4

OUR EXPERTS ADVISE ON:

Inclusive Practices
in English Language
Teaching
The OUP ELT Expert Panel

Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press is a department of the
University of Oxford and furthers the University’s
objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and
education by publishing worldwide.

The OUP ELT Expert Panel

The Oxford University Press ELT Expert Panel
was set up for consultation on current key issues
and trends affecting English Language Teaching.
Consultation with the Panel ensures research-based
support to inform OUP English language teaching
content and services. This enables Oxford University
Press to best meet the needs of English language
learners, their teachers, school management, and
policymakers across the globe.
The Panel comprises academics and specialist
practitioners in the fields of English Language
Teaching, Applied Linguistics, and Education.
Together, these experts offer a wide range of
experience, research interests, and specialisms,
providing OUP ELT with a broad perspective on key
issues facing ELT educators today.

Oxford ELT Position Papers

The Oxford ELT Position Papers are the culmination
of consultancy with members of the Panel and are
written by an expert author. With these papers, OUP
ELT aims to provide guidance for decision-makers in
ELT, translating insights from academic research and
classroom practice into recommendations for the
following readership:
●● Ministries of Education
●● Policymakers
●● Curriculum developers
●● School owners
●● Directors of Studies
●● Head teachers
●● Teachers

© Oxford University Press ❚  i

The Experts consulted for this paper

Michele Daloiso
Michele Daloiso is Lecturer in the English Language at Ca’ Foscari University, Venice,
Italy. He is the founder and director of the DEAL Research Group at the university, which
investigates the process of language teaching for students with special educational needs.
He is also author of many articles and teaching materials on this topic, including Supporting
Learners with Dyslexia in the ELT Classroom (2017). His research interests include applied
neuropsycholinguistics, early foreign language learning and teaching, language learning
strategies, and English language teaching with learners who have specific needs related to
language processing, such as dyslexia and language impairment.

Marie Delaney
Marie Delaney is a teacher trainer, educational psychotherapist, author, and director of the
educational consultancy The Learning Harbour in Cork, Ireland. She has worked for many
years with students of all ages who have special educational needs, in particular in the
area of behavioural difficulties. She has worked with Ministries of Education and trained
teachers in several countries on inclusion policy, curriculum, and inclusive pedagogy. Her
main interests are bringing therapeutic approaches into teaching and learning, supporting
teachers in working with challenging pupils, and promoting inclusive education principles
for all. She is the author of Special Educational Needs (2016).

Dario Ianes (in collaboration with Research & Development Erickson)

Dario Ianes is Professor of Didactics and Special Pedagogy at the Free University of Bozen-
Bolzano, Italy, on the degree course in Primary Education. He is co-founder of Centro Studi
Erickson in Trento, for whom he edits several series, including guides for teachers and
inclusive learning materials. He is the author of various articles and books and editor of
the journal Learning Difficulties. In this paper, Professor Ianes is representing the special
educational needs publisher Erickson, whose Research & Development Department has
also collaborated with OUP ELT in the creation of SEN-appropriate content for the ELT
market in Italy.

Judit Kormos
Judit Kormos is Professor of Second Language Acquisition at Lancaster University, UK.
She was the chief investigator on a project that explored the foreign language learning
processes of students with dyslexia. She is co-author of Teaching Languages to Students with
Specific Learning Differences (2012), and the author of Understanding the Second Language
Learning Processes of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties (2017). She worked on
DysTEFL, a European Commission sponsored teacher training project focusing on dyslexia
and language learning, and is the coordinator of the Dyslexia for Teachers of English as a
Foreign Language project.

About the author

Anne Margaret Smith taught English for 25 years in Kenya, Germany, Sweden, and the UK,
where she worked at the University of Salford and Lancaster University before becoming
Senior Lecturer in TESOL at the University of Cumbria. Co-author of Teaching Languages
to Students with Specific Learning Difficulties (2012), she is a dyslexia specialist tutor and
assessor, and provides materials, training to teachers, and specialist teaching to learners
with dyslexia through her consultancy, ELT well. She is a founding member of the IATEFL
special interest group Inclusive Practices and SEN.

© Oxford University Press ❚  ii

Executive summary

English has become a global lingua franca and is participate fully and achieve success. This unique
widely perceived as a prerequisite for success in combination of challenges and opportunities compels
many areas of life. However, language learners the English language teaching community to lead in
with special educational needs may find that developing and implementing inclusive practices.
they are disadvantaged by the way their learning The implementation of inclusive practices requires
environment interacts with their individual support and leadership at an institutional level. All
differences. Such language learners include both school staff need support for the collaboration and
‘neurodiverse’ learners (those with specific learning cooperation involved in developing an inclusive
difficulties) and those who experience social, learning environment. School management also has a
emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). vital role to play in providing continuous professional
An attainment gap can develop between these development for teachers in inclusive practices.
learners and their peers which only increases during Equipped to establish an inclusive ethos in their classes,
the school years. Bridging this attainment gap is teachers can make small adjustments to classroom
at the core of the inclusion agenda developed by practice and learning materials which meet the needs of
international organizations such as UNESCO and the all their learners.
OECD to promote the implementation of inclusive
educational systems in which all learners are actively This paper outlines the development of approaches to
engaged in learning and can reach their potential. inclusive education and discusses the characteristics of
some types of neurodiversity and SEBD and their impact
Learning an additional language can present on language learning. It suggests aspects of continuous
significant challenges to learners with special professional development that would benefit English
educational needs. Consequently, the English language teachers, and provides guidelines for inclusive
language teacher may even be the first to notice practices in the use of learning materials. It also
indicators of neurodiversity or SEBD. At the same explores accessibility with regard to assessment and
time, the English language classroom can provide the testing. Finally, it advocates collaboration between
ideal environment for addressing these challenges. stakeholders in the development of inclusive education,
Through its long association with learner-centred from those in the classroom to those involved in
communicative methodologies, the English language educational policymaking.
classroom offers many opportunities to implement
inclusive practices which allow all learners to

© Oxford University Press ❚  iii

Contents

Introduction 1 4 Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning

materials 16
Establishing inclusive language education 1
The structure of this paper 2 Apply differentiation principles to learning materials
and tasks 16
Manage the classroom inclusively 17
1 Inclusive education  3
Create multisensory and multimodal learning
The development of approaches to inclusive opportunities  18
education 3
Help students develop learning strategies 19
Terminology used to talk about difference 4
Summary 20
An ethos of inclusion 5
The benefits of inclusion 5
5 Assessment and testing 21
A two-level approach to inclusion 6
The purposes of assessment 21
Summary 6
Setting targets 21
Informal assessment for learning 22
2 Commonly identified causes of difficulties
Formal assessment and suggested
in language learning 7
accommodations 23
Dyslexia 8 Marking and feedback 24
Dyspraxia 8 Preparing for formal external exams 25
Dysgraphia 9 Summary 25
Autism spectrum condition 9
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 9
6 Collaboration between stakeholders 26
Social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties
(SEBD) 10 The role of teachers 26

Migrant and refugee students  10 School–home links 27

Positive attributes 10 Raising awareness among students and teachers 27

Summary 11 The role of management 28

Policymakers 28
Providers of assessments and teaching materials 28
3 Support and continuous professional
development for teachers 12 Summary 28

Developing an inclusive environment 12

Differentiating teaching for the individual 13 Conclusions 29

Modes of professional development 14

Support from the professional network 15 Appendix 1 30
Summary 15
Appendix 2 33

Glossary 34

Further reading and resources 35

Endnotes 36

References 37

© Oxford University Press ❚  iv

Introduction

The English language has become a global lingua implementation of inclusive language education
franca in our 21st-century world.1 It is used across systems. With this paper, we aim to provide support
vast domains of activity: from education, business, and recommendations for English language teachers,
and international politics, to travel, tourism, and teacher trainers, materials developers, and other
many daily interactions. As a result, English is language professionals who are interested in creating
widely perceived as a prerequisite for success in an inclusive learning environment. We also provide
many areas of life. At the same time, the learning of information on the opportunities and challenges
English can present significant challenges to many inherent to the language learning classroom for
learners: there are an estimated 800 million children neurodiverse language learners (namely, those with
worldwide whose cognitive development and specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia) and those
educational attainment are affected by a range of with social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties
conditions stemming from biological, environmental, (SEBD), which may be a consequence of neurodiversity
and psychosocial causes. 2 These learners can be or of environmental factors alone.
at a disadvantage pedagogically, and at risk of Two main considerations compel the English language
experiencing an ever-increasing attainment gap teaching (ELT) community to lead in this endeavour:
between themselves and their peers. International firstly, the opportunities afforded by the communicative
organizations such as the European Commission methodologies used in ELT; secondly, the challenges
and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and that language learning presents, the English language in
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognize the particular.
importance of closing this attainment gap, 3 and
many countries are working to achieve this by The communicative methodologies and materials
adopting inclusive approaches in their education commonly used in English language classrooms
systems. promote a largely learner-centred and interactive
learning environment, in contrast to the more
traditional teacher-led methods often used in other
subjects. Communicative ELT activities can sometimes
Establishing inclusive language highlight communication or social interaction
education difficulties. At the same time, the English language
classroom is an environment which is particularly
In this paper, Oxford University Press ELT seeks suitable for inclusive practices because of the
to make a contribution to the development and

© Oxford University Press ❚  1

opportunities it provides for promoting cooperation a principle of equity, followed by an overview of the
between learners. benefits that inclusive education can bring.
The second section discusses the characteristics of
some of the most commonly encountered types of
The communicative and collaborative neurodiversity and SEBD, and how they impact on
approaches in language teaching offer language learning. It is important to emphasize that
valuable opportunities for inclusive assigning a diagnostic label to a student with difficulties
learning. Judit Kormos is the job of a qualified assessor rather than a teacher.
However, teachers can benefit from knowing about
some of the characteristics of neurodiversity and SEBD,
With regards to the challenges of language learning, as heightened awareness can lead to recognition of the
neurodiverse learners may experience several need to provide support and to ask for a referral to a
difficulties if they have reduced phonological qualified assessor if necessary.
awareness (the awareness of the sound structure The third section focuses on the importance of
of words) and working memory (the type of short- support and continuous professional development
term memory needed for processing and combining (CPD) for teachers to develop their existing skills and
information). Difficulties in these areas affect word- knowledge base. It sets out the main areas of inclusive
decoding and the comprehension and production of practice that need to be explored, and emphasizes
written and spoken language.4 The English language the fact that teachers will need the collaboration
is particularly challenging in this regard, as the and cooperation of their colleagues—particularly
written language only partly reflects pronunciation their managers—and of learners’ parents (and other
and there is often no one-to-one correspondence caregivers) where appropriate. Teachers seeking to
between sounds and letters. make their practice more inclusive will be embarking
These two aspects of ELT mean that neurodiverse on a journey of exploration. During this journey, many
learners and those with SEBD often find that their different strategies and interventions may need to be
existing learning strategies are not adequate to cope implemented, monitored, reflected upon, and revised,
with the extra challenges of learning English as a until the best approach is found for each individual
second or foreign language, and specific learning learner.
difficulties can become apparent in a way that was Section 4 outlines a set of guidelines for the inclusive
not detected when learners were learning their use of learning materials in the classroom, covering
own or other languages with more regular writing differentiation, classroom management, multisensory
systems. For this reason, English language teachers and multimodal learning, and learning strategies.
are sometimes the first to identify underlying
Assessment is an integral part of any learning process,
neurodiversity and SEBD in their learners, and
and so Section 5 explores inclusive practice within the
may need to take a lead in raising the awareness
assessment of progress (assessment for learning) and
of other members of staff in the school or college.
the assessment of proficiency (assessment of learning).
As English language teachers are often specialized
Providers of national and international assessments
in communicative methodologies, they have
have a role to play here in offering students
experience in facilitating supportive collaboration
opportunities to demonstrate their true level of
between learners. This can put English language
understanding and language proficiency, without being
teachers in a strong starting position to implement
unfairly penalized for weaknesses in specific aspects
inclusive practices.
of their performance that mean they cannot access the
test questions and/or material.
The final section of the paper advocates the need
The structure of this paper for openness and collaboration between all the
This paper explores aspects of inclusive practice in stakeholders, from those working in the classroom or
six sections. training teachers, to educational management, local
and national policymakers, publishers, and examining
The first section traces the development of bodies. All these stakeholders need to work together
approaches to inclusive education, as part of a with the learners and their families to ensure that the
worldwide move towards a more inclusive society, as learners’ voices are heard and their needs are met.
outlined in the 1994 UNESCO Salamanca Statement This will require a commitment of time, resources, and
and subsequently developed by the European energy from all involved.
Union and global agencies.5 It includes a brief
discussion of the terminology used in the field and We conclude by summarizing the key messages of the
gives a definition of an ethos of inclusion, based on paper.

© Oxford University Press ❚  2

1 Inclusive education

This section outlines approaches to inclusive discussion of inclusive education, putting inclusion on
education that have evolved over time, and the agenda for educational reform.
associated terminology. It then describes an ethos Today, attitudes towards learner differences vary
of inclusion and sets out the potential benefits of an from country to country and also on an individual
inclusive education system for all involved. Finally, basis, depending on personal experience, world
it introduces the idea of implementing inclusive view, and many other factors. Traditional framing of
practices on two levels: at a general level, providing learner differences uses the term ‘disability’. While
an accessible learning environment; and at an in some contexts this term has fallen out of use, its
individual level, recognizing and embracing the usage persists in many others; for example, in policy
individual differences that occur in any group. documents of EU agencies and the UN. It is also used in
legislation. Although many neurodiverse learners with
an identified specific learning difficulty would not think
Inclusive practices acknowledge that
of themselves as having a ‘disability’, in many countries
everyone has different strengths and it is in this term that their right to an education is
diversity is celebrated. Marie Delaney protected by law.
In the discussion of difference and disability, three
models of understanding have evolved over time which
The development of approaches have had a significant impact on educational policy and
to inclusive education practice: the medical model, the social model, and the
interactional model.7
Inclusive education was first put on the map in
1994 by the UNESCO Salamanca Statement.6 This Medical Model
statement, a document informed by governments The Medical Model takes a ‘deficit approach’ to
and international organizations worldwide, difference and disability, seeing the problem as being
introduced a rights-based perspective to the within the learner only, rather than recognizing any

© Oxford University Press ❚  3

barriers to learning within the learning environment. Special educational needs and
This model prioritizes the diagnosis of the disability
or disorder, and the individual receives treatment
neurodiversity
which aims to enable them to function like most The term ‘special educational needs’ (SEN), first used
other students. Separate schooling in ‘special by H. M. Warnock in her influential 1978 report,8 is the
schools’, set up to cater for particular groups of term that is commonly used in educational policy and
learners with differences or disabilities, are a institutions. Definitions of SEN vary a great deal from
product of the medical model, and are based on a country to country, and even from region to region
policy of segregation rather than inclusion. within countries, and so this term needs to be used with
an awareness that it means different things to different
Social Model people.
After the Medical Model came the Social Model, As with all technical terms, educational professionals
which reframed disability in terms of social and should consider carefully what the impact of their
environmental barriers. In the Social Model, language choice might be, bearing in mind that the
difficulties are attributed not to the individual expression ‘special educational needs’ may seem
learner but to a mismatch between their way of negative to some people, setting these learners apart
working, the physical environment, the design of the from their peers.
curriculum and materials, and most importantly, the
The term ‘neurodiversity’ is increasingly used in
attitudes of the educational community. The goal
reference to learners with specific learning difficulties,
here is to direct every effort towards altering the
such as dyslexia, autism spectrum condition, and
learning environment and adapting teaching to suit
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
the learners, rather than expecting individuals to fit
Neurodiversity embraces the idea that all human brains
into their environment.
function differently, and some much more so than
Interactional Model others. In the educational sphere, thinking in terms
of neurodiversity recognizes that specific learning
There is a growing awareness of the importance
difficulties are part of human variation and need to be
of recognizing and understanding the individual
catered for. It shifts the emphasis from the ‘problems’ of
differences of learners, and not ascribing their
the learner to barriers in the learning environment and
difficulties only to external factors. The Interactional
the interaction between the two.9
Model, as it is called, considers the interplay between
multiple factors affecting the behaviours and needs Terminology used in this paper
of an individual. These factors include a learner’s
In 2007, the OECD classified different types of special
cognitive processing capacity, individual abilities, and
educational needs into three categories.10 These are:
their personal and wider contextual circumstances.
The Interactional Model recognizes that difficulties A disabilities: sensory, physical, and intellectual
in learning are the result of an interaction between impairments
individual and environmental factors. As no two B learning difficulties: specific learning differences such
learners respond to the environment in the same as dyslexia, and other ‘invisible’ cognitive differences
way, the range of barriers they experience will be which are not directly linked to socio-economic or
unique to them. It is the Interactional Model that linguistic causes, such as ADHD
informs the approach of this paper.
C disadvantages: difficulties that arise from socio-
economic, cultural, and/or linguistic factors.

Terminology used to talk about As stated in the introduction, the communicative

methodologies used in ELT and the nature of language
difference learning (particularly of the English language) mean
that the English language classroom may be the
Just as there are different models of difference and
environment in which signs of OECD Categories B and
disability reflecting a range of attitudes, there are
C (learning difficulties and disadvantages) are first
also competing discourses—ways of talking about
noticed: neurodiverse learners with specific learning
difference and disability—that reinforce or challenge
difficulties such as dyslexia may find that their existing
the dominant models. The use of language is fluid
language learning strategies are not sufficient when
and it is not always possible to advise which terms
learning English; and learners with social, emotional,
will be acceptable and appropriate in any given
and behavioural difficulties (SEBD)—whether
situation. Indeed, educational professionals need to
a consequence of a specific learning difficulty or
develop a wide repertoire so that they can choose
of environmental factors such as loss, trauma, or
which terminology to use in different contexts, with
neglect—may find the social interaction involved in
different people.
communicative language teaching more challenging

© Oxford University Press ❚  4

than other learners. This paper therefore focuses learning processes for all. Achieving full inclusion is a
on learners in these two categories. Learners significant challenge for educational managers, but is
in Category A are likely to have had their needs perhaps best conceived of as a process which schools
identified and address, though of course the and colleges go through, constantly evaluating and
recommendations made in this paper can also refining their systems and outcomes.11
benefit these learners. We use the term integration to refer to students’
For the purposes of this paper, learners who fall into physical access to school and recognize that it is a
Category B—with specific learning difficulties—are necessary but insufficient step in developing inclusion.
referred to as neurodiverse learners. We include in Indeed, the integration of a group of students without a
Category B learners with ‘high-functioning’ autism change in the school ethos and practices might lead to a
(also known as Asperger’s Syndrome), which is an form of exclusion within a common setting.
autism spectrum condition in which there is no In situations where students are integrated rather
intellectual impairment. We use the term special than fully included, teachers can become exhausted
educational needs (SEN) when referring to OECD and frustrated by trying to fulfil their responsibilities
Categories B and C. within an inadequate framework. Despite this, schools
and colleges in many countries remain committed to
developing their inclusive provision, and teachers all
An ethos of inclusion around the world are seeking more information and
professional development opportunities, in order to
An ethos of inclusion is one in which all students are develop practical skills to build on their inclusive ethos.
valued. Inclusion respects the fact that people are Inclusive teaching is founded on core values, such as
different, that each individual experiences learning those set out by the European Agency for Development
in their own way, and that everyone has their own in Special Needs Education in 2012:12
strengths and weaknesses.
●● valuing learner diversity
Underpinning inclusion is the principle of equity,
●● supporting all learners
which in education means ensuring that each
learner is provided with what they need; in other ●● working with others
words, every learner gets the accommodation or ●● continuing personal professional development.
differentiation they need in order to succeed. This
is distinct from equality, which is a ‘one size fits all’
approach where everybody gets the same treatment
or resources. Equity is key to inclusive practice, as it
The benefits of inclusion
guarantees that each learner is viewed and valued as There are many arguments for the development of a
an individual within the larger group. more inclusive education system, including:

“
●● the moral justness of offering parity of opportunity to
Very often I found that the problem
all learners to fulfil their potential
was not with the other students in the
class, but with the teachers believing ●● the advantages to society of building cohesive
that they had to treat all the children the communities (increasing the sense of well-being that
same, when, in fact, a lot of the children stems from living in a supportive community)
realized that my son needed to be ●● the pedagogical benefits for all learners.
treated differently from them, and they
The pedagogical benefits of inclusive education have

”
didn’t think it was unfair.
been explored by several researchers in education.
David, parent of a child with autism Research by the European Commission shows that for
spectrum condition children who are deemed to have ‘additional support’
needs (SEN), there are some advantages to being
Inclusion versus integration
educated in a mainstream school, in terms of how well
The term inclusion is used in several ways. Some they do in formal exams and in integrating socially. It is
people use it in a narrow way, to describe physical also worth noting that children who are not considered
access to a school for all; for example, the presence to have additional support needs benefit from being
of students with disabilities in mainstream schools. taught alongside children with SEN in two main ways:13
Other people conceive of the term in a broader
●● they are exposed to and become more appreciative
sense, to describe the process of developing
of diversity in general, and thus develop better social
strategies that meet everybody’s needs and support
interaction skills and empathy
quality learning and participation for all.
●● they benefit from their teachers’ efforts to provide an
Inclusion in this broader sense can only start from an
inclusive environment, which makes the curriculum
engagement of the school community in supporting
more accessible for all learners.

© Oxford University Press ❚  5

“
Individual level
I had quite a few positive comments from
parents of children in his school, who felt At the individual level, teachers work with each learner
that it had been good for the children to to identify any barriers that they are experiencing
meet and understand people with different as a result of the interplay between environmental
conditions, and it also means that he is factors and the learner’s neurodiversity. Once these are
a better accepted member of our local identified, teachers can put specific interventions in

”
community. place and differentiate their teaching to meet the needs
of the individuals they are working with. In Appendix
Melanie, parent of a child with autism spectrum 1, there are suggestions for interventions, or practical
condition, dyslexia, and dyspraxia responses, to various indications that students may
be experiencing barriers to learning. This will enable
all learners to study independently and develop their
A two-level approach to inclusion own strategies, which can also be transferred beyond
education to other areas of their lives.
As stated by UNESCO, ‘Inclusion is a process that
helps overcome barriers limiting the presence,
participation and achievement of learners’.14 This
paper advocates a two-level approach to inclusion: Summary
the general level and the individual level.
This section has offered an overview of some of the
General level different perspectives on barriers to learning and the
terminology used to discuss these, and considered
At the general level, teachers need an understanding
the benefits of inclusive practices at both a general
of the most common kinds of difficulties that
and an individual level. The next section provides an
learners with SEN often experience in the classroom.
overview of the most commonly identified causes of
Teachers can then work towards developing a
difficulties in language learning.
classroom culture and environment that will make
the learning experience more accessible. This in turn
will engender a feeling of belonging to a learning
community, in which individual differences are seen
‘not as problems to be fixed, but as opportunities for
democratizing and enriching learning’.15

© Oxford University Press ❚  6

2 Commonly identified causes
of difficulties in language learning

To help teachers recognize barriers to learning, writing system presents particular challenges which
this section presents key characteristics of some may bring to light unusual processing patterns. In
of the most commonly identified indications addition, students with communication difficulties can
of neurodiversity and social, emotional, and find interactive methodologies challenging and can be
behavioural difficulties (SEBD). It is meant to unsure of how to regulate their behaviour.
empower teachers by raising awareness of possible Students who are facing additional challenges
underlying issues that may be hindering language because of the nature of the subject matter or the
learning. This awareness can help teachers develop interaction required of them are likely to experience
ideas on how to address their learners’ difficulties, low self-esteem. They might withdraw from the class
and know when a referral to an assessor may be emotionally and psychologically, appearing aloof or
appropriate. It is not meant to encourage diagnosis disengaged. Teachers may observe them behaving in a
by teachers who are not specifically qualified to do range of ways:
so.
●● daydreaming or wasting time
●● disrupting the class routine (thus drawing attention
Inclusive practices aim to remove barriers away from their poor academic performance)
so all students have equal chances to ●● over-compensating (working extremely hard to try
learn successfully. Judit Kormos to complete the tasks, and working through breaks
and/or into the night to try to keep up; as this is not
sustainable, it can result in ‘burn out’, with these
In the introduction, it was suggested that language students showing a lack of energy and motivation,
teachers are in a unique position when it comes to even falling ill).
identifying some cognitive differences, because
It is important that teachers can get to know their
neurodiverse learners may experience more
learners, to be alert to changes in behaviour from
significant challenges than their peers when learning
lesson to lesson as well as over the course of a term. If
a new language. In the case of English, the irregular
teachers do become concerned about a student, they

© Oxford University Press ❚  7

should not immediately assign a diagnostic label, but ●● a discrepancy between oral and written work
rather monitor the situation and if necessary refer to ●● being unable to recognize and discriminate between
a qualified assessor. In the meantime, they can start sounds
to develop and adapt activities and materials to work
around the difficulties. ●● struggling to memorize and apply grammatical
structures in context, even with practice
As noted in Section 1, this paper focuses on the
individual differences in cognitive function which ●● needing a lot of practice to securely learn new
fall into OECD Categories B and C: specifically, vocabulary
dyslexia, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, high-functioning ●● finding it hard to develop good literacy skills (e.g.
autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder accurate spelling, coherent writing, smooth line-
(ADHD), and SEBD. It is impossible to state with any tracking, fluent decoding, and good comprehension,
certainty how many people experience difficulties including remembering what has been read)
due to cognitive differences; many people are never
●● slower-than-typical processing of oral input and the
formally identified, and the identification criteria
formulation of responses
vary from country to country.16 For the occurrence
of dyslexia, the International Dyslexia Association, ●● needing to overlearn through the use of personalized
the European Dyslexia Association, and the British strategies, accommodations, and structured practice
Dyslexia Association all estimate the figure to be to achieve automaticity in language use.
somewhere between 10–15% of the population
of their respective areas, with around 4–5%
experiencing quite severe difficulties. Dyspraxia
There is also a high degree of overlap between Sometimes referred to as a ‘developmental co-
the characteristics of certain learning difficulties, ordination disorder (DCD)’,19 dyspraxia makes it difficult
suggesting that co-occurrence is the norm rather for people to plan and sequence everyday movements.
than the exception;17 people identified as having It can affect gross motor skills (for example, when
dyslexia will often also show some indications of running or dancing) and/or fine motor skills (for
dyspraxia, for example, or of ADHD. example, when using a pencil or playing a musical
Appendix 1 provides a list of common behaviours instrument). There might also be an impact on the
that might be connected with the situations articulation of speech, as the small precise movements
described in this section, along with some of the lips, tongue, and jaw may not be sufficiently well
suggestions for their accommodation in the co-ordinated. In common with dyslexia, there may be
language classroom. issues around speed of processing, working memory,
and organization, as well as sequencing. Some people
with dyspraxia experience heightened (or reduced)
sensitivity to the environment (temperature, noise, light,
Dyslexia textures, etc.), also characteristic of autistic spectrum
This is a cognitive developmental difference which condition. Balance and spatial awareness are often
is lifelong in its effects. Because it affects working affected, making a person appear physically clumsy or
memory, phonological awareness, and speed awkward, as well as temporal awareness (the ability to
of processing, dyslexia can have a particularly perceive how much time has gone by, or to estimate
noticeable effect on the development of literacy how long a task might take). In the language classroom,
practices, and in some countries it is defined in this the main areas of challenge are likely to be:
way. For example, in the USA it is sometimes referred ●● speech and language difficulties
to as a ‘reading disability’ or a ‘specific learning
●● developing legible handwriting (relative to age peers),
disorder’.18 However, difficulties with reading,
particularly if the target language uses a script that is
spelling, and writing are only the most easily visible
not yet familiar
features of the underlying differences in cognitive
function, which produce obvious discrepancies ●● pronouncing sounds correctly and in the correct
between oral and written proficiency. People with order
dyslexia usually also experience difficulties in ●● organizing the work space (having text books,
following instructions, organizing their ideas, and notebooks, dictionary, stationery, etc. to hand and
maintaining coherence in both spoken and written within a confined area)
texts, and their abilities in these areas often do not
●● working quickly enough to complete tasks on time
match up to their other skills and talents.
●● navigating the built environment (e.g. finding the way
In terms of learning a foreign language in a formal
to a different location).
setting, the difficulties experienced by students who
are identified as having dyslexia are likely to include:

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 a very literal understanding of what is said (that is,
Dysgraphia taking words in their most basic or usual sense with no
understanding of the speaker’s intention in context).
Although closely related to dyslexia and dyspraxia,
this is a term that is usually applied when there When learning a language, the greatest difficulties are
is a specific difficulty in producing legible and likely to be noticed around:
coherent written text but other language skills are ●● understanding other people’s communicative
not affected. Its prevalence varies from country intentions (e.g. irony, metaphor, humour)
to country depending on assessment norms; for
●● understanding the cues for taking turns
example, in the UK it is almost never identified, as
assessors would normally attribute the difficulties to ●● using idiomatic language appropriate to the audience
either dyslexia or dyspraxia, or a combination of the ●● tolerating inconsistencies in the language (e.g.
two. However, some people who have no identifiable exceptions to grammatical rules, or words that have
difficulties in the areas of speed of processing, more than one meaning)
working memory, or phonological awareness, or in
●● role-playing situations from an unfamiliar perspective
fine motor control or spatial awareness generally,
(e.g. ‘…but I’m not a shop-keeper!’).
still experience significant barriers when they come
to write a text. In the context of learning a new
language, we might see the following difficulties:
●● illegible handwriting (relative to age and first-
Attention deficit hyperactivity
language peers) disorder (ADHD)
●● inability to maintain lines or margins (even when The key characteristics of attention deficit hyperactivity
writing on lined paper, in some cases) disorder (ADHD) include difficulties in focusing and
●● inaccurate spelling or grammar maintaining attention, controlling impulses, and
harnessing excessive energy for productive activities.
●● incoherent structure of the text (i.e. ideas are
There are said to be three different ways in which these
presented in a way that appears illogical, or
characteristics can present themselves: predominantly
without seeming to connect).
inattentive presentation (less excessive energy),
predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation
(more attentional control), and combined presentation
Autism spectrum condition (roughly equal degrees of difficulty with controlling
Autism spectrum condition is a wide-ranging term, attention and harnessing excessive energy). 21 People
spanning from severe to mild. Mild autism is also with ADHD may also experience difficulty with
known as high-functioning autism. As awareness regulating their emotions, swinging from elation to fury
and understanding of autism improves, more or despair in a matter of minutes. As they mature and
people are being identified as having some degree learn to regulate their behaviour better, some of these
of high-functioning autism which causes difficulties characteristics tend to become less noticeable; but like
in learning, and in activities of daily living. The key the other cognitive differences described above, ADHD
elements that indicate any autistic profile are:20 does not ever fully disappear. Many young people are
prescribed medication to reduce the effects of ADHD,
●● difficulties in social interaction and social and while some find this helpful, others prefer to
communication: for example, in maintaining explore behavioural interventions as well or instead.
appropriate eye contact, proximity, and Teachers are likely to notice the following difficulties in
physical contact; in turn-taking, making the classroom:
appropriate contributions to conversations, and
understanding the underlying meaning of other ●● loss of concentration when reading/listening for
people’s contributions extended periods, especially if there are no visual
cues or practical input
●● limited or repetitive patterns of behaviour or
interests: for example, difficulties in thinking ●● difficulty or uncertainty in social interactions,
flexibly, or coping with change; an interest in one especially taking turns in conversations or games
topic bordering on obsession. ●● difficulties in following instructions and classroom
In common with dyspraxia, autism can also be conventions (e.g. putting up a hand and waiting to be
characterized by increased sensitivity to the called on to answer a question)
environment. Learners with high-functioning autism ●● working too quickly to maintain accuracy
might have difficulty in forming and maintaining
●● excessive energy manifesting as fidgeting,
relationships, as they might answer questions
restlessness, or moving around the room.
factually but abruptly, with little mitigation of
unpleasant or unwelcome information, or display

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 barriers my arise if a recently arrived learner has
Social, emotional, and nobody in the class who shares their first language, and
behavioural difficulties (SEBD) little or no proficiency in the language of the classroom
or the target language, leaving them feeling isolated
All of the above learning difficulties may result
and confused. Clearly, this is not the same as having a
at some stage in students with specific learning
cognitive difference like the ones described above, but
difficulties experiencing social isolation and negative
some of the effects and consequences may be similar, at
emotional issues, due to the challenges that they
least temporarily.
are facing. The combination of the environmental
stresses and the students’ own reactions to their In addition to these linguistic challenges, the impact
difficulties may result in low self-esteem, which could on learning of relocation and the possible emotional
manifest as behaviours that are disruptive to others trauma that a refugee or migrant learner is experiencing
and/or self-harmful. This might well have a negative cannot be overstated. 23 In many cases, families will
effect on their relationships with their peers, and have been separated, leaving the learner wondering
make them vulnerable to bullying. 22 about the well-being of close relatives. Then there is
the additional challenge of adjusting to a new physical
There are also some students who experience
environment, as well as a new educational culture with
SEBD without a learning difficulty being the cause,
some differing expectations, and there may well be
sometimes as a result of loss, neglect, or trauma. An
uncertainty about how long they will be staying before
uncertain, inconsistent, or even dangerous home
being resettled elsewhere. Teachers should therefore
environment could lead to increased stress levels,
not be surprised to see these students experiencing any
anxiety, and impulsivity, as well as limiting the
(or several) of the difficulties listed above, and should
development of empathy and logical reasoning. This
respond accordingly. Whether or not newly arrived
might result in behaviours characterized by mood
learners have cognitive differences in addition to facing
swings, aggression, a lot of noise or movement,
the challenges of relocation, the barriers to learning
and inappropriate reactions, such as trying to exert
they experience must be addressed.
power over their classmates, or being unwilling to
wait their turn in class. Similar to other learning The strategies listed in Appendix 1 would also be
difficulties, especially ADHD, SEBD is likely to present appropriate for migrant and refugee learners as well as
additional challenges to language learning, including: learners with SEN.

●● not being able to manage emotions around

learning (e.g. frustration at not knowing
something) Positive attributes
●● increased general anxiety or feelings of Recognizing the specific educational needs of learners
vulnerability, which mean that the learner may not need not be only in terms of the difficulties experienced.
be able to concentrate on the work On the contrary, it is important to look for each
student’s strengths and to find out about their interests,
●● avoidance of failure (e.g. reluctance to use new
and to draw on them in the language learning process.
language or try new activities)
The variety of individual differences is enormous, and
●● difficulties in listening to and following identifying learners’ strengths and finding out about
instructions their interests is a key part of getting to know them well,
●● uncertainty around organizational and problem- letting them know they are valued, and ensuring that
solving tasks their individual characteristics do not get reduced to a
diagnostic label.
●● difficulties in social interaction, especially in terms
of taking turns, trusting, and collaborating with Without wishing to generalize, there are some common
work partners strengths that teachers could observe in students
with SEN. For example, learners with autism spectrum
●● difficulties with completing work on time, and/or
condition sometimes have excellent memories for facts
accurately.
and rules, making them confident in the grammatical
aspects of the language. They may have a deep interest
in (and knowledge of) a particular topic, which can be
Migrant and refugee students directed towards learning vocabulary and project work.
One group of learners who merit a specific mention Students with ADHD often have a lot of energy which,
here are recently arrived learners whose language if channelled into learning using engaging and varied
background is different from the majority in the tasks, can help them to keep working for longer. In
classroom—particularly migrant and refugee practical activities, such as drama or art projects, their
students. Their initial barriers to learning may be enthusiasm and energy can have a very motivating
largely linguistic, cultural, or emotional. Linguistic effect on their peers, too.

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All learners benefit from a structured and well-
organized learning environment, but those who are Summary
experiencing barriers to learning will appreciate
it all the more. Students with SEBD in particular This section has offered an overview of the main
might respond well to openness and support from challenges that some of the most commonly identified
their teachers, with whom they can then develop barriers to learning can bring. The intention is to
a relationship of trust and respect. 24 Migrant and help teachers understand what the diagnostic labels
refugee learners may find that, given a safe and might mean in the classroom, if any of their learners
predictable environment, they can contribute their have been formally assessed, and to appreciate the
experiences to the classroom, helping their peers to possible causes of the difficulties they are having.
understand and value the differences—and common Migrant and refugee learners are mentioned, not
ground—found between languages and cultures. because being new in a country is associated with a
specific learning difficulty, but because the impact
Many neurodiverse learners may have innate
of relocation can cause social, emotional, and
strengths in visual and/or spatial reasoning and
behavioural difficulties, particularly in the early stages
therefore find visually organized activities engaging
of settling in. Understanding the possible underlying
and accessible. Some may be especially good at
causes of students’ difficulties gives teachers a
perceiving and remembering abstract relationships
direction to follow in equipping themselves to support
represented through the use of colour or diagrams.
their learners. The next section outlines other aspects
Others may find they are skilled in holistic thinking
of inclusive education that are useful for teachers to
(for example, being able to hold an overall view
know about as part of their continuous professional
of how something works), enabling them to solve
development.
problems in creative ways.
Finally, learners who have worked hard to learn
often develop deep reserves of determination and
can show great perseverance in their learning. 25 By
noticing and praising learners’ strengths, and taking
an interest in the things that interest them, teachers
reinforce the message that everybody is valued for
their individual achievements, individual differences,
and positive qualities.

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3 Support and continuous professional
development for teachers

In the introduction it was established that inclusive There is a wide range of topics that teachers could
practice needs to be planned on two levels usefully explore in their CPD, which would lead to the
simultaneously: the development of a generally development of a more inclusive ethos in the classroom.
inclusive environment with a culture of mutual These include the topics outlined below.
respect and support, alongside work on an individual
level. This section sets out some ways in which Understanding the principles underpinning
teachers could enhance their existing expertise and inclusive education
develop their practice on both levels, in line with the
●● the aims and ethos of inclusive education
European Agency’s core value of continuing personal
professional development (see page 5). 26 It suggests ●● the benefits to all learners of being in an inclusive
some topics for exploration, as well as the modes of learning environment
accessing professional development opportunities. ●● the difference between inclusion and integration (i.e.
engagement versus access)
●● teaching and learning methods that value learners’
Developing an inclusive diversity.
environment
Making inclusive choices
There is a long tradition in English language There are decisions to be made at the stages of planning
education of using student-centred methodologies, the course, planning each lesson, and delivering the
such as communicative language teaching (CLT) or a lesson in the classroom. Reflection on the results of
task-based approach. These methodologies, which these choices should then inform future choices. These
rely on student-to-student communication, foster are choices regarding:
collaboration and cooperation between learners.
●● the methodology (e.g. interactive and participatory
When it comes to developing inclusive practices,
approaches)
English language teachers often have experience
and knowledge to draw on, and they can build upon ●● the range of teaching techniques (the activities that
the CLT training already received and the teaching the students will engage with)
skills they have already developed in the classroom.

© Oxford University Press ❚  12

●● the range of materials (especially multisensory minimized, students will still need to work at their own
activities and multimodal resources that reflect pace, and in their own ways. Differentiated teaching
and celebrate the diversity within the group) involves developing a general understanding of
●● the classroom environment (ensuring that neurodiversity and finding out as much as possible
the lighting, temperature, and noise levels are about how each individual in the group learns so that
comfortable for everyone, as far as possible) learners can be provided with options which allow them
to develop greater autonomy.
●● classroom management (making sure all
instructions are clear and explicit, and Understanding neurodiversity
establishing a shared and democratic system of
In order to understand an individual learner, teachers
rules)
need to be able to do the following:
●● the assessment of progress (allowing students to
●● recognize the non-typical behaviours and learning
demonstrate their learning in different formats;
patterns that may indicate the presence of
giving explicit and constructive feedback, focusing
neurodiversity
on one or two areas for development).
●● understand the common features of different types
Raising awareness regarding issues of of barriers to learning
diversity and inclusion ●● know when to refer to an appropriate professional
for a full evaluation (in order to apply for additional
With students
resources or exam access arrangements).

“
●● initiating self-exploratory discussions in the
classroom; for example, creating a values-led  ne of my Year 3 learners was a pleasant
O
class contract with each class, and encouraging boy who, when the topic caught his
students to compare their responses to different imagination, would have great ideas and
tasks or challenges. contribute in class discussions. But he
With colleagues seemed to lose all concentration when
it came to following instructions for
●● sharing experiences in the staff room; for follow-up activities, which I thought was
example, informal conversations to compare him switching off. Now that I know he is
ideas about how to respond to the barriers to dyslexic, and have learned a bit about
learning encountered by some learners dyslexia, I understand that he simply
●● organizing formal CPD events in the school; for couldn’t retain the information—it wasn’t
example, inviting a speaker in to offer input on a that he couldn’t be bothered. Now I take
particular aspect of inclusive practice care to break up my instructions into
one thing at a time, so that he—and all
●● providing a forum for parents to meet and share
my other learners—can carry out the
experiences; for example, setting up a private
instructions step by step. It was a simple
area on the school website for online discussions.
thing to put into practice, and I’ve seen a
marked improvement in his engagement

”
Class contract with activities since I started this.

Penny, Primary EFL teacher, Spain

In this class, we:
● listen to each other
● show respect
Developing learner autonomy through
● work together differentiation
● wait for our turn Ideally, differentiated teaching provides students with
options that they could choose from—with guidance,
if necessary—so that they also develop autonomy
and engage critically with their learning. To help their
learners develop autonomy, teachers need to consider
Differentiating teaching for the what they could offer in terms of materials, tasks,
individual expectations, support, and classroom organization:
●● materials: different texts and/or different text types;
Differentiation is the practical response to individual having different formats available
differences in the way students learn. Even in an
●● tasks: allowing students to choose which items to
environment where many barriers have been
tackle (or to tackle first); allocating different roles in
group work

© Oxford University Press ❚  13

●● expectations: recognizing that not everybody or accessing a course from an institution in another
will produce the same amount of work in class; town via the internet. There are several organizations
accepting that often the learning process is more offering online courses on topics related to inclusive
important than the finished product practices, and some are free to access. Some starting
●● support: allowing students to use technology or points are provided in the Further reading and resources
reference materials to varying degrees; setting up section at the end of this paper.
groupwork so that there is a balance of abilities
and skills; spending more time with students who
Specific training for teachers is necessary,
need more encouragement, or clarification, at
particular points in the lesson and more effective alongside hands-on
experience. Michele Daloiso
●● classroom organization: creating a learning
environment in which students can be doing
different tasks within a shared space
Informal CPD
More informally, CPD can involve joining a local
materials
teachers’ organization and meeting once a month
to discuss issues around inclusion, or simply setting
aside a lunchtime each week to share experiences and
ideas with colleagues, whether face-to-face, via video
classroom tasks
organization conferencing, or in an online chat room.

support expectations

For more information on these points, see Section 4.

It is important to note that there is no single strategy
or intervention that will work for every learner.
The complex interactions between the individuals’
cognitive profiles, their personal circumstances,
and the learning environment mean that teachers
Action research
and other professionals working with learners with
special educational needs (SEN) need to take each Very powerful personal and professional development
situation on a case-by-case basis and not assume can be accomplished through an individual action
that something that has worked before will work research project, with or without external resources
in every case. With experience, though, teachers of input. 27 In these kinds of projects, a teacher would
can often find a useful starting point from which identify an aspect of practice that she or he was
to experiment with, reflect on, and refine their interested in improving—for example, supporting a
techniques. student to develop greater attentional control. After
thinking through the possible reasons for that issue
arising, an intervention would be devised—for example,
encouraging the learner to maintain concentration
Modes of professional on a task for one minute in the first instance, using
development a sand timer as a visual prompt, and building up the
time gradually. After a short period of employing this
Formal CPD strategy, the teacher would evaluate how well it has
been working, reflect on what the factors were that
Teachers are busy people, and gaining access to
determined its effectiveness or otherwise (for example,
high-quality continuous professional development
time of day, the manner in which it was introduced, the
(CPD) depends on balancing many different
position of the sand timer, etc.), and why those choices
responsibilities. In recognition of this, providers of
were made. Some modifications to the technique might
CPD are beginning to offer a range of options that
be required before continuing with the intervention,
teachers can choose from, to find a pathway that
and this cycle would continue until the strategy was
suits them. This could mean teachers attending a
successful for that learner.
face-to-face course at a local college in the evenings,

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 Professional bodies
Support from the professional
In most countries there are local and national
network organizations which exist to support teachers. They
might be asked to provide a forum for teachers
There is a lot that individual teachers can do
interested in certain topics to meet up, or to organize
independently to develop their own practice in
talks on a specific issue. There are also international
respect of the aspects of pedagogy listed in this
organizations which can put teachers in touch with
section. However, in order to access and make the
colleagues in other countries who are working
most of CPD opportunities that arise, teachers need
on similar issues. For example, IATEFL now has a
support from and collaboration with those they
special interest group called Inclusive Practices and
work with most closely. These include institutions,
SEN, which provides support and advice to teachers
colleagues, and professional bodies.
working with learners who have additional needs.
Institutions Many professional bodies produce a newsletter or
journal for their members, and might well have an
Usually managers will need to agree to teachers
interest in featuring a report of a research project, or
changing schedules or taking time out to attend
a reflective piece based on a teacher’s experiences.
training, and also to provide funding where possible
to cover costs (in some cases, this might include
travel expenses and materials as well as course fees).
In return, managers may want to see evidence of
Summary
improvements in student attainment or retention,
In this section some suggestions were made as
which teachers would need to gather and present.
to how teachers might make the most of any
Colleagues opportunities available for developing their
own inclusive practices. Progression towards an
Sometimes it might be necessary to ask colleagues inclusive education system will take time, resources,
to provide cover while another teacher is on a leadership from management and local authorities,
training course. In return for this kind of support, and commitment from teachers and students. In
many teachers share the information they have order to be sustainable, it requires both bottom-up
gained with their team. Colleagues might also and top-down change: ideas and engagement within
be asked to act as collaborators, participants, or the classroom coupled with managerial leadership
informants in small-scale research projects, or and support.
simply to act as sounding boards for ideas about
implementing new strategies.

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4 Guidelines for the inclusive use
of learning materials

In this section we offer a set of guidelines to help available to them and their learners, differentiating
teachers make informed decisions when using ELT their teaching in the ways they use the materials and
materials for an inclusive classroom. ELT courses manage the classroom. In many cases, small changes in
come with an array of print and digital components the way coursebook activities are set up can make a big
that aim to enrich the teaching and learning difference to neurodiverse learners.
experience, offering flexibility to students, who can
access content in alternative modes. Guided by a Differentiating the format of materials
principle of equity, teachers can make the most of For most learners, coursebooks are visually appealing
the materials available to offer an inclusive learning and interesting, with the illustrations, colour, and
experience to their learners by following guidelines layout providing a stimulating basis for a lesson. For a
on differentiation, classroom management, minority of learners who find visual processing difficult,
multisensory and multimodal learning, and learning such as those with attention deficit hyperactivity
strategies. disorder (ADHD), who do not always know what to pay
attention to, learners with dyslexia, and those with high-
functioning autism, who can become overwhelmed, this
Apply differentiation principles same material can in fact be visually overburdening.
The teacher can differentiate by introducing some
to learning materials and tasks modifications to help their students. A simple low-tech
solution such as offering ‘text windows’ (two L-shaped
At the heart of successful differentiation is teachers
pieces of card), can help learners to focus on one part
knowing their learners well; that is, understanding
of the page at a time. A frequently used intervention for
their potential and the challenges they face.
some learners with dyslexia is the use of coloured paper
Differentiation is a skill that teachers exercise
for printing out handouts. Alternatively, there may be
every time they teach a group of learners that they
digital solutions using online resources, such as specially
know: whenever they choose a learner to answer
formatted versions of reading exercises, or audio files of
a question, or put learners in groups or pairs, they
reading texts that can be slowed down.
are making decisions based on what they already
know about their learners and what will help them If these resources can be shared with the whole
complete a task successfully. class, teachers can accomplish differentiation whilst
encouraging students to exercise some degree of
With regard to ELT materials, there is a lot that
autonomy in class and at home. Since there is no single
teachers can do to make the most of what is

© Oxford University Press ❚  16

solution that works for all learners, the teacher Collaborative adaptation of materials
should try out different solutions, inviting feedback
Learners can be invited to work in groups to prepare
from the learners. This will nurture an environment
resources for use in class, such as simplified summaries,
of trust and openness, allowing suitable solutions to
visual mappings of grammar content, and illustrated
be identified for each learner.
sheets about the content they have covered. This both
consolidates knowledge for learners who have already
Language teachers can provide accessible learned a topic from the coursebook and introduces it
inputs for everyone, differentiating tasks to those who are not yet familiar with it.

and materials so that every learner can

be involved. Michele Daloiso
Manage the classroom inclusively
Collaborative learning
Making activities inclusive
Collaborative learning opportunities, through pairwork
In order to ensure that ELT activities are inclusive,
and groupwork, help to create an inclusive ethos.
teachers can work on various technical skills and
The range of collaborative tasks extends from short
strategic skills with their learners, which work on
activities such as transactional dialogues, to more
bottom-up and top-down processes needed for
substantial tasks such as project work, presenting
success in tasks focused on the reading, writing,
learners with a variety of opportunities to sustain this
listening, speaking, vocabulary, and grammar
inclusive ethos.
(see Appendix 2). More information can be found
in Supporting Learners with Dyslexia in the ELT
Classroom. 28 Second language classrooms should be
In addition, there are ways that teachers can interactive and encourage students to get
maximize the accessibility of coursebook to know each other and work together.
activities for their learners. Some activities place
Marie Delaney
a high burden on working memory, which can be
particularly problematic for neurodiverse learners.
For example, a ‘listen and do’ activity with a linguistic
The teacher can adapt task procedures in the
output that involves summarizing, paraphrasing,
learning materials to create collaborative pairwork
or translating, or a listening and reading activity,
or groupwork opportunities, for example using a
which requires learners to process great deal at once
Think–Pair–Share format. 29 This will be especially
linguistically, making it inaccessible for those who
beneficial for students who need more time to process
experience difficulties with working memory and
a response.
phonological awareness. The activity can be made
more accessible if the ‘do’ part requires learners to
Think–Pair–Share
demonstrate their understanding by means of a non-
linguistic output, such as colouring in, completing a
The class are given two minutes to think,
map, or choosing a picture.
and one minute to discuss in pairs.*
Adapted materials
Then the pairs are asked to share their
Sometimes learners will benefit from using adapted ideas with the class.
materials in which the content has been simplified
and/or reorganized, with less information on the * timing depends on the type and difficulty of the task
page. It is important that any adapted materials
used are based as far as possible on the original and Students who find social interaction difficult can be
allow for integrated use. The materials need to be encouraged to work with one or two other people
used flexibly and inclusively: if treated as an extra initially, in relatively short activities that they will find
classroom resource available to all learners, they comfortable. They may also benefit from some quiet
are materials like any other and all learners may time to work alone, and somewhere to go to do this.
choose to use them at times. This avoids the creation Peer tutoring is a collaborative learning activity which
of a subgroup of students with SEN working alone involves reciprocal teaching between learners. It has
on different materials and the damage to social positive effects both on the student who plays the
cohesion that this could entail. An inclusive way of role of tutor, and on the student who is being taught.
working with adapted materials is to involve learners It can also produce significant progress with regard to
in creating them; for example, engaging students in interpersonal relationships, and to the motivation and
creating a do-it-yourself grammar revision sheet or self-esteem of the students. The role of tutor needs to
glossary.

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be rotated amongst the class members, giving every do not ask the learner to perform different tasks
student the opportunity to play the role. simultaneously, as this would place extra demands
on working memory. For example, a listening activity
Managing the environment requiring simultaneous reading of another text in
It is useful for collaborative learning if the teacher order to complete the task is not an example of a
can organize the layout of the classroom effectively multisensory activity, whereas providing the audio
to facilitate interaction opportunities; for example, version of a reading text is, and can help the learner
putting chairs into pairs, or laying out the tables decode the text.
and chairs for small groupwork or individual quiet Multimodal resources refer to different types of
working time. resources, typically exploiting the wide range of media
Once they know their learners, the teacher can that is available, including digital materials such as
also find ways to minimize distraction; for example, integrated video, interactive whiteboard materials, and
seating learners away from the window if they are apps that help with vocabulary learning (for example,
likely to get overstimulated. They might take the Quizlet) and organization of learning (for example,
same approach to sensitivities regarding the type of online diaries). Audio versions of texts allow students to
lighting and the temperature in the room, to ensure listen as they read a text and thereby develop a sense of
that every student feels comfortable in the physical the rhythm and intonation of the language. ‘Low-tech’
environment. resources such as paper-based materials and real-
life objects are also valuable, as their tactile qualities
Facilitating communication help to bring the relevance of the ‘real world’ into the
It is easy for some learners to ‘get lost’ during classroom. 31
activities, but there are straightforward strategies
Visual organizers
for keeping the class together. These may be
strategies around working memory; for example, Language teaching is often based largely on the use
staging instructions or breaking down rubrics in of written text, but accessibility can be increased if
coursebooks so that learners do them together, information is presented in visual ways. Mind maps,
one step at a time. Other strategies may help with flow charts, diagrams, and timelines are all clear
establishing classroom routines, where the use and simple visual techniques which can be used to
of non-verbal cues and signals can be effective in show relationships between ideas, or to summarize
keeping noise and associated stress to a minimum. concepts and facts. These ‘visual organizers’ can
For example, teachers can establish a ‘clap-back’ support and enrich the learning experience for
routine which they can use to manage pairwork and neurodiverse learners. For example, the traditional,
groupwork activities, as it signals to the class that it verbal presentation of grammar points in tables
is time to listen to the teacher. and boxes is suited to analytical minds, but some
learners may benefit more from the use of mind
maps or flow charts, which would offer a more visual
Clap-back technique
and holistic representation of the same concepts.
The teachers clap a short rhythm to the class, Mind maps can also be useful for identifying links
who respond by clapping back the same between items in a vocabulary set which are otherwise
rhythm. The teacher then claps another presented separately. Teachers can guide learners by
rhythm for the class to copy, and so on until demonstrating how to create these visual organizers,
the class is once again ready to listen. and encouraging them to experiment and see what
works best for them.

Create multisensory and Physical interaction with learning

multimodal learning resources
opportunities Physical interaction with language learning resources
should be encouraged as much as possible, to engage
Multisensory activities involve the use of more learners’ visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic channels.
than one of the senses—most commonly in the ELT Communicative ELT methodologies are rich in activities
classroom: sight, hearing, and touch. Using a variety involving physical interaction, such as acting out a
of senses simultaneously whilst focused on the same dialogue, or indicating understanding by holding
information has two advantages: the activation of up cards or responses on personal whiteboards. In
different senses increases the number of routes to addition, teachers can help learners to grasp abstract
memory, and the use of different senses increases concepts involved in language learning by providing
its potential for learner engagement. Both of these opportunities for physical interaction with resources.
aid learning. 30 Successful multisensory activities For example, learners can use coloured tokens or

© Oxford University Press ❚  18

counters to discuss and map out word order. The situations. Such self-reflection may be challenging for
act of physically building new sentences, and talking learners at first, but the rewards for persevering can be
through those sentences as they are being built, immense: equipped with an understanding of how to
can help learners understand the concepts being make their own learning more effective and efficient,
explored. 32 the learner will be able to work more confidently and
achieve their personal goals.
Songs and chants
These activities could take the form of individual
Singing songs and chants are multisensory activities questionnaires (using appropriately graded language),
that can provide a valuable change of pace and pairwork interviews, or small group discussions around
focus. Younger learners enjoy learning through the topic of how students approach different aspects of
songs, and chants, which often include the use learning. Games also offer opportunities to understand
of visual aids and actions. Once the learners are and reflect on the need for rules, listening, turn-taking,
familiar with them, songs and chants can be lifted and working together—skills which some learners find
out of their original context and used as part of difficult. Card-matching activities or even a board game
classroom routines; for example, singing ‘the format could be developed to provide a tactile element
rainbow song’ to review colours at the start of the and visual focus to support the auditory content of the
lesson, or using the last five minutes of the lesson activity.

“
before lunch to do a food chant with actions.

 ith dyslexia, English is especially hard

W
because it’s not pronounced the way you
write it. When I was 13, my dad and I went
to England for a summer course. He loves
English and wanted us to learn it together.
Throughout school he would read my
graded readers out loud in the evening,
and I would do the exercises after each
chapter. My English teacher in school was
the best: She let me take photos of the
whiteboard so I could focus on the class
without taking notes. When I finished
school I went back to England on my own.
Multisensory activities and multimodal resources By then I could make friends with people
can add variety to the process of recapping and from all over the world in English, and I’m

”
recycling language points that teachers provide as still friends with them today.
part of the language programme, and can include
learners who struggle to consolidate their learning Oleg, English language student with dyslexia
with writing activities.

Strategies for tackling new challenges

Help students develop learning An important aspect of metacognitive development
work is providing learners with strategies for tackling
strategies new challenges, based on their previous experiences,
and using their individual strengths and talents.
One of the most profound positive impacts a
Sometimes students will feel unable to start a task,
teacher can have on learners with SEN is to help
or to complete one aspect of it, because of barriers to
them understand themselves better, and to find
learning such as not being able to remember grammar
their most effective ways of learning and managing
rules or vocabulary, or not having enough time to do
their behaviour. As students explore different
everything that needs to be done. By identifying what
ways of learning, they will become more aware
the barrier is, students have the key to access solutions
of what works best for them, both in class and in
for overcoming it. For example, some neurodiverse
independent study.
students can be overwhelmed by the amount of text
Thinking about thinking involved in reading comprehension activities, and will
need explicit guidance in how to approach these tasks.
Metacognitive (or ‘thinking about thinking’) activities
ELT coursebooks often provide guidance on reading
are a type of reflective activity which enables
comprehension strategies that teachers can encourage
learners to make their own thought processes
learners to use, such as previewing a text, predicting
explicit and gain an appreciation of the most
content from the title and images, and noticing how it is
appropriate strategies for them to use in different
structured.

© Oxford University Press ❚  19

Developing self-awareness is important for
everyone, but learners who experience greater Summary
challenges in their daily lives benefit particularly
from this. Often, self-awareness leads to higher Selecting the best options from the vast array of
self-esteem, as learners realize they have particular materials available can require some thought,
strengths and talents that they can draw on. The especially for teachers seeking to accommodate
teacher also has an important role to play in the a diverse group of students. This section has
development of self-esteem, as their praise and offered a set of guidelines to inform planning and
positive evaluation of learners’ work will be of great working in an inclusive classroom. Following these
significance to the learners. If learners believe that guidelines should help to ensure that all materials,
they can achieve success, and are encouraged to whether used as published or slightly adapted, can
see their own strengths and the progress they are be used inclusively, without the need for extensive
making, they will be more motivated to put in the rewriting and modification, elaborate technical
required effort and to persist when faced with a solutions, or a lot of preparation time. Finally,
challenge. all learners will benefit from opportunities to
explore different ways of learning, allowing for the
Understanding your development of greater self-awareness and learner
strengths autonomy.

Achieving Seeing
success Dealing progress
with new
challenges

Putting in Believing
the effort in yourself

© Oxford University Press ❚  20

5 Assessment and testing

In this section we discuss the different purposes information to adjust teaching and learning strategies.
for assessment and outline ways of maximizing This kind of assessment, which feeds back into the
accessibility for learners in both formal and teaching and learning programme, is sometimes
informal assessment situations. Assessment referred to as formative assessment or assessment
plays a crucial role in teaching and learning, and for learning 33 and can be done using formal or informal
it is important to remember that any barriers methods. Examples of this kind of assessment are
that students encounter in learning may well be provided in this section.
magnified in an assessment situation.

Setting targets
The purposes of assessment
Learners with SEN benefit from manageable targets
Students’ proficiency levels are often measured being set, particularly if they are not attaining the
through summative assessment, also known as targets expected for their age and level. Students can
assessment of learning. This type of assessment be involved in setting their own targets and measuring
is usually carried out by national or international their progress. It can be helpful to think of targets that
testing organizations or exam boards, using are SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic,
formal methods, and is considered ‘high-stakes’ and Timed. Some learners may also need goals which
since important outcomes, such as school-leaving help them to measure their social, emotional, and
qualifications, university entrance, and employment behavioural progress as well as their learning progress.
or training opportunities may depend on the results. Teachers can use various means to help students record
Such high-stakes exams can be extremely daunting their progress. For example:
for neurodiverse learners and those with social, ●● visual progress charts: these allow students to record
emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD), but the completion of a task or stage in a project
it is possible to accommodate their needs, as we
describe in this section. ●● jigsaws: as the students complete each stage of their
work, the teacher gives them a piece of the jigsaw,
It is just as important to assess learners’ progress and explains exactly what they have to do to collect
throughout the learning journey, highlighting the next piece
their strengths and weaknesses, and using the

© Oxford University Press ❚  21

●● class pictures: for example, using a picture of a attention. In peer assessment activities, students who
tree with lots of leaves, the students colour in may be encountering difficulties have peers who can
the leaves and write their names on them as they act as role models to support their learning. Students
achieve a target can find out what their peers do in various learning
●● checklists: students track their own progress in, for situations, and this allows them to consciously reflect
example, group participation and communication on their own learning strategies and become more self-
skills against a checklist of targets. aware. All learners can benefit from this aspect of peer
assessment.

Format of progress tests

Informal assessment for learning Progress tests provided in coursebook packages can
Carefully planned assessment of students’ help teachers monitor students’ progress. However,
performance in specific classroom tasks induces they may need to be adapted to make them more
lower levels of anxiety than formal testing, 34 and not suitable for learners with SEN. The tests first need to
only yields information about language proficiency be evaluated, taking into account, for example, the
but also about the students’ effort and persistence. type of task, length of texts, font size, page layout,
In this section we consider some ways of going about and the clarity of instructions, and then adaptations
this kind of informal assessment. made, where necessary, to meet the specific needs of
students.
Multisensory assessment
Assistive technology
Just as learners with SEN benefit from multisensory
learning opportunities, they will also benefit from Classroom technology can help learners with SEN with
a multisensory approach to classroom-based assessment for learning. These tools can help to reduce
assessment. For example, to assess understanding barriers to learning, enabling students to use alternative
of a reading text or grammar point, teachers could ways of showing their understanding and demonstrate
ask students to show their understanding by more easily what they know. For example, text-to-
producing pictures, symbols, diagrams, or mind speech technology can make it easier for students with
maps; or they could ask students to demonstrate reading difficulties to complete reading comprehension
what they know by making an audio or video tasks. Making a personal reflective video blog (or ‘vlog’)
recording. These outputs, instead of traditional text- can help students reflect on what they have learned and
based ones, would then be used as the basis for how they learned it, and teachers can record targeted
assessment. feedback for them. A wide range of tools exists and
more are being developed all the time, so it is worth
Self-assessment checking what is available and evaluating its suitability
for individual students.
Self-assessment is another useful tool which can

“
be used for informal classroom-based assessment.
Assessing their own work gives learners the  y son started a new school, and this
M
opportunity to raise their awareness of the areas school uses assistive technology. So they
of language proficiency they need to develop, as use an LMS (learning management system),
well as other skills, such as organization and time and the teachers put all of the assignments
management. It also encourages learner autonomy onto the LMS so that my son can read
and boosts self-esteem, as students feel empowered them, and then he uses a spellchecker
to take control of their own learning. 35 Another when writing his assignments, so this
important benefit is that students compare their has been really good for him. The second
work with their own previous performance rather thing that he sometimes uses is voice
than with the work of other students, so they are recognition software, and this allows him to
able to focus on their own progress over time. get all of his ideas out onto paper, so that

”
he can really show what he knows.
Peer assessment
Peer assessment is another type of informal Amanda, parent of a teenager with dyslexia

assessment that can be used with an inclusive ethos.

Learners may need some explicit guidance in how Using formal tests in a formative way
to make the most of this activity, and how to offer Many assessment of learning tasks can be adapted
their ideas constructively and supportively. They and used for assessment for learning purposes. For
may, for example, be set a task in which they have example, instead of giving a weekly, summative test
to find two things they like in their peer’s work, with grades, teachers can set a test without a grade
and identify (and explain) one aspect for further and give feedback in the form of comments instead.

© Oxford University Press ❚  22

This allows students to focus on what they have reading, but the expected level of attainment might be
done well and what they can do to improve without lower for them in comparison with their peers. Teachers
comparing their work with that of their peers. should be aware of national assessment regulations,
which in some countries provide specific instructions
Introducing new approaches gradually about what is or is not to be tested depending on the
It is worth pointing out that introducing a new type of difficulties being experienced.
approach to classroom-based assessment may For students who routinely experience difficulties in
take time. Students might not immediately respond learning, there are some important factors to consider;
well to a new approach, particularly if they have for example, students should be told in advance
no previous experience of it or are used to a focus about tests, and helped to prepare for them, to avoid
on grades. It is important, therefore, to introduce unnecessary anxiety. Some of the following aspects
new approaches gradually, explaining them clearly of assessment may be possible to modify, especially
and providing support and encouragement. Over in assessments for learning. In formal assessments of
time, students will understand the value of new learning, it may be necessary to apply for exam access
approaches and learn to become more independent arrangements, as discussed below.
learners.
Timing and length
In real life, most second language interactions are not
Formal assessment and carried out under time constraints; however, tests
suggested accommodations are usually timed, creating an additional challenge for
students who process information more slowly than is
When planning more formal assessments, whether typical, as well as increasing their anxiety. To give these
assessment for learning or assessment of learning, learners a fair chance of demonstrating their language
three important questions need to be asked: abilities alongside other students in the testing group,
it may well be necessary to allow them extra time to
1 Are the assessment methods and tasks
complete the tasks. The precise amount of extra time
accessible to all students?
required (usually 25–50%) will vary according to:
2 Can all aspects of proficiency be assessed?
●● the severity of their difficulties
3 Can neurodiverse students in the class meet the
●● whether they need short breaks during the test (to
standards set for the general population?
compensate for concentration difficulties and fatigue)
If in answering these questions there are doubts,
●● whether they use a scribe to write on their behalf
ways in which the assessment can be changed need
to be considered. For example, language learners ●● whether they use an electronic device rather than
who experience issues around rapid auditory writing by hand.
processing (perhaps as part of a dyslexic profile) It is also important to keep in mind that:
may be disadvantaged by listening comprehension
●● students’ levels of tiredness and alertness vary
tasks, especially if they are time-restricted. They
across the daily school routine, so it may be better
may therefore be given additional time to listen to
to take a test in the morning rather than late in the
the texts, and if that is not sufficient, they could
afternoon
be excused from that part of the assessment.
Similarly, learners who experience difficulties with ●● some neurodiverse students will have a shorter
spelling accurately might be exempted from the attention span, so the number of questions or items
evaluation of their spelling skills or be allowed to use in each task could be reduced, the input could be
a spellchecker. shortened, or reading and listening texts could be
broken up into shorter sections to accommodate this.
Teachers and test designers might also set different
learning targets for some students in second Environment
language reading and writing, and put the emphasis
on attaining proficiency in speaking and listening. Many neurodiverse learners who experience attentional
For learners with high-functioning autism, the control issues find that noise and other activity during
assessment of interaction skills could be particularly tests distract them. Some learners might be particularly
demanding and it might be necessary to structure sensitive to the type of lighting and the temperature in
very simple interactions in a pair or a small group. In the room. Therefore, if possible, the option to take the
some cases it may be appropriate to exclude some test separately in a quiet room may be offered, where
tasks from the test, although any such decision the physical environment can be adjusted to suit the
needs careful consideration. Some learners might learner.
be assessed on vocabulary and grammar knowledge
and all the skills of speaking, writing, listening, and

© Oxford University Press ❚  23

Format the tasks within the test are similar to the type of task
they have encountered within their language lessons;
Clear and logical visual organization assists all
the most appropriate tasks are those that are part of
learners, and this is particularly helpful for students
the general repertoire of tasks used in the classroom,
for whom sequencing and tracking are challenging.
and are therefore familiar and do not produce high
These learners might otherwise find it difficult
levels of stress and anxiety. These aspects of test
to navigate through the tasks, or leave out tasks
design may be implemented by teachers setting internal
accidentally. Some learners experience visual stress
assessments, but they are the responsibility of exam
or scotopic sensitivity (visual distortions experienced
boards in external assessments. However, teachers
when people look at text, usually in black type on
have an important role to play in giving feedback to the
white paper, and the text appears to swirl, blur, or
exam boards, to help them develop more accessible and
disappear, making reading impossible). For these
inclusive assessments.
learners, the following adjustments to format should
be considered:
printing the test on coloured paper or
●●
Marking and feedback
encouraging the use of coloured overlays
●● using a large font size and a sans serif font Teachers need to decide whether they will use the same
criteria for evaluating the work of neurodiverse learners
●● allowing more generous spacing.
as for their peers. In many countries, neurodiverse
It is important that the instructions and guidance learners are given individualized/personalized learning
given to learners is clear and easily accessible. plans, which are used to inform the evaluation criteria.
Short, simple instructions presented in clear stages, If the assessment is for internal use (for example, a class
perhaps with examples of completed items, benefit progress check to inform the teacher which language
all test takers, not just neurodiverse learners. points have been securely learned and which require
Instructions might need to be read out to students more work), then modifications in scoring can be put
with visual processing issues, or written down for in place. These should take into account the students’
those with auditory processing issues. individual strengths and weaknesses and the nature
In terms of responding to the questions, of the difficulties that a student is experiencing. Some
neurodiverse students may benefit from: students might be exempted from the evaluation of
certain aspects of their performance, or their work
●● responding to questions orally, or using speech-
might be evaluated using different criteria.
to-text software or a scribe to record their
answers Language concerns communication, so the teacher
should include communicative aspects in their
●● shorter responses instead of longer answers,
evaluation criteria. For example, an oral presentation
or even alternative responses (e.g. matching or
could be evaluated on the basis of communicative
underlining; producing visual organizers or mind
strategies, not just grammar and vocabulary. There
maps) instead of gap-fill or short-answer tasks
might be some cases where non-verbal aspects could
●● not having to listen and read, or listen and write, be used as criteria for evaluation; for example, the use
at the same time (instead, it may be fairer to allow of body language (in a culturally appropriate way) during
students to have additional time to preview the role-plays. Amendments to criteria should be recorded
questions, read the test items, and listen to the and reported with the scores or results to students,
text more than once) parents or educational authorities who make use of the
●● some support from the teacher, such as verbal data. 38
encouragement and positive reinforcement, and All students—but particularly those who experience
prompting to move on to the next question. difficulties in learning—need to be rewarded for their
achievement when it shows effort and progress, even if
Content it might fall short of the required standards. Feedback
Generally, for a language assessment to be valid, it should:
is essential that more than one task and more than
●● be positive and encouraging
one type of task is used for evaluating students’
attainment. 36 Ideally, tasks should be designed ●● emphasize what they can do now rather than what
in such a way that they give students a feeling of they cannot do yet
success and attainment and minimize chances ●● present gaps in learners’ knowledge as areas for
of failure. Whenever possible, assessment tasks further development.
should be interesting, motivating, authentic, and
Learners with attentional and emotional difficulties
relevant for the students’ language use context
need immediate feedback if it is to seem relevant and
outside the classroom. 37 For students who find
be useful. Students who are experiencing difficulties
change and new situations stressful, it is helpful if

© Oxford University Press ❚  24

in learning often have lower self-esteem than their Most external exams are marked by the exam board
peers, and it can be very discouraging for them that provided the paper, and any accommodations or
to see a piece of work returned full of highlighted modifications need to be recorded and reported when
or corrected errors. Excessive error-correction is the scripts are submitted. In some cases, modifications
demotivating and might not even be effective for to the format or the marking of the paper appear on the
improving learners’ accuracy in the short term. 39 certificate, and it may be perceived that the students’
Instead, it is helpful to praise successful uses of scores have a different meaning from the scores of
newly learned language, to boost the self-esteem of other learners. To reduce the number of modifications
these students. that need to be made, providers of formal assessments
need to work towards producing more inclusive and
accessible assessments. Making use of technology to
Preparing for formal external provide online papers that can easily be modified is one
way that this could be accomplished. This will require
exams some investment in the professional development of
item writers and designers so that they understand
When preparing neurodiverse learners and those
the challenges facing neurodiverse students. This is
with SEBD for external exams (which are usually
a longer-term project, but one which teachers and
assessments of learning), the accommodations
educational managers could contribute to by making
raised above may be harder for a classroom teacher
their assessment providers aware of the issues raised
to implement but still need to be kept in mind. If
here.
exam access arrangements are required, whether
accommodations or modifications to the paper,
then a formal application will need to be made
to the exam board well in advance of the exam, Summary
supported by evidence of the difficulties the student
This section has shown that assessment serves
experiences.40 Teachers themselves can do a lot to
multiple purposes, not just measuring what students
support neurodiverse learners by:
know or have learned, but also informing teachers’
●● making sure the demands of the exam are clear, decision-making on what areas of language need more
and encouraging them to prepare systematically teaching or revision. Assessment should be planned
(e.g. setting up a revision timetable, recapping on alongside the teaching of a course, and carried out
the main topics or language points that need to be in as inclusive a manner as possible. When taking
secure) formal exams, whether internal or externally set,
neurodiverse learners and those with SEBD may need
●● suggesting relaxation techniques that students
exam access arrangements in place to enable them to
can use before and during an exam (regular
demonstrate their true level of knowledge and skills.
breathing, mindfulness, etc.)
Teachers may, to some degree, be able to influence
●● ensuring that the students are familiar with the exam boards in their design of assessments by raising
location of the exam, the route to the venue, and their awareness of the issues faced by learners. It
the procedures on the day (e.g. what to bring and is important to ensure that all language learners
what to leave at home, where to sign in, and how experience feelings of success as a result of testing, so
long they will be there). that they do not lose their motivation, and their self-
esteem and self-worth does not decrease.
In the next section, the focus is extended to include
systematic
✔  policymaking and pastoral care, and the interaction
preparation between the many stakeholders in an education
system will be discussed.
relaxation
✔ 
techniques
practical
✔ 
details

© Oxford University Press ❚  25

6 Collaboration between stakeholders

The establishment of an inclusive culture in the arise between these parties when their aims or
language classroom is only one component in the priorities are perceived to be contradictory, but more
development of a truly inclusive education system. can be achieved by all stakeholders working together, as
Keeping in mind that ‘working with others’ is one this section proposes.
of the core values of inclusive practice identified
by the European Agency (see page 5),41 this section
examines the roles that all the stakeholders in an The role of teachers
education system play in developing equitable and
transparent procedures and providing accessible Teachers may well find themselves in the position
education for all. of being responsible for mediating communication
Apart from the teachers and the students, there between the different parties involved in the
are many other parties involved. Parents need to development of an inclusive institution. Ultimately,
be sure that their children and young people will they may also liaise with other parties in the wider
be supported and enabled to develop their talents. education system, as they will have contact in different
Head teachers and directors of schools have a ways with everyone involved. They will need to make
responsibility to ensure that national and local choices about the appropriate language to use when
regulations are adhered to, regarding academic talking with different people, in order to communicate
standards, health and safety, and pastoral care. clearly while maintaining their professional authority
Policymakers at regional or national level must be and encouraging inclusive attitudes in others. For
sure that their vision for education meets the long- example, it may be appropriate when talking to other
term needs of their communities with respect to education professionals to use diagnostic terms such
the knowledge, skills, and qualities that are likely as ‘dyslexia’ or ‘social, emotional, and behavioural
to be required. Providers of formal assessments difficulties’ (SEBD). On the other hand, it may be clearer
and published materials also have a role to play and more acceptable to the students and their families
in ensuring that the materials they produce are as to use more functional descriptions of what has been
accessible as possible. Tensions may sometimes observed or identified (such as ‘Learner X seems to

© Oxford University Press ❚  26

forget things quite quickly’ or ‘Learner Y, you often anxiety, or uncertainty about how best to support their
seem to be feeling quite angry or upset when you child or young person. Here, they can find out about
come to class’). strategies that other learners with the same difficulties
In order for an inclusive approach to education to use, or equipment and technology that would make
be sustainable in the longer term, teachers will need their lives easier. Equally, parents themselves may be
the active support of the management team in their able to suggest people from these support groups who
institution as well as the involvement of the students can talk to staff at the school.
themselves and, where appropriate, their families. When seeking the support of parents, teachers need
to consider the best course of action. In the case of
learners who have reached the legal age of adulthood,
School–home links local data protection laws are likely to prevent the
sharing of information with parents. Some adolescent
Cooperation between school/college and home learners may be reluctant for their parents to find out
allows for the sharing of detailed information about about their difficulties, perhaps through fear that this
students’ needs and their existing learning and knowledge might not result in support. Teachers should
coping strategies. There are a number of ways in approach this sensitively with the learner in question
which this can be initiated and maintained, and and respect their wishes.
they work particularly well if each student has a
designated contact member of staff. This could be a
class tutor or head of year, or in some cases there is Raising awareness among students
a member of staff who is responsible for overseeing
the interventions for students who require and teachers
additional support. Other members of staff should
Teachers can also contribute enormously to an inclusive
channel enquiries through this person, to avoid the
environment by raising awareness of neurodiversity
confusion of parents receiving several messages
and SEBD among their colleagues and students, both
from different people at different times.42
through formal in-house CPD events and informal
In some schools, a home visit by the named member interactions in the course of the working week. When
of staff is arranged when a new student enrols, students understand the barriers to learning that
particularly if the student may have additional their classmates are facing, they are much better
needs, or is arriving midway through the term. It equipped (and usually more inclined) to work with them
is quite common for schools to organize ‘parents’ supportively. Teachers can match up students with
evenings’, where teachers can have face-to-face contrasting skills so they can see how the other works
meetings with the parents. In some countries, and explore different study strategies. In this way,
the students also attend and take part in the everyone can feel that their contributions are valued
discussions. In the case of adult learners, a termly (or and appreciate the diversity in their groups.
more frequent) tutorial fulfils this function.
Formal CPD sessions might include running experiential
However it is organized, keeping these two-way activities with groups of colleagues 43 or discussing
communication channels open is an important way local case studies. Less formally, teachers could initiate
of demonstrating to students that their teachers conversations in the staff room about differentiation
are not judging them negatively but working with and the use of multisensory activities, even sharing
them to support their learning and include them in some ideas for making the classroom more inclusive.
the class. It is also an efficient method for sharing
Language teachers already have a range of
knowledge of the issues and challenges being faced
interpersonal skills and classroom management
by the learners. Teachers may have theoretical
techniques at their disposal, which they can build
knowledge about potential areas of difficulty, but
on to accommodate the needs of all learners. These
parents and the students themselves will be able
could usefully be shared with colleagues who want to
to add to this knowledge base by offering concrete
develop their own inclusive practices. For example, it
observations of situations that present challenges.
is common practice in many ELT classrooms to plan
They may also be able to provide some background
activities with different interaction patterns throughout
information and family history which might help
a lesson (for example, individual work, pairwork,
to explain some of the behaviours seen in the
small groups, teams, whole-class discussions). These
classroom. Working with the student and parents in
changes in class dynamics can be utilized to make
this way requires a shift in perspective from ‘teacher
the lesson more accessible for students who have
as the expert’ to ‘teacher as a partner’.
shorter attention spans, or who find it challenging to
Teachers might also be able to suggest local support work with large groups of people. Once teachers have
groups for the parents of students to contact, as tried out a technique that is new to them, they should
they too may be experiencing some frustration,

© Oxford University Press ❚  27

be encouraged to reflect on its effectiveness, and campaigns to bring about changes that would benefit
possibly revise or adapt it to suit the needs of their all learners. Grassroots activity may be the catalyst for
class. improving opportunities for neurodiverse learners,
but it is likely to remain localized and temporary unless
there is leadership and support from higher levels of
The role of management management and government.

It takes time and commitment to develop an

inclusive classroom culture and for this to filter Providers of assessments and
into the culture of the wider institution. Teachers
need to give feedback to their managers about teaching materials
the positive effects of inclusive practices that they
Exam boards—especially those who provide
have implemented. The management team will
internationally recognized qualifications—and
need to work together, acknowledging teachers’
educational publishers have an enormous impact
innovations and, where appropriate, ensuring that
on the way that subjects are taught, as discussed in
these innovations become part of the usual way
Sections 4 and 5. As awareness of inclusive teaching
of working in that institution. The implementation
practice grows globally, exam boards and publishers
of any new procedure should be monitored to
may find that it makes good commercial sense to offer
determine its impact on both staff and students.
more accessible materials and exams, so as to position
A process of reflection and review should lead to
themselves as inclusive providers. It is in everybody’s
any necessary modifications being made, so that it
interests to ensure that learners are enabled to access
meets the needs of the organization and enhances
the curriculum and to demonstrate their true level
its overall inclusiveness. The potential benefits of
of proficiency when assessed, so that the results can
inclusive practice are significant to the institution,
be trusted by all the parties identified in this section.
as they include increased attainment levels, higher
Teachers, managers, and policymakers all have an
retention rates, and the resulting enhancement of
important role to play in encouraging exam boards and
the institution’s reputation.
publishers to enhance the inclusivity of their products,
by being discerning consumers who give their custom to
Institutions support inclusion through more inclusive companies, wherever possible.

inclusive policies, through their

organization and curricular choices, and
Summary
through valuing and training teachers.
Dario Ianes This section has set out the role that all the
stakeholders in an education system must play
if inclusive practice is to become the norm. It
does not only depend on students requesting
accommodations in the classroom and in
examinations, or on individual teachers acting
as advocates for their learners. Nor can it be
imposed from above, if the systems do not support
practitioners in adopting new practices. Change
must be supported from the top down, as well as
demanded from the bottom up; this is essential for
the sustainability of an inclusive education system.

Policymakers
Once local managers are engaged in the process
of developing more inclusive classroom practices
and organizational systems, they may also be
persuaded to lend official support to teachers who
want to influence policymakers by passing on their
suggestions and ideas through official channels.
They might also support teachers and students
who lobby policymakers through petitions and

© Oxford University Press ❚  28

Conclusions

Approaches to inclusive education have been Teachers have a central role to play in the development
evolving over the past three decades and many and implementation of inclusive practices, but they
countries are already working towards adopting cannot achieve or sustain positive change without
inclusive approaches in their education systems, support from the wider educational community.
with the support of international organizations School management needs to provide teachers with
such as UNESCO and the OECD which have long ongoing support through the provision of continuous
promoted inclusive education. The English language professional development. Schools also need to
teaching community has much to contribute to facilitate collaboration between all those involved
this positive shift, and is compelled to do so for in the students’ education and well-being, including
two key reasons. On the one hand, it is recognized school staff, the students’ families, and the students
that language learning poses particular challenges themselves. Beyond the school, policymakers,
for learners with special educational needs (both educational publishers, assessment providers, and
‘neurodiverse’ learners and those with social, other stakeholders all need to commit to a shared vision
emotional, or behavioural difficulties). On the other of an inclusive educational system in which diversity is
hand, the interactive methodologies associated with celebrated and all learners have equal chances to learn
the English language classroom can provide an ideal successfully.
environment in which to address these challenges. We encourage all those involved in English language
Inclusive education means embracing the inherent education to use the guidance in this paper in
diversity of any group of learners, understanding considering their own particular contexts. Developing
and valuing the contribution made by each one, and inclusive practices results in educational systems where
working towards making the curriculum accessible to all learners have the opportunity to realize their full
all. It is based on a principle of equity, in which each potential.
learner is provided with what they need in order to
achieve success. Importantly, research demonstrates
that inclusive practices have benefits for all
learners. These include social benefits, as learners’
appreciation of diversity is raised and their empathy
for others is deepened, as well as pedagogical
benefits, resulting from teachers’ work on enhancing
the accessibility of their lessons.

© Oxford University Press ❚  29

Appendix 1: Frequent indications of
SEN and suggested interventions
The table below is intended to provide some support for teachers who notice indications of neurodiversity or social,
emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD) in their students. It is not a diagnostic tool, and nor is it an exhaustive
list of all possible actions or strategies. The interventions provide a starting point that can be helpful in finding the
best way forward with each individual learner. They are for trying out, discussing with the learner, and reviewing
and modifying to suit the situation and the learner.

Indications noticed in class Suggested interventions

Phonological awareness – listening and speaking
The student has difficulty Spend some time doing focused practice on the sounds, starting with
discriminating between and recognition in isolation, recognition in context, and then giving explicit
producing sounds (even when instruction in how to produce the sounds in isolation and in context. Offer
other students from the same frequent positive feedback.
language background have no
problem with them).
Working memory
The student finds it hard to Use multimodal approaches, such as singing an example sentence containing
remember grammar rules; or if the target structure, to increase automaticity, or creating a mind-map that is
they seem to be learned, they are easy to refer back to.
not applied in context
Learning vocabulary takes a long Help students to develop their own memorization techniques, using pictures,
time. rhymes, or games.
Reading
Reading is often inaccurate or Encourage discussion of the topic before reading; help students to make use
comprehension is not complete. of all the contextual information available. Highlight cultural elements of the
text to make them clear for all.
Reading a text takes longer than for Encourage the use of holistic reading techniques. Try a coloured
their peers. background or overlay. Explore the use of technology, e.g. a screen reader
to support reading of long passages. It may be helpful to focus on reading
comprehension strategies. Try splitting the text into smaller parts and
engaging students in comprehension tasks right after they have read each
part.
Writing
Spelling is often erratic and Teach common spelling patterns; draw attention to other patterns of
inconsistent. morphology and syntax; use mnemonics to remember the difficult parts of
irregular words.
Writing is slow. Help students to develop planning strategies to capture their ideas first, and
then write/type them up later. This may be due to dyspraxia or dysgraphia,
in which case providing students with additional support, e.g. in the form of
technology, may help.
Writing is hard to read and/or the Experiment with different writing implements to see what works best.
text layout is untidy. Encourage the use of paper with guidelines and draw attention to elements
such as margins, spacing, etc. Explore the use of technology, e.g. word-
processing instead of handwriting, or even speech-to-text software.

© Oxford University Press ❚  30

Speaking
The student takes longer than his/ Allow additional time for students to answer questions. Repeat the same
her peers to process oral input and question again, more slowly. Reformulate the question using simpler language
formulate responses. and reinforcing the idea with visuals/gestures/mimes. Let each student know
which questions they will be asked to answer in advance and allow time for
preparation. Teach the linguistic (and paralinguistic) strategies needed to
explain ideas even if the vocabulary is not known.
Ideas in speech and writing appear Suggest different methods of planning, such as using post-it notes to capture
disorganized. ideas, or mind-mapping to generate and then organize ideas before writing.
Recap and reformulate the student’s response, praising the content and
modelling a different way of organizing the ideas.
Listening
The student is not able to follow This may be due to working memory issues, in which case it may help to
instructions easily. provide students with multimodal instructions (e.g. oral and written) and
activities which have been divided into small steps. Provide instructions in
a visual format, for example in bullet points or as a sequence of pictures
showing the actions required. Ask learners to underline the key words of the
rubrics and then tell the teacher what they have to do, so as to get immediate
feedback on their comprehension.
Organization
There are books and papers all Encourage a tidy desk policy in the class; help the student to develop better
over the student’s workplace, but storage systems for papers and stationery; introduce boxes or drawers with
he/she can’t find anything. clear labels.
The student is often late for class. Initiate a class discussion about the best route to take, and how long it takes
to get to different parts of the building. Set up a class survey of what people
do in the morning and how long it takes them to get ready to leave the house.
Encourage students to develop their own reminders, for example on their
phones or using a coloured timeline.
The student does not complete Discuss with the student what the barriers are, and suggest setting pre-
tasks on time or meet deadlines. deadlines for different stages of the work, or allowing extra time for some
tasks. Make use of study-buddies to help with keeping on track for deadlines.
The student works quickly but not Encourage the student to take more time over the work, by suggesting that
accurately. they count to ten between each question, and that they go through it twice to
make sure it is right.
Spacial awareness and physical coordination
The student often bumps into Keep aisles and floors clear. Encourage slow and careful actions in the
things or misjudges distance (e.g. classroom through mindfulness activities. Build a culture of helpfulness and
goes to put something on a table consideration through the class contract.
but misses).
The student finds it difficult to Provide a lot of activities to develop manual dexterity, using blocks, beads,
fasten buttons, tie a tie/bow or pinboards, etc.
shoelaces or put other clothes on
properly.
Physical discomfort
The student appears to find his/ Check if the temperature is comfortable for everyone; suggest some
her clothes uncomfortable and tugs appropriate modifications to clothing (e.g. removing a tie, wearing a sweatshirt
at them or refuses to wear some but not a shirt underneath).
items of clothing.
The student appears restless Provide something that the student can play with that is silent, and non-
or fidgety; leaves his/her chair breakable (Blu Tack is good). Find reasons for the student to get up during the
frequently or rocks on the chair. lesson (collecting materials, cleaning the board, etc.). Arrange a signal for the
student to give you if he/she needs to get up and move around.

© Oxford University Press ❚  31

Environmental factors
Loud noises seem to cause more Monitor the noise levels in the class. Allow the student to wear ear defenders/
anxiety than expected. headphones if necessary. Provide a quiet place for students to go if the noise
levels get too high. Arrange a discreet signal that the student can give to let
you know that things are getting difficult.
The student complains about the Ensure that the lights are not flickering (i.e. that the bulbs are IEEE-compliant)
lighting in the room, or shields his/ or ask the rest of the class if it is possible to manage just with daylight.
her eyes from the lights.
Social interaction
The student does not make eye Try to find out what makes the student more anxious and see if it is possible
contact when talking or listening. to alleviate that in the classroom. Talk to the student about the role of eye
contact in communication, and try to encourage him/her to include it as part
of the language they are learning (but without insisting on it).
The student does not observe usual Make it clear what the expectations are for your context regarding physical
conventions concerning physical contact and proximity. Try to elicit how it may be different in the student’s
proximity or contact. home context, if applicable. Initiate a class discussion, perhaps leading to
poster-making, about what norms the students in your class feel comfortable
with. Create stories, scenarios, or role plays to explore the effects of different
interaction patterns.
The student does not wait to take Create a list of ‘classroom rules’ with the class to display on the wall. In a one-
turns in talking or playing games. to-one conversation with the student, explain why taking turns is appropriate
in the classroom. Set this as a personal target for the student and give a lot of
praise when you see him/her managing to wait, even for a little while longer
than usual.
Some of the student’s contributions Collect some examples and have a quiet chat with the student later, asking
appear unconnected to the topic them to help you see the connections they saw. Point out any linguistic or
or show that he/she has not paralinguistic clues in the prompts that they may have missed. Teach the
understood the intention of the linguistic (and paralinguistic) strategies needed to ask for clarification.
previous speaker.
Change to routine
Changes in routine upset the Make it clear ahead of time (if possible) when something will change in the
student. routine; talk to the student about how things will be different and ask him/her
to imagine what it might feel like.
Inconsistencies in the language Point out inconsistencies in the language and ask students to think where they
make the student upset or anxious. might have come from—sometimes knowing the reason behind an anomaly
can be helpful. Acknowledge the inconsistency and name the anxiety (e.g. ‘This
pattern is a bit irregular, which can be annoying/confusing at first.’).
Self-esteem
The student avoids tackling tasks Set some tasks that start with easy successes, to draw the student in.
that are likely to be challenging, by Encourage him/her to stick with it, even when it becomes harder, and give a
leaving the class or disrupting the lot of praise if he/she does.
lesson.
The student is withdrawn and Provide a quiet corner for students to go to if they are overwhelmed by the
unwilling to engage in class. environment. If a student spends a lot of time there, talk to him/her about
the reasons why and suggest a meeting with a counsellor if necessary. Try to
help the student to focus on the task rather than the personal interactions in
the class. For multicultural classes, initiate tasks that allow students to share
aspects of their home cultures (e.g. producing a recipe book of favourite
dishes), valuing the range of diverse experiences in the group.

© Oxford University Press ❚  32

Appendix 2:
Developing communicative skills
Developing communicative skills

• Break the listening task into smaller • Help students formulate

units hypotheses about the text
• Pre-teach keywords and expressions Listening • Move from global to detailed
• Avoid ‘listen and read’ (unnecessary comprehension
here) • Start with context, then language
Oral
• Activate communicative and • Enhance pragmatic and
linguistic resources for speaking interactional skills to help
Speaking
• Move from controlled to free compensate for weaknesses
practice

Strategies and
Technical skills Strategic skills
techniques for developing
(bottom-up processes) (top-down processes)
communicative skills

• Pre-teach keywords
• Present text in both audio and • Use metacognitive perspective
visual format in comprehension tasks
• Check text layout accessibility Reading • Explicitly teach ‘before, while,
• Introduce accommodations after’ reading comprehension
(e.g. silent reading, differentiated strategies
texts)
Written
• Activate linguistic resources
(words, expressions) for the • Teach text planning
writing task • Introduce shared/pair
• Move from short to longer texts Writing writing
• Introduce accommodations • Use strategies for content and
(e.g. spellchecker, online dictionary) language review

VOCABULARY GRAMMAR
Presentation Presentation
• few target words per lesson • notice/analyse structures in
• avoid similar-sounding words context
• pronunciation–meaning mapping >
introduce other information about
target word
Practice
+ • multisensory techniques
(e.g. colour-coding)
Practice
• accessible exercises
• accessible exercises • structured practice
• memorization strategies

From Daloiso, 2017, page 153

© Oxford University Press ❚  33

Glossary

assessment for learning: An evaluation of learning interventions: Strategies, techniques, or equipment,

which informs the next phase of teaching. including assistive technology, that make learning more
assessment of learning: An evaluation of learning accessible.
which determines whether targets have been met or multisensory activities: Learning activities that
standards achieved. simultaneously activate several different senses.
barrier to learning: Anything that prevents a learner multimodal resources: Resources that include
from progressing, whether due to environmental multimodal components (e.g. coursebooks that have
factors, personal attributes, or the interaction between videos/CDs/tactile elements integrated into their
the two. programmes).
co-occurrence: The presence of more than one neurodiverse/neurodiversity: Used increasingly in
identifiable specific learning difference within an reference to learners with specific learning difficulties,
individual’s cognitive profile. Dyslexia and dyspraxia neurodiversity embraces the idea that all human brains
often co-occur, for example. function differently, and some more so than others.
cognitive function differences: Activity in the mind/ phonological awareness: The ability to recognize and
differences in the way the mind works (e.g. in terms of discriminate between different aspects of phonology (e.g.
memory, speed of processing, etc.). phonemes, intonation patterns, volume).
equity: The provision of resources, support, etc. social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties
according to individual need. This is in contrast to (SEBD): A term used in educational contexts to describe
equality, where everybody gets the same. learners whose social, emotional, or behavioural responses
formal assessment: Methods of assessing proficiency adversely affect their learning.
levels and progress that typically require candidates to segregation: A system of education whereby some
respond individually under timed conditions, without learners are removed from the ‘mainstream’ environment
access to other resources. and taught instead in a ‘special’ school, usually engaging
inclusion: A system of education whereby every learner with a limited curriculum.
can access and engage with the curriculum alongside special educational needs (SEN): The term commonly
his/her age peers, regardless of ability. used in educational settings to identify a student’s needs.
informal assessment: Methods of assessing speed of processing: How quickly a person can process
proficiency levels and progress that may allow information that is presented, either visually or orally.
candidates to work with others, use reference materials, working memory: The ability to hold some information in
and take the time they need to complete tasks. mind while adding to it or otherwise manipulating it, before
integration: A system of education whereby all using it to complete a task or action.
learners are taught in the same physical location (i.e.
in the same building, or on the same site), but not all
learners have the same opportunities to engage with
the curriculum.

© Oxford University Press ❚  34

Further reading and resources

Delaney, M. (2016). Special educational needs. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Additional online resources:
www.oup.com/elt/teacher/itc

Daloiso, M. (2017). Supporting learners with dyslexia in the ELT classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Additional online
resources: www.oup.com/elt/teacher/supportingdyslexia

Kormos, J., & Smith, A. M. (2012). Teaching languages to students with specific learning differences. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.

Sánchez-López, C., & Young, T. (2018). Focus on Special Educational Needs. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Smith, A. M. (2017). Raising awareness of SpLDs. Morecambe: ELT well.

British Dyslexia Association: www.bdadyslexia.org.uk

Dyspraxia Foundation: https://dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk

dysTEFL: www.dystefl.eu

European Dyslexia Association: www.eda-info.eu

FutureLearn: www.futurelearn.com/courses/education-for-all

IATEFL Inclusive Practices and Special Educational Needs Special Interest Group: https://ipsen.iatefl.org

International Dyslexia Association: https://dyslexiaida.org

The National Attention Deficit Disorder Information and Support Service (ADDISS): www.addiss.co.uk/allabout.htm

The National Autism Association: http://nationalautismassociation.org

The National Autistic Society: www.autism.org.uk

© Oxford University Press ❚  35

Endnotes

Introduction 3 Support and continuous professional development for

1 Crystal (2012) teachers
2 Carpenter (2005) 26 European Agency for Development in Special Needs
3 European Commission (2013); UNESCO (2006, 2017) Education (2012)
4 Schneider & Crombie (2003); Kormos & Smith (2012), 27 Altrichter, Feldman, Posch, & Somekh (2013)
Kormos (2017)
5 UNESCO (1994, 2017), OECD (2007); European 4 Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials
Commission (2013) 28 Daloiso (2017)
29 Johnson & Johnson (1999)
1 Inclusive education 30 Kormos (2017)
6 UNESCO (1994) 31 Daloiso (2017)
7 Kormos (2017) 32 Kormos & Smith (2012)
8 Warnock (1978)
9 Daloiso (2017) 5 Assessment and testing
10 OECD (2007) 33 Shute & Kim (2014)
11 European Commission (2013) 34 Hashemi (2011)
12 European Agency for Development in Special Needs 35 Gholami (2016)
Education (2012) 36 Kormos & Smith (2012)
13 European Commission (2013) 37 Kung, Fitzgerald, & Amendum (2013)
14–15 UNESCO (2017) 38 Kormos & Smith (2012)
39 Pawlak (2014)
2 Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language 40 Kormos (2017)
learning
16 Everatt, Reid, & Elbeheri (2013) 6 Collaboration between stakeholders
17 Reid, Elbeheri, & Everatt (2015) 41 European Agency for Development in Special Needs
18 American Psychiatric Association (2013) Education (2012)
19 Gibbs, Appleton, & Appleton (2007) 42 Delaney (2016)
20–21 American Psychiatric Association (2013) 43 Smith (2017)
22 European Commission (2013)
23 Taylor & Sidhu (2012)
24–25 Delaney (2016)

© Oxford University Press ❚  36

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