.
362 Nice point. But you forget that the experience of the two twins is not
363 identical. Fill in details of the story: When the twin sister arrives at the
364 distant star and reverses her starship’s direction of motion, that reversal
365 throws her against the forward bulkhead. Ouch! She starts home with a
366 painful lump on the right side of her forehead. Then when her ship slows
367 down so she can stand next to her stay-at-home brother, she forgets her
368 seat belt again. Result: a second painful lump, this time on the left side of
369 her forehead. In contrast, her brother remains relaxed and uninjured during
370 their entire separation. When the twins stand side by side, can each of
371 them tell which twin has gone to the distant star? Of course! More: Every
372 passing observer—whatever his or her speed or direction of motion—sees
373 and reports the difference between the twins: “injured sister; smiling
374 brother.” Everyone agrees on this difference. No contradiction and no
375 confusion. “Paradox” resolved.
376 Comment 3. The Quintuplet “Paradox”

377 In the last sentence of Definition 11, The Principle of Maximal Aging, notice the
378 word “every” in the phrase “is a maximum compared with every alternative
An infinite number 379 path...between the given initial and final events.” We are not just talking twins
of alternative 380 here, but triplets, quadruplets, quintuplets—indeed endless multiple births.
worldlines: the free 381 Example, Figure 5: One quintuplet—Quint #1—follows the worldline of maximal
stone chooses one. 382 aging between the two anchoring events by moving uniformly between them.
383 Each of the other quints also starts from the same Initial Event A and ends at the
384 same Final Event B, but follows a different alternative worldline—changes
385 velocity—between initial and final events. When all the quints meet at the final
386 event, all four traveling quints are younger than their uniformly-moving sibling,
387 but typically by different amounts. Every traveler, #2 through #5, who varies
388 velocity between the two end-events is younger than its uniformly-moving sibling,
389 Quint #1. The Principle of Maximal Aging singles out one worldline among the
390 limitless number of alternative worldlines between two end-events and demands
391 that the free stone follow this worldline—and no other.
392
QUERY 1. Analyze 393 the Quintuplet Paradox
Answer the following394questions about the Quintuplet Paradox illustrated in Figure 5.
A. Which of the 395

five quints ages the most between end-events A and B? (Trick question!)
B. Which of the 396
five quints ages the least between end-events A and B?
C. List the numbered
397 worldlines in order, starting with the worldline along which the aging is the
least and ending
398 with the worldline along which the aging is the most.
Section 1.6 The Twin “Paradox” and The Principle of Maximal Aging 1-15
FIGURE 5 The Quintuplet Paradox: Five alternative worldlines track the motion of five
different quintuplets (quints) between Initial Event A and Final Event B along a spatial straight
line. Quint #1 follows the (thick) worldline of maximal aging between A and B. Quint #2 moves
along the (thin) worldline at 0.999 of the speed of light outward and then back again. Quint
#3 follows a worldline (also a thin line) at the same speed as #2, but with three reversals of
direction. Quint #4 shuffles (dot-dash line) to the spatial position of Final Event B, then relaxes
there until her siblings join her at Event B. The (dashed) worldline of Quint #5 hugs worldline
#1—the worldline of Maximal Aging—but does not quite follow it.
D. True or false?399If the dashed worldline of Quint #5 skims close enough to that of Quint
#1—while still400 being separate from it—then Quint #5 will age the same as Quint #1 between
end-events A 401
and B.
E. Optional: Suppose
402 we view the worldlines of Figure 5 with respect to a frame in which Event A
and Event B occur
403 at the same spatial location. Whose inertial rest frame does this correspond
to? Will your 404
answers to Items A through D be different in this case?
405
406 Fuller Explanation: Twin “paradox:” Spacetime Physics, Chapter 4, Section

407 4.6.
Total wristwatch time:

τtot = τA + τB
Wristwatch time along (t3,s3)
segment B = τB B
(t2?,s2)
Wristwatch time along
segment A = τA
A (t2?,s2)
(t2?,s2)
Which t2?
(t1,s1)
s
FIGURE 6 Figure for the derivation of the energy of a stone. Examine two adjacent
segments, A and B, along an extended worldline plotted in, say, the laboratory frame. Choose
three events at the endpoints of these two segments with coordinates (t1 , s1 ), (t2 , s2 ), and
(t3 , s3 ). All coordinates are fixed except t2 . Vary t2 to find the maximum value of the total
aging τtot (Principle of Maximal Aging). Result: an expression for the stone’s energy E.
1.7
408 ENERGY IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY
409 The Principle of Maximal Aging tells us the energy of a stone.
410 Here is a modern translation (from Latin) of Isaac Newton’s famous First Law
411 of Motion:
Newton’s First Law 412 Newton’s first law of motion: Every body perseveres in its state of
of motion 413 being at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward except insofar as it
414 is compelled to change its state by forces impressed.
Validity of Newton’s 415 In modern terminology, Newton’s First Law says that, as measured in an
First Law in special 416 inertial frame in flat spacetime, a free stone moves along a straight worldline,
relativity . . . 417 that is with constant speed along a straight path in space. We assumed the
418 validity of Newton’s First Law in defining the inertial frame (Definition 1,
. . . leads to relativistic 419 Section 1.1). In the present section the Principle of Maximal Aging again
expression for energy. 420 verifies this validity of the First Law. Extra surprise! This process will help us
421 to derive the relativistic expression for the stone’s energy E.
422 Figure 6 illustrates the method: Consider two adjacent segments, A and B,
423 of the stone’s worldline with fixed events at the endpoints. Vary t2 of the
424 middle event to find the value that gives a maximum for the total wristwatch
425 time τtot along the adjacent segments. Now the step-by-step derivation:
426 1. The wristwatch time between the first and second events along the
427 worldline is the square root of the interval between them:
Section 1.7 Energy in Special Relativity 1-17
h i1/2
2 2
τA = (t2 − t1 ) − (s2 − s1 ) (13)
428 To prepare for the derivative that leads to maximal aging, differentiate
429 this expression with respect to t2 . (All other coordinates of the three
430 events are fixed.)
dτA t2 − t1 t2 − t1
=h 1/2
= (14)
dt2 2 2
i τA
(t2 − t1 ) − (s2 − s1 )
431 2. The wristwatch time between the second and third events along the
432 worldline is the square root of the interval between them:
h i1/2
2 2
τB = (t3 − t2 ) − (s3 − s2 ) (15)
433 Again, to prepare for the derivative that leads to extremal aging,
434 differentiate this expression with respect to t2 :
dτB t3 − t2 t3 − t2
= −h i1/2 = − (16)
dt2 2 2 τB
(t3 − t2 ) − (s3 − s2 )
435 3. The total wristwatch time τtot from event #1 to event #3—the total
436 aging between these two events—is the sum of the wristwatch time τA
437 between the first two events plus the wristwatch time τB between the
438 last two events:
τtot = τA + τB (17)
439 4. Now ask: At what intermediate t2 will a free stone pass the
440 intermediate point in space s2 and emit the second flash #2? Answer
441 by using the Principle of Maximal Aging: The time t2 will be such that
Principle of Maximal 442 the total aging τtot in (17) is a maximum. To find this maximum take
Aging finds time t2 443 the derivative of τ with respect to t2 and set the result equal to zero.
for middle event. 444 Add the final expressions (14) and (16) to obtain:
dτtot t2 − t1 t3 − t2
= − =0 (18)
dt2 τA τB
445 6. In equation (18) the time (t2 − t1 ) is the lapse of laboratory time for
Quantity whose 446 the stone to traverse segment A. Call this time tA . The time (t3 − t2 ) is
value is the 447 the lapse of laboratory time for the stone to traverse segment B. Call
same for adjoining 448 this time tB . Then rewrite (18) in the simple form
segments
tA tB
= (19)
τA τB
449 This result yields a maximum τtot , not a minimum; see Exercise 4.
450 7. We did not say which pair of adjoining segments along the worline we
451 were talking about, so equation (19) must apply to every pair of
452 adjoining segments anywhere along the path. Suppose that there are
453 three such adjacent segments. If the value of the expression is the same
454 for, say, the first and second segments and also the same for the second
455 and third segments, then it must be the same for the first and third
456 segments. Continue in this way to envision a whole series of adjoining
457 segments, labeled A, B, C, D,..., for each of which equation (19)
458 applies, leading to the set of equations
tA tB tC tD dtlab
= = = → (20)
τA τB τC τD dτ
459 where all coordinate values are given in the laboratory frame.
460 Comment 4. Differences to differentials
461 The last step, with the arrow, in (20) is a momentous one. We take the calculus
462 limit by shrinking to differentials—infinitesimals—all the differences in physical
Differences shrink 463 quantities. In Figure 6, for example, segments A and B shrink to infinitesimals.
to differentials 464 Why is this step important? Because in general relativity, curvature of spacetime
465 means that relations between adjacent events are described accurately only
466 when adjacent events are differentially close to one another. If they are far apart,
467 the two events may be in regions of different spacetime curvature.
468 What does the result (20) mean? We now show that dtlab /dτ in (20) is the
469 expression for energy per unit mass of a free stone in the laboratory frame.
470 The differential form of (1) yields:
dτ 2 = dt2lab − ds2lab = dt2lab 1 − ds2lab /dt2lab = dt2lab 1 − vlab

2

(21)
471 Combine (20) with (21):
dtlab 1
= (22)
dτ 2 )1/2
(1 − vlab
472 Working in a single inertial frame, we have just found that dt/dτ is
473 unchanging along the worldline of a free stone, which by Definition 11 is the
474 worldline of maximal aging. It follows that vlab is constant. Hence the
475 Principle of Maximal Aging leads to the result that in flat spacetime the free
476 stone moves at constant speed. (The derivation of relativistic momentum in
477 Section 1.8 shows that the free stone’s velocity is also constant, so that it
478 moves along a straight worldline in every inertial frame.)
479 We show below that at low speeds (22) reduces to Newton’s expression for
480 kinetic energy plus rest energy, all divided by the stone’s mass m. This
481 supports our decision to call the expression in (22) the energy per unit mass of
482 the stone:
Section 1.7 Energy in Special Relativity 1-19
Elab dtlab 1
= = 2 )1/2
= γlab (23)
m dτ (1 − vlab
483
484 The last expression in (23) introduces a symbol—Greek lower case

485 gamma—that we use to simplify later equations.
1
γlab ≡ 1/2
(24)
2 )
(1 − vlab
486
487 We call Elab /m a constant of motion because the free stone’s energy
488 does not change as it moves in the laboratory frame. This may seem trivial for
489 a stone that moves with constant speed in a straight line. In general relativity,
490 however, we will find an “energy” that is a constant of motion for a free stone
491 in orbit around a center of gravitational attraction.
492 We applied the Principle of Maximal Aging to motion in the laboratory
493 frame. An almost identical derivation applies in the rocket frame. Coordinates
494 of the initial and final events will differ from those in Figure 6, but the result
495 will still be that dtrocket /dτ is constant along the free stone’s worldline:
Erocket dtrocket 1
= = 2
= γrocket (25)
m dτ (1 − vrocket )1/2
496
497 Typically the value of the energy will be different in different inertial
498 frames. We expect this, because the speed of a stone is not necessarily the
499 same in different frames.
500 Equations (23) and (25) tell us that the energy of a stone in a given
501 inertial frame increases without limit when the stone’s speed approaches the
502 value one, the speed of light, in that frame. Therefore the speed of light is the
503 limit of the speed of a stone—or of any particle with mass—measured in any
504 inertial frame. The other limit of (23) is a stone at rest in the laboratory. In
505 this case, equation (23) reduces to
Elab = m (when speed of stone vlab = 0) (26)
506 We express m, the mass of the stone, in units of energy. If you insist on using
507 conventional units, such as joules for energy and kilograms for mass, then a
508 conversion factor c2 intrudes into our simple expression. The result is the most
509 famous equation in all of physics:
Elab,conv = mconv c2 (when speed of stone vlab = 0) (27)
510 Here the intentionally-awkward subscript “conv” means “conventional units.”

Rest energy 511 Equations (26) and (27) both quantify the rest energy of a stone; both tell us
Sample Problems 4. Energy Magnitudes

PROBLEM 4A
The “speed ladder” in Figure 2 shows that the fastest wheeled 1/2
3
vehicle moves on land at a speed approximately v ≈ 10−6 . v= = 0.866 (32)
The kinetic energy of this vehicle is what fraction of its rest 4
energy? This speed is a fraction of the speed of light, which means that
vconv = 0.866 × 3.00 × 108 meters/second = 2.60 × 108
SOLUTION 4A
meters/second.
For such an “everyday” speed, the approximation on the right
side of equation (28) should be sufficiently accurate. Then PROBLEM 4C
v 2 ≈ 10−12 and approximate equation (28) tells us that: Our Sun radiates 3.86 × 1026 watts of light. How much mass
kinetic energy mv 2 v2 does it convert to radiation every second?
= = ≈ 5 × 10−13 (29)
rest energy 2m 2
SOLUTION 4C
This problem provides exercise in converting units. One watt
PROBLEM 4B
is one joule/second. The units of energy are the units of (force
With what speed v must a stone move so that its kinetic
× distance) or (mass × acceleration × distance). Therefore
energy equals its rest energy?
the units of joule are kilogram-meter2 /second2 . From (27):
SOLUTION 4B Econv
This problem requires relativistic analysis. Equation (23) gives m= (33)
c2
total energy and (26) gives rest energy. Kinetic energy is the 2
difference between the two: 3.86 × 1026 kilogram-meters2 /second
=
Elab − m 1 (3.00 × 108 meters/second)2
= −1=1 (30)
m (1 − v 2 )1/2 ≈ 4.3 × 109 kilograms
from which
1 1 ≈ 4.3 × 106 metric tons
1 − v2 = = (31)
22 4 This is the mass—a few million metric tons—that our Sun, a
so that typical star, converts into radiation every second.
512 that mass itself is a treasure trove of energy. On Earth, nuclear reactions
513 release less than one percent of this available energy. In contrast, a
514 particle-antiparticle annihilation can release all of the mass of the combining
515 particles in the form of radiant energy (gamma rays).
516 At everyday speeds, the expression for Elab in (23) reduces to an
517 expression that contains Newton’s kinetic energy. How do we get to Newton’s
518 case? Simply ask: How fast do things move around us in our everyday lives?
519 At this writing, the fastest speed achieved by a wheeled vehicle on land is 1228
520 kilometers per hour (Figure 2), which is 763 miles per hour or 280 meters per
521 second. As a fraction of light speed, this vehicle moves at v = 9.3 × 10−7 (no
522 units). For such a small fraction, we can use a familiar approximation (inside
523 the front cover):
2

m 2
−1/2 vlab
Elab = 2 )1/2
= m 1 − vlab ≈m 1+ (28)
(1 − vlab 2
1 2
≈ m + mvlab = m + (KE)Newton (vlab 1)
2
524 You can verify that the approximation is highly accurate when vlab has the
525 value of the land speed record—and is an even better approximation for the
Section 1.8 Momentum in Special Relativity 1-21
526 everyday speeds of a bicycle or football. The final term in (28) is Newton’s
527 (low speed) expression for the kinetic energy of the stone. The first term is the
528 rest energy of the stone, equation (26).
529 We can also separate the relativistic expression for energy into rest energy
530 and kinetic energy. Define the relativistic kinetic energy of a stone in any
531 frame with the equation
KE ≡ E − m = m(γ − 1) (any frame, any speed) (34)

532
533 Comment 5. Deeper than Newton?

534 Newton’s First Law of Motion, quoted at the beginning of this section, was his
535 brilliant assumption. In the present section we have derived this result using the
536 Principle of Maximal Aging. Is our result deeper than Newton’s? We think so,
537 because the Principle of Maximal Aging has wider application than special
538 relativity. It informs our predictions for the motion of a stone around both the
539 non-spinning and the spinning black hole. Deep indeed!
540 Fuller Explanation: Energy in flat spacetime: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 7,

541 Momenergy.
1.8
542 MOMENTUM IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY
543 The interval plus the Principle of Maximal Aging give us an expression for the
544 linear momentum of a stone.
545 To derive the relativistic expression for the momentum of a stone, we use a
546 method similar to that for the derivation of energy in Section 1.7. Figure 7
547 corresponds to Figure 6, which we used to derive the stone’s energy.
548 Momentum has components in all three space directions; first we derive its
549 xlab component, which we write as px,lab . In the momentum case the time t2
550 for the intermediate flash emission is fixed, while we vary the space coordinate
551 s2 of this intermediate event to find the location that yields maximum
552 wristwatch time between initial and final events. We ask you to carry out this
553 derivation in the exercises. The result is a second expression whose value is
554 constant for a free stone in either the laboratory frame or the rocket frame:
px,lab dxlab vx,lab

= = = γlab vx,lab (35)
m dτ 2 )1/2
(1 − vlab
px,rocket dxrocket vx,rocket
= = 1/2
= γrocket vx,rocket (36)
m dτ 2
(1 − vrocket )
555
556 where vlab and vrocket are each constant in the respective frame, and γ was
557 defined in (24). Expressions for the ylab and zlab components of momentum
Total wristwatch time:

τtot =τA+τB
Wristwatch time along (t3,x3)

segment B = τB B
Wristwatch time along (t2,x2?)

A
segment A = τA (t2,x2?)
(t2,x2?)
Which x2?
(t1,x1)
x
FIGURE 7 Figure for the derivation of the x-component of momentum of a stone. You
will carry out this derivation in the exercises.
px,lab /m = dxlab /dτ 558 are similar to (35) and (36). The result for each component of momentum
is a constant 559 reminds us that the free stone moves with constant speed in a straight line in
of motion. 560 every inertial frame.
561 Each component of the free stone’s momentum in the laboratory frame is
562 a constant of motion, like its energy Elab /m in the laboratory frame, because
563 each component of momentum does not change as the free stone moves in the
564 laboratory frame. Momentum components of the stone in the rocket frame are
565 also constants of motion, though equations (35) and (36) show that
566 corresponding components in the two frames are not equal, because the stone’s
567 velocity is not the same in the two frames.
568 At slow speed, v 1, we recover Newton’s components of momentum in
569 both frames. This justifies our calling components in (35) and (36) momentum.
570 Fuller Explanation: Momentum in flat spacetime: Spacetime Physics,
571 Chapter 7, Momenergy.
1.9
572 MASS IN RELATIVITY
573 The mass m of a stone is an invariant!
Find mass from 574 An important relation among mass, energy, and momentum follows from the
energy and 575 timelike interval and our relativistic expressions for energy and momentum.
momentum. 576 Suppose a moving stone emits two flashes differentially close together in
577 distance dslab and in time dtlab , with similar differentials in the rocket frame.
578 Then (1) gives the lapse of wristwatch time dτ :
dτ 2 = dt2lab − ds2lab = dt2rocket − ds2rocket (37)

Section 1.9 Mass in Relativity 1-23
Box 1. No Mass Change with Speed!

The fact that no stone moves faster than the speed of light To preserve the diamond of invariant mass, we will never—
is sometimes “explained” by saying that “the mass of a stone outside the confines of this box—use the phrase “rest mass.”
increases with speed,” leading to what is called “relativistic (Horrors!). Why not? Because “rest mass” (Ouch!) implies that
mass” whose increase prevents acceleration to a speed there is such a thing as “non-rest mass”—mass that changes
greater than that of light. This interpretation can be applied with speed. Oops, there goes your precious diamond down
consistently, but what could it mean in practice? Someone the drain.
riding along with the faster-moving stone detects no change
In contrast, the phrase rest energy is fine; it is true that energy
in the number of atoms in the stone, nor any change whatever
changes with speed; the energy of a stone does have different
in the individual atoms, nor in the binding energy between
values as measured by inertial observers in uniform relative
atoms. Where’s the “change” in what is claimed to be a
motion. In the special case of a stone at rest in any inertial
“changing mass”? We observe no change in the stone that
frame, however, the value of its rest energy in that frame is
can possibly account for the varying value of its “relativistic
equal to the value of its mass—equation (26)—provided you
mass.”
use the same units for mass as for energy.
Our viewpoint in this book is that mass is a Lorentz invariant, “Rest mass”? NO!
something whose value is the same for all inertial observers Rest energy? YES!
when they use (39) or (40) to reckon the mass. In relativity, For more on this subject see Spacetime Physics, Dialog: Use
every invariant is a diamond. Do not throw away a diamond! and Abuse of the Concept of Mass, pages 246–251.
579 Divide equation (37) through by the invariant dτ 2 and multiply through by
580 the invariant m2 to obtain
2 2 2 2
dtlab dslab dtrocket dsrocket
m2 = m − m = m − m (38)
dτ dτ dτ dτ
581 Substitute expressions (23) and (35) for energy and momentum to obtain:
m2 = Elab
2
− p2lab = Erocket
2
− p2rocket (39)
582
583 In (39) mass, energy, and momentum are all expressed in the same units, such
584 as kilograms or electron-volts. In conventional units (subscript “conv”), the
585 equation has a more complicated form. In either frame:
(mconv c2 )2 = Econv
2
− p2conv c2 (40)
Stone’s energy 586 Equations (39) and (40) are central to special relativity. There is nothing like
(also momentum) 587 them in Newton’s mechanics. The stone’s energy E typically has different
may be different 588 values when measured in different inertial frames that are in uniform relative
for different 589 motion. Also the stone’s momentum p typically has different values when
observers. . . 590 measured in different frames. However, the values of these two quantities in
591 any given inertial frame can be used to determine the value of the stone’s mass
. . . but its mass 592 m, which is independent of the inertial frame. The stone’s mass m is a Lorentz
has the same 593 invariant (Definition 6 and Box 1).
(invariant!) value
in all frames.
594 Fuller Explanation: Mass and momentum-energy in flat spacetime:

595 Spacetime Physics, Chapter 7, Momenergy.
1.10
596 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION
597 Relative motion; relative observations
598 To develop special relativity, Einstein assumed that the laws of physics are the
599 same in every inertial frame, an assertion called The Principle of
600 Relativity. Let two different inertial frames, such as those of a laboratory and
601 an unpowered rocket ship, be in uniform relative motion with respect to one
602 another. Special relativity is valid in each of these frames. More: Special
603 relativity links the coordinates of an event in one frame with the coordinates
604 of the same event in the other frame; it also relates the energy and momentum
605 components of a stone measured in one frame to the corresponding quantities
606 measured in the other frame. Let an inertial (unpowered) rocket frame pass
607 with relative velocity vrel in the x-direction through an overlapping laboratory
608 frame. Call the laboratory coordinate separations between two events
609 (∆tlab , ∆xlab , ∆ylab , ∆zlab ) and the rocket coordinate separations between the
Lorentz transform 610 same events (∆trocket , ∆xrocket , ∆yrocket , ∆zrocket ). From now on we use the
from lab to rocket 611 Greek letter capital delta, ∆, as a shorthand for separation, to avoid lengthy
612 expressions, for example ∆tlab = t2,lab − t1,lab . These separations are related
613 by the Lorentz transformation equations:
∆trocket = γrel (∆tlab − vrel ∆xlab ) (41)

∆xrocket = γrel (∆xlab − vrel ∆tlab )
∆yrocket = ∆ylab and ∆zrocket = ∆zlab
614 where equation (24) defines γrel . We do not derive these equations here; see
615 Fuller Explanation at the end of this section. The reverse transformation, from
Lorentz transform 616 rocket to laboratory coordinates, follows from symmetry: replace vrel by −vrel
from rocket to lab 617 and interchange rocket and lab labels in (41) to obtain
∆tlab = γrel (∆trocket + vrel ∆xrocket ) (42)

∆xlab = γrel (∆xrocket + vrel ∆trocket )
∆ylab = ∆yrocket and ∆zlab = ∆zrocket
618 For a pair of events infinitesimally close to one another, we can reduce
619 differences in (42) and (41) to coordinate differentials. Further: It is also valid
620 to divide the resulting equations through by the Lorentz invariant differential
621 dτ and multiply through by the invariant mass m. Then substitute from
Transform energy 622 equations (23) and (35). Result: Two sets of equations that transform the
and momentum from 623 energy E and the components (px , py , pz ) of the momentum of a stone between
lab to rocket 624 these two frames:
Section 1.10 The Lorentz Transformation 1-25
Erocket = γrel (Elab − vrel px,lab ) (43)

px,rocket = γrel (px,lab − vrel Elab )
py,rocket = py,lab and pz,rocket = pz,lab
Transform energy 625 Here px,rocket is the x-component of momentum in the rocket frame, and so
and momentum from 626 forth. The reverse transformation, again by symmetry:
rocket to lab
Elab = γrel (Erocket + vrel px,rocket ) (44)
px,lab = γrel (px,rocket + vrel Erocket )
py,lab = py,rocket and pz,lab = pz,rocket
627 We can now predict and compare measurements in inertial frames in

628 relative motion. And remember, special relativity assumes that every inertial
629 frame extends without limit in every direction and for all time.
630 Comment 6. Nomenclature: Lorentz boost
Lorentz boost 631 Often a Lorentz transformation is called a Lorentz boost. The word boost does
632 not mean sudden change, but rather a change in the frame from which we make
633 measurements and observations.
634 Comment 7. Constant of motion vs. invariant

635 An invariant is not the same as a constant of motion. Here is the difference:
636 An invariant is a quantity that has the same value in all inertial frames. Two
637 sample invariants: (a) the wristwatch time between any two events, (b) the mass
638 of a stone. The term invariant must always tell or imply what the change is that
639 leads to the same result. Carefully stated, we would say: “The wristwatch time
640 between two events and the mass of a stone are each invariant with respect to a
641 Lorentz transformation between the laboratory and the rocket frame.”
642 By contrast, a constant of motion is a quantity that stays unchanged along the
643 worldline of a free stone as calculated in a given inertial frame. Two sample
644 constants of motion: (a) the energy and (b) the momentum of a free stone as
645 observed or measured in, say, the laboratory frame. In other inertial frames
646 moving relatively to the lab frame, the energy and momentum of the stone are
647 also constants of motion; however, these quantities typically have different
648 values in different inertial frames.
649 Conclusion: Invariants (diamonds) and constants of motion (rubies) are both
650 truly precious.
651 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Special Topic: Lorentz

652 Transformation.
1.11
653 LIMITS ON LOCAL INERTIAL FRAMES
654 Limits on the extent of an inertial frame in curved spacetime
655 Flat spacetime is the arena in which special relativity describes Nature. The
656 power of special relativity applies strictly only in an inertial frame—or in each
657 one of a collection of overlapping inertial frames in uniform relative motion. In
658 every inertial frame, by definition, a free stone released from rest remains at
659 rest and a free stone launched with a given velocity maintains the magnitude
660 and direction of that velocity.
Limits on size of 661 If it were possible to embrace the Universe with a single inertial frame,
local inertial 662 then special relativity would describe our Universe, and we would not need
frames? We need 663 general relativity. But we do need general relativity, precisely because typically
general relativity. 664 an inertial frame is inertial in only a limited region of space and time. Near a
665 center of attraction, every inertial frame must be local. An inertial frame can
666 be set up, for example, inside a sufficiently small “container,” such as (a) an
667 unpowered rocket ship in orbit around Earth or Sun, or (b) an elevator on
668 Earth whose cables have been cut, or (c) an unpowered rocket ship in
669 interstellar space. In each such inertial frame, for a limited extent of space and
670 time, we find no evidence of gravity.
Inertial frame 671 Well, almost no evidence. Every inertial enclosure in which we ride near
cannot be too 672 Earth cannot be too large or fall for too long a frame time without some
large, because . . . 673 unavoidable change in relative motion between a pair of free stones in the
674 enclosure. Why? Because each one of a pair of widely separated stones within a
675 large enclosed space is affected differently by the nonuniform gravitational field
676 of Earth—as Newton would say. For example, two stones released from rest
677 side by side are both attracted toward the center of Earth, so they move closer
678 together as measured inside a falling long narrow horizontal railway coach
679 (Figure 8, left panel). Their motion toward one another has nothing to do with
680 gravitational attraction between these stones, which is entirely negligible.
681 As another example, think of two stones released from rest far apart
682 vertically, one directly above the other in a long narrow vertical falling railway
683 coach (Figure 8, right panel). For vertical separation, their gravitational
684 accelerations toward Earth are both in the same direction. However, the stone
685 nearer Earth is more strongly attracted to Earth, so gradually leaves the other
686 stone behind, according to Newton’s analysis. As a result, viewed from inside
687 the coach the two stones move farther apart. Conclusion: The large enclosure
688 is not an inertial frame.
. . . tidal accelerations 689 A rider in either railway car such as those shown in Figure 8 sees the pair
occur in large frames. 690 of horizontally-separated stones accelerate toward one another and a pair of
691 vertically-separated stones accelerate away from one another. These relative
692 motions earn the name tidal accelerations, because they arise from the same
693 kind of nonuniform gravitational field that accounts for ocean tides on
694 Earth—tides due to the field of the Moon, which is stronger on the side of
695 Earth nearer the Moon.
Unavoidable tidal 696 As we fall toward the center of attraction, there is no way to avoid the
accelerations? 697 relative—tidal—accelerations at different locations in the long railway car. We
Then unavoidable
spacetime curvature!
Section 1.11 Limits on local inertial frames 1-27
FIGURE 8 Einstein’s old-fashioned railway coach in free fall, showing relative

accelerations of a pair of free stones, as described by Newton (not to scale). Left
panel: Two horizontally separated free stones are both attracted toward the center of
Earth, so as viewed by someone who rides in the falling horizontal railway car, this
pair of stones accelerate toward one another. Right panel: A free stone nearer Earth
has a greater acceleration than that of a free stone farther from Earth. As viewed by
someone who rides in the falling vertical railway car, this pair of free stones accelerate
away from one another. We call these relative accelerations tidal accelerations.
698 can do nothing to eliminate tidal accelerations completely. These relative

699 accelerations are central indicators of the curvature of spacetime.
700 Even though we cannot completely eliminate tidal accelerations near a
701 center of gravitational attraction, we can often reduce them sufficiently so that
702 they do not affect the results of a local measurement that takes place entirely
703 in that frame.
Make every 704 Conclusion: Almost everywhere in the Universe we can set up a local
measurement 705 inertial frame in which to carry out a measurement. Throughout this book we
in a local 706 choose to make every observation and measurement and carry out every
inertial frame. 707 experiment in a local inertial frame. This leads to one of the key ideas in this
708 book (see back cover):
709 We choose to report every measurement and observation using an

710 inertial frame—a local inertial frame in curved spacetime.
711 But the local inertial frame tells only part of the story. How can we
712 analyze a pair of events widely separated near the Earth, near the Sun, or near
713 a neutron star—events too far apart to be enclosed in a single inertial frame?
714 For example, how do we describe the motion of a comet whose orbit
General relativity: 715 completely encircles the Sun, with an orbital period of many years? The comet
patchwork quilt 716 passes through a whole series of local inertial frames, but cannot be tracked
of inertial frames. 717 using a single global inertial frame—which does not exist. Special relativity
718 has reached its limit! To describe motion that oversteps a single local inertial
719 frame, we must turn to a theory of curved spacetime such as Einstein’s general
720 relativity—his Theory of Gravitation—that we start in Chapter 3, Curving.
721 Comment 8. Which way does wristwatch time flow?
722 In your everyday life, time flows out of what you call your past, into what you call
723 your future. We label this direction the arrow of time. But equation (37) contains
724 only squared differentials, which allows wristwatch time lapse to be negative—to
725 run backward—instead of forward along your worldline. So why does your life
726 flow in only one direction—from past to future on your wristwatch? A subtle
727 question! We do not answer it here. In this book we simply assume one-way flow
728 of wristwatch time along any worldline. This assumption will lead us on an
729 exciting journey!
730 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 2, Falling Free, and

731 Chapter 9, Gravity: Curved Spacetime in Action.
1.12
732 GENERAL RELATIVITY: OUR CURRENT TOOLKIT
733 Ready for a theory of curved spacetime.
734 The remainder of this book introduces Einstein’s general theory of relativity,
735 currently our most powerful toolkit for understanding gravitational effects.
General relativity: 736 You will be astonished at the range of observations that general relativity
amazing predictive 737 describes and correctly predicts, among them gravitational waves, space
power 738 dragging, the power of quasars, deflection and time delay of light passing a
739 center of attraction, the tiny precession of the orbit of planet Mercury, the
740 focusing of light by astronomical objects, and the existence of gravitational
741 waves. It even makes some predictions about the fate of the Universe.
General relativity 742 In spite of its immense power, Einstein’s general relativity has some
faces extension 743 inadequacies. General relativity is incompatible with quantum mechanics that
or revision. 744 describes the structure of atoms. Sooner or later a more fundamental theory is
745 sure to replace general relativity and surmount its limits.
746 We now have strong evidence that so-called “baryonic
747 matter”—everything we can see and touch on Earth (including ourselves) and
What makes up 96% 748 everything we currently see in the heavens—constitutes only about four
of the Universe? 749 percent of the stuff that affects the expansion of the Universe. What makes up
750 the remaining 96 percent? Current theories of cosmology—the study of the
751 history and evolution of the Universe (Chapter 15)—examine this question
752 using general relativity. But an alternative possibility is that general relativity
753 itself requires modification at these huge scales of distance and time.
754 Theoretical research into quantum gravity is active; so are experimental
755 tests looking for violations of general relativity, experiments whose outcomes
Section 1.12 General Relativity: Our Current Toolkit 1-29
756 might guide a new synthesis. Meanwhile, Einstein’s general relativity is highly
In the meantime, 757 successful and increasingly important as an everyday toolkit. The conceptual
general relativity 758 issues it raises (and often satisfies) are profound and are likely to be part of
is a powerful toolkit. 759 any future modification. Welcome to this deep, powerful, and intellectually
760 delicious subject!
761 Comment 9. Truth in labeling: “Newton” and “Einstein”

762 Throughout this book we talk about Newton and Einstein as if each were
763 responsible for the current form of his ideas. This is false: Newton published
764 nothing about kinetic energy; Einstein did not believe in the existence of black
765 holes. Hundreds of people have contributed—and continue to contribute—to the
766 ongoing evolution and refinement of ideas created by these giants. We do not
767 intend to slight past or living workers in the field. Rather, we use “Newton” and
768 “Einstein” as labels to indicate which of their worlds we are discussing at any
769 point in the text.
770 Objection 3. You have told me a lot of weird stuff in this chapter, but I am
771 interested in truth and reality. Do moving clocks really run slow? Are
772 clocks synchronized in one frame really unsynchronized in a
773 relatively-moving frame? Give me the truth about reality!
774 Truth and reality are mighty words indeed, but in both special and general
775 relativity they are distractions; we strongly suggest that you avoid them as
776 you study these subjects. Why? Because they direct your attention away
777 from the key question that relativity is designed to answer: What does this
778 inertial observer measure and report? Ask THAT question and you are
779 ready for general relativity!
780 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 9, Gravity: Curved

781 Spacetime in Action
782 Now Besso has departed from this strange world a little ahead
783 of me. That means nothing. We who believe in physics, know
784 that the distinction between past, present and future is only a
785 stubbornly persistent illusion.
786 —Albert Einstein, 21 March 1955, in a letter to Michele

787 Besso’s family; Einstein died 18 April 1955.
788 Comment 10. Chapter preview and summary

789 This book does not provide formal chapter previews or summaries. To preview
790 the material, read the section titles and questions on the left hand initial page of
791 each chapter, then skim through the marginal comments. Do the same to
792 summarize material and to recall it at a later date.
1.13
793 EXERCISES
794 1. Answer to challenge problem in Sample Problem 3:

795 Event B cannot cause either Event A or Event C because it occurs after those
796 events in the given frame. The temporal order of events with a timelike
797 relation will not change, no matter from what frame they are observed: See
798 Section 2.6, entitled “The Difference between Space and Spacetime.”
799 2. Spatial Separation I

800 Two firecrackers explode at the same place in the laboratory and are separated
801 by a time of 3 seconds as measured on a laboratory clock.
802 A. What is the spatial distance between these two events in a rocket in
803 which the events are separated in time by 5 seconds as measured on
804 rocket clocks?
805 B. What is the relative speed vrel between rocket and laboratory frames?
806 3. Spatial Separation II

807 Two firecrackers explode in a laboratory with a time difference of 4 seconds
808 and a space separation of 5 light-seconds, both space and time measured with
809 equipment at rest in the laboratory. What is the distance between these two
810 events in a rocket in which they occur at the same time?
811 4. Maximum wristwatch time

812 Show that equation (18) corresponds to a maximum, not a minimum, of total
813 wristwatch time of the stone, equation (17), as it travels across two adjacent
814 segments of its worldline.
815 5. Space Travel

816
817 An astronaut wants to travel to a star 33 light-years away. He wants the trip
818 to last 33 years. (He wants to age 33 years during the trip.) How fast should
819 he travel? (The answer is NOT v = 1.)
820 6. Traveling Clock Loses Synchronization

821
822 An airplane flies from Budapest to Boston, about 6700 kilometers, at a speed
823 of 350 meters/second. It carries a clock that was initially synchronized with a
824 clock in Budapest and another one in Boston. When the clock arrives in
825 Boston, will the clock aboard the plane be fast or slow compared to the one in
826 Boston, and by how much? Neglect the curvature and rotation of the Earth, as
Section 1.13 Exercises 1-31
827 well as the short phases of acceleration and deceleration of the plane at takeoff
828 and landing.
829 7. Successive Lorentz Boosts

830
831 Consider two successive Lorentz transformations: the first transformation from
832 lab frame L to runner frame R, and a second transformation from runner frame
833 R to super-runner frame S. The runner frame moves with speed v1 relative to
834 the lab frame. And the super-runner frame moves with speed v2 relative to the
835 runner frame; this, along the same line of motion that R moves relative to L.
836 Write the two transformations, from L to R, and from R to S, and
837 combine them to obtain events coordinates in the S frame in terms of the
838 events coordinates in the L frame. Show that the result is equivalent to a
839 single Lorentz transformation from L to S, with speed vrel given by:
v1 + v2
vrel = (45)
1 + v 1 v2
840 Use equation (45) to verify the slogan, For light, one plus one equals one.
841 8. Tilted Meter Stick

842 A spaceship moves directly toward Earth, say along the x-axis at constant
843 speed vrel with respect to Earth. A meter stick is stationary in the spaceship
844 but oriented at an angle αS with respect to the forward line of relative motion.
845 As they pass one another: (a) What angle does the Earth observer measure
846 the meter stick to make with his x-axis? (b) What is the length of the stick
847 measured by the earth observer? (c) Answer parts (a) and (b) for the cases
848 αS = 90o and αS = 0o . (d) For the case vrel = 0.75 and αS = 60o , what are the
849 numerical results of parts (a) and (b)?
850 9. Super Cosmic Rays

851 The Pierre Auger Observatory is an array of cosmic ray detectors lying on the
852 vast plain Pampa Amarilla (yellow prairie) in western Argentina, just east of
853 the Andes Mountains. The purpose of the observatory is to study cosmic rays
854 of the highest energies. The highest energy cosmic ray detected had an energy
855 of 3 × 1020 electron-volts.
856 A. A regulation tennis ball has a mass of 57 grams. If this tennis ball is
857 given a kinetic energy of 3 × 1020 electron volts, how fast will it move,
858 in meters per second? (Hint: Try Newton’s mechanics.)
859 B. Suppose a proton has the energy 3 × 1020 electron-volts. How long
860 would it take this proton to cross our galaxy (take the galaxy diameter
861 to be 105 light-years) as measured on the proton’s wristwatch? Give
862 your answer in seconds.
863 C. What is the diameter of the galaxy measured in the rest frame of the
864 proton?
865 10. Mass-Energy Conversion
866 A. How much mass does a 100-watt bulb dissipate (in heat and light) in
867 one year?
868 B. Pedaling a bicycle at full throttle, you generate approximately one-half
869 horsepower of useful power. (1 horsepower = 746 watts). The human
870 body is about 25 percent efficient; that is, 25 percent of the food
871 burned can be converted to useful work. How long a time will you have
872 to ride your bicycle in order to lose 1 kilogram by direct conversion of
873 mass to energy? Express your answer in years. (One year = 3.16 × 107
874 seconds.) How can weight-reducing gymnasiums stay in business?
875 What is misleading about the way this exercise is phrased?
876 C. One kilogram of hydrogen combines chemically with 8 kilograms of
877 oxygen to form water; about 108 joules of energy is released. A very
878 good chemical balance is able to detect a fractional change in mass of 1
879 part in 108 . By what factor is this sensitivity more than enough—or
880 insufficient—to detect the fractional change of mass in this reaction?
881 11. Departure from Newton

882 Use equations (33) and (34) to check the Newtonian limit of the expression for
883 kinetic energy:
884 A. An asteroid that falls from rest at a great distance reaches Earth’s
885 surface with a speed of 10 kilometers/second (if we neglect atmospheric
886 resistance). By what percent is Newton’s prediction for kinetic energy
887 in error for this asteroid?
888 B. At what speed does the all-speed expression for kinetic energy (34)
889 yield a kinetic energy that differs from Newton’s prediction—embodied
890 in equation (33)—by one percent? ten percent? fifty percent?
891 seventy-five percent? one hundred percent? Use the percentage
892 expression 100 × [KE − (KE)Newton ]/KE, where KE is the relativistic
893 expression for kinetic energy.
894 12. Units and Conversions
895 A. Show that the speed of a stone in an inertial frame (as a fraction of the
896 speed of light) is given by the expression

ds p
vinertial = = (46)
dt inertial E inertial
897 B. What speed v does (46) predict when the mass of the particle is zero,
898 as is the case for a flash of light? Is this result the one you expect?
899 C. The mass and energy of particles in beams from accelerators is often
900 expressed in GeV, that is billions of electron-volts. Journal articles
901 describing these measurements refer to particle momentum in units of
902 GeV/c. Explain.
903 13. The Pressure of Light

904 A flash of light has zero mass. Use equation (40), in conventional units, to
905 answer the following questions.
906 A. You can feel on your hand an object with the weight of 1 gram mass.
907 Shine a laser beam downward on a black block of wood that you hold
908 in your hand. You detect an increased force as if the block of wood had
909 increased its mass by one gram. What power does the laser beam
910 deliver, in watts?
911 B. The block of wood described in part A absorbs the energy of the laser
912 beam. Will the block burst into flame?
913 14. Derivation of the Expression for Momentum
914 A. Carry out the derivation of the relativistic expression for momentum
915 described in Section 1.8. Lay out this derivation in a series of numbered
916 steps that parallel those for the derivation of the energy in Section 1.7.
917 B. Write an expression for p in conventional units.
918 15. Verifying energy-momentum transformation equations

919 Derive transformation equations (43) and (44) using the procedure outlined
920 just before these equations.
921 16. Newtonian transformation

922 Show that for Newton, where all velocities are small compared to the speed of
923 light, the Lorentz transformation equations (41) reduce to the familiar
924 Galilean transformation equations and lead to the universality of time.
925 17. The Photon

926 NOTE: Exercises 13 through 18 are related to one another.
927 A. A photon is a quantum of light, a particle with zero mass. Apply

928 equation (39) for a photon moving only in the ±x-direction. Show that
929 in this conversion to light, px → ±E.
930 B. Write down the Lorentz transformation equations (43) and (44) for a
931 photon moving in the positive x-direction.
932 C. Write down the Lorentz transformation equations (43) and (44) for a
933 photon moving in the negative x-direction.
934 D. Show that it does not matter what units you use for E in your photon
935 Lorentz transformation equations, as long as the units for each
936 occurrence of E are the same.
937 18. One-Dimensional Doppler Equations

938 A mongrel equation (neither classical nor quantum-mechanical) connects the
939 quantum energy E of a single photon with the frequency f of a classical
940 electromagnetic wave. In conventional units, this equation is:
Econv = hfconv (photon, conventional units) (47)
941 where fconv is the frequency in oscillations per second and h is Planck’s
942 constant. In SI units, Econv has the unit joules, and h has the value
943 h = 6.63 × 10−34 joule-second.
944 A. Substitute (47) into your transformation equations for the photon, and
2 −1/2
945 replace γrel in those equations with its definition (1 − vrel ) . Planck’s
946 constant disappears from the resulting equations between frequency
947 flab in the laboratory frame and frequency frocket in the rocket frame:
1/2
1 ± vrel
flab = frocket ( ±x, light) (48)
1 ∓ vrel
1/2
1 ∓ vrel
frocket = flab ( ±x, light) (49)
1 ± vrel
948 These are the one-dimensional Doppler equations for light moving
949 in either direction along the x-axis.
950 B. The relation between frequency fconv and wavelength λconv for a
951 classical plane wave in an inertial frame, in conventional units
fconv λconv = c (classical plane wave) (50)
952 Rewrite equations (48) and (49) for the relation between laboratory
953 wavelength λlab and rocket wavelength λrocket .
954 19. Speed-Control Beacon

955 An advanced civilization sets up a beacon on a planet near the crowded center
956 of our galaxy and asks travelers approaching directly or receding directly from
957 the beacon to use the Doppler shift to measure their speed relative to the
958 beacon, with a speed limit at v = 0.2 relative to that beacon. The beacon
959 emits light of a single proper wavelength λ0 , that is, the wavelength measured
960 in the rest frame of the beacon. Four index colors are:
λred = 680 × 10−9 meter = 680 nanometers (51)

−9
λyellow = 580 × 10 meter = 580 nanometers
λgreen = 525 × 10−9 meter = 525 nanometers
λblue = 475 × 10−9 meter = 475 nanometers
961 A. Choose the beacon proper wavelength λ0 so that a ship approaching at

962 half the speed limit, v = 0.1, sees green light. What is the proper
963 wavelength λ0 of the beacon beam? What color do you see when you
964 stand next to the beacon?
965 B. As your spaceship moves directly toward the beacon described in Part
966 A, you see the beacon light to be blue. What is your speed relative to
967 the beacon? Is this below the speed limit?
968 C. In which direction, toward or away from the beacon, are you traveling
969 when you see the beacon to be red? What is your speed relative to the
970 beacon? Is this below the speed limit?
971 20. Radar

972 An advanced civilization uses radar to help enforce the speed limit in the
973 crowded center of our galaxy. Radar relies on the fact that with respect to its
974 rest frame a spaceship reflects a signal back with a frequency equal to the
975 incoming frequency measured in its frame.
976 A. Show that a radar signal of frequency f0 at the source is received back
977 from a directly approaching ship with the reflected frequency freflect
978 given by the expression:
1+v
freflect = f0 (radar) (52)
1−v
979 where v is the speed of the spaceship with respect to the signal source.
980 B. What is the wavelength λreflect of the signal reflected back from a
981 spaceship approaching at the speed limit of v = 0.2?
982 C. The highway speed of a car is very much less than the speed of light.
983 Use the approximation formula inside the front cover to find the
984 following approximate expression for freflect − f0 :
freflect − f0 ≈ 2vf0 (highway radar) (53)
985 The Massachusetts State Highway Patrol uses radar with microwave
986 frequency f0 = 10.525 × 109 cycles/second. By how many cycles/second
987 is the reflected beam shifted in frequency when reflected from a car
988 approaching at 100 kilometers/hour (or 27.8 meters/second)?
989 21. Two-dimensional Velocity Transformations

990 An electron moves in the laboratory frame with components of velocity
991 (vx,lab , vy,lab ) and in the rocket frame with components of velocity
992 (vx,rocket , vy,rocket ).
993 A. Use the differential form of the Lorentz transformation equations (42)
994 to relate the velocity components of the electron in laboratory and
995 rocket frames:
vx,rocket + vrel vy,rocket
vx,lab = vy,lab = (54)
1 + vrel vx,rocket γrel (1 + vrel vx,rocket )
996 This is called the Law of Transformation of Velocities.
997 B. With a glance at the Lorentz transformation (42) and its inverse (41),
998 make an argument that to derive the inverse of (54), one simply replaces
999 vrel with −vrel and interchanges lab and rocket labels, leading to:
vx,lab − vrel vy,lab
vx,rocket = vy,rocket = (55)
1 − vrel vx,lab γrel (1 − vrel vx,lab )
1000 C. Does the law of transformation of velocities allow the electron to move
1001 faster than light when observed in the laboratory frame? For example,
1002 suppose that in the rocket frame the electron moves in the positive
1003 xrocket -direction with velocity vx,rocket = 0.75 and the rocket frame also
1004 moves in the same direction with the same relative speed vrel = 0.75.
1005 What is the value of the velocity vx,lab of the electron in the laboratory
1006 frame?
1007 D. Suppose two light flashes move with opposite velocities vx,rocket = ±1 in
1008 the rocket frame. What are the corresponding velocities vx,lab of the
1009 two light flashes in the laboratory frame?
1010 E. Light moves with velocity components
1011 (vx,rocket , vy,rocket , vz,rocket ) = (0, −1, 0) in the rocket frame. Predict the
1012 magnitude |vlab | of its velocity measured in the laboratory frame. Does
1013 a calculation verify your prediction?
1014 22. Aberration of light

1015 Light that travels in one direction in the laboratory travels in another direction
1016 in the rocket frame unless the light moves along the line of relative motion of
1017 the two frames. This difference in light travel direction is called aberration.
1018 A. Transform the angle of light propagation in two spatial dimensions.

1019 Recall that laboratory and rocket x-coordinates lie along the same line,
1020 and in each frame measure the angle ψ of light motion with respect to
1021 this common forward x-direction. Make the following argument: Light
1022 travels with the speed one, which is the hypotenuse of the velocity
1023 component triangle. Therefore for light vx,inertial ≡ vx,inertial /1 = cos ψ.
1024 Show that this argument converts the first of equations (54) to:
cos ψrocket + vrel
cos ψlab = (light) (56)
1 + vrel cos ψrocket
1025 B. From equation (39) show that for light tracked in any inertial frame
1026 |pinertial | = Einertial . Hence px,inertial /Einertial = cos ψ and the first of
1027 equations (44) becomes, for light
Elab = Erocket γrel (1 + vrel cos ψrocket ) (light) (57)
1028 C. Make an argument that to derive the inverses of (56) and (57), you
1029 simply replace vrel with −vrel and interchange laboratory and rocket
1030 labels, to obtain the aberration equations:
cos ψlab − vrel
cos ψrocket = (light) (58)
1 − vrel cos ψlab
Erocket = Elab γrel (1 − vrel cos ψlab ) (light) (59)
1031 D. A source at rest in the rocket frame emits light uniformly in all
1032 directions in that frame. Consider the 50 percent of this light that goes
1033 into the forward hemisphere in the rocket frame. Show that in the
1034 laboratory frame this light is concentrated in a narrow forward cone of
1035 half-angle ψheadlight,lab given by the following equation:
cos ψheadlight,lab = vrel (headlight effect) (60)
1036 The transformation that leads to concentration of light in the forward

1037 direction is called the headlight effect.
1038 23. Cherenkov Radiation

1039 Can an electron move faster than light? No and yes. No, an electron cannot
1040 move faster than light in a vacuum; yes, it can move faster than light in a
1041 medium in which light moves more slowly than its standard speed in a
1042 vacuum. P. A. Cherenkov shared the 1958 Nobel Prize for this discovery that
1043 an electron emits coherent radiation when it moves faster than light moves in
1044 any medium.
1045 What is the minimum kinetic energy that an electron must have to emit
1046 Cherenkov radiation while traveling through water, where the speed of light is
1047 vlight ≈ 0.75? Express this kinetic energy as both the fraction (kinetic
1048 energy)/m of its mass m and in electron-volts (eV). Type “Cherenkov
1049 radiation” into a computer search engine to see images of the blue light due to
1050 Cherenkov radiation emitted by a radioactive source in water.
1051 24. Live Forever?

1052 Luc Longtin shouts, “I can live forever! Here is a variation of equation (1):
1053 ∆τ 2 = ∆t2Earth − ∆s2Earth . Relativity allows the possibility that ∆τ ∆tEarth .
1054 In the limit, ∆τ → 0, so the hour hand on my wristwatch does not move.
1055 Eternal life!
1056 “I have decided to ride a 100 kilometer/hour train back and forth my
1057 whole life. THEN I will age much more slowly.” Comment on Luc’s ecstatic
1058 claim without criticizing him.
1059 A. When he carries out his travel program, how much younger will
1060 100-year-old Luc be than his stay-at-home twin brother Guy?
1061 B. Suppose Luc rides a spacecraft in orbit around Earth (speed given in
1062 Figure 2). In this case, how much younger will 100-year-old Luc be
1063 than brother Guy?
1064 C. Suppose Luc manages to extend his life measured in Earth-time by
1065 riding on a fast cosmic ray (speed given in Figure 2). When Luc returns
1066 to Earth in his old age, it is clear that his brother Guy will no longer be
1067 among the living. However, would Luc experience his life as much
1068 longer than he would have experienced it if he remained on Earth?
1069 That is, would he “enjoy a longer life” in some significant sense, for
1070 example counting many times the total number of heartbeats
1071 experienced by Guy?
1.14
1072 REFERENCES
1073 Initial quote: The Ultimate Quotable Einstein, Collected and Edited by Alice
1074 Calaprice, 2011, Princeton University Press, page 354.
1075 Final quote: same reference, page 113.
1076 Spacetime Physics, Introduction to Special Relativity, Second Edition, Edwin
1077 F. Taylor and John Archibald Wheeler, W. H. Freeman and Co., New York,
1078 1992, ISBN 0-7167-2327-1. This is our own special relativity text, to which
1079 we make reference at the end of several sections in Chapter 1 and elsewhere
1080 in the present book.
1081 Quote at the end of Section 1.5: Robert W. Fuller and John A. Wheeler,
1082 “Causality and Multiply Connected Space-Time,” Physical Review, Volume
1083 128, Number 2, October 15, 1962, pages 919-929.
1084 Newton’s first law of motion (Section 1.7) quoted from The Principia, A new
1085 translation by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, University of
1086 California Press, 1999, page 416.
Section 1.14 References 1-39
1087 Comment 8: Kip S. Thorne’s Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein’s
1088 Outrageous Legacy, W. W. Norton Co., New York, 1994. An introduction
1089 that includes the many people who forged the physics of the black hole.
1090 Download file name: Ch01Speeding170508v1.pdf

20180615EXP Blackhole

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

20180615EXP Blackhole

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

20180615EXP Blackhole

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

January 16, 2018 09:20 Speeding171229v1 Sheet number 1 Page number 0-0 AW Physics Macros

17 • What is the key idea of relativity?

30 DOWNLOAD FILE NAME: Ch01Speeding170508v1.pdf

32 I’ve completely solved the problem. My solution was to analyze

36 —Albert Einstein, May 1905, to his friend Michele Besso

1.137 SPECIAL RELATIVITY

52 DEFINITION 1. Inertial frame

57 We are interested in the records of these two events made by someone in

1-2 Chapter 1 Speeding

(t1lab, s1lab) (t2lab, s2lab)

(t1rocket, s1rocket) (t2rocket, s2rocket)

59 DEFINITION 2. Observer ≡ inertial observer

64 The top panel of Figure 1 summarizes the records of the laboratory

Section 1.2 Wristwatch time 1-3

1.290 WRISTWATCH TIME

100 DEFINITION 3. Wristwatch time = aging

1-4 Chapter 1 Speeding

115 DEFINITION 4. Interval

120 Case 1: Timelike interval, τ 2 > 0 this section

Section 1.2 Wristwatch time 1-5

fastest cosmic ray (3 x 1020 eV) 1

106 orbital speeds, PSR1913+16 binaries 10-2

fraction of light speed

159 DEFINITION 5. Flat spacetime

1-6 Chapter 1 Speeding

Sample Problems 1. Wristwatch Times

166 DEFINITION 6. Invariant

179 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 1, Spacetime: Overview

Section 1.3 Ruler Distance 1-7

Sample Problems 2. Speeding to Andromeda

τ 2 = (t2Sun − t1Sun )2 − (s2Sun − s1Sun )2 10−12

1-8 Chapter 1 Speeding

211 DEFINITION 7. Ruler distance

τ 2 = −σ 2 = 0 = (s2lab − s1lab )2 − (t2lab − t1lab )2 (lightlike interval) (9)

230 DEFINITION 8. Lightlike (null) interval

Section 1.4 Lightlike (Null) Interval 1-9

Sample Problems 3. Causation

SOLUTION τ 2 = (7 − 5)2 − (4 − 6)2 = 22 − 22 (12)

236 Comment 1. Einstein’s derivation of special relativity

241 Fuller Explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 6, Regions of Spacetime.

1-10 Chapter 1 Speeding

251 DEFINITION 9. Worldline

259 Comment 2. Plotting the worldline

282 DEFINITION 10. Light cone

Section 1.5 Worldline of a Wandering Stone; The Light Cone 1-11

289 THE LIGHT CONE AND CAUSALITY

295 —Robert W. Fuller and John Archibald Wheeler

296 More complete explanation: Spacetime Physics, Chapter 5, Trekking

1-12 Chapter 1 Speeding

1-14 Chapter 1 Speeding

376 Comment 3. The Quintuplet “Paradox”

QUERY 1. Analyze 393 the Quintuplet Paradox

Answer the following394questions about the Quintuplet Paradox illustrated in Figure 5.

A. Which of the 395

406 Fuller Explanation: Twin “paradox:” Spacetime Physics, Chapter 4, Section

1-16 Chapter 1 Speeding

Total wristwatch time:

Section 1.7 Energy in Special Relativity 1-17

1-18 Chapter 1 Speeding

dτ 2 = dt2lab − ds2lab = dt2lab 1 − ds2lab /dt2lab = dt2lab 1 − vlab