C H A P T E R 1 1

AC POWER ANALYSIS
An engineer is an unordinary person who can do for one dollar what any
ordinary person can do for two dollars.
—Anonymous

Enhancing Your Career

Career in Power Systems The discovery of the principle
of an ac generator by Michael Faraday in 1831 was a major
breakthrough in engineering; it provided a convenient way
of generating the electric power that is needed in every elec-
tronic, electrical, or electromechanical device we use now.
Electric power is obtained by converting energy from
sources such as fossil fuels (gas, oil, and coal), nuclear
fuel (uranium), hydro energy (water falling through a head),
geothermal energy (hot water, steam), wind energy, tidal en-
ergy, and biomass energy (wastes). These various ways of
generating electric power are studied in detail in the field of
power engineering, which has become an indispensable sub-
discipline of electrical engineering. An electrical engineer
should be familiar with the analysis, generation, transmis-
sion, distribution, and cost of electric power.
The electric power industry is a very large employer
of electrical engineers. The industry includes thousands of
electric utility systems ranging from large, interconnected
systems serving large regional areas to small power
companies serving individual communities or factories.
Due to the complexity of the power industry, there are A pole-type transformer with a low-voltage, three-wire distribution
numerous electrical engineering jobs in different areas of system. Source: W. N. Alerich, Electricity, 3rd ed. Albany, NY:
the industry: power plant (generation), transmission and Delmar Publishers, 1981, p. 152. (Courtesy of General Electric.)
distribution, maintenance, research, data acquisition and
flow control, and management. Since electric power is used
everywhere, electric utility companies are everywhere, of-
fering exciting training and steady employment for men and
women in thousands of communities throughout the world.

433
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434 PART 2 AC Circuits

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Our effort in ac circuit analysis so far has been focused mainly on cal-
culating voltage and current. Our major concern in this chapter is power
analysis.
Power analysis is of paramount importance. Power is the most
important quantity in electric utilities, electronic, and communication
systems, because such systems involve transmission of power from one
point to another. Also, every industrial and household electrical device—
every fan, motor, lamp, pressing iron, TV, personal computer—has a
power rating that indicates how much power the equipment requires;
exceeding the power rating can do permanent damage to an appliance.
The most common form of electric power is 50- or 60-Hz ac power. The
choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage power transmission from the
power generating plant to the consumer.
We will begin by defining and deriving instantaneous power and
average power. We will then introduce other power concepts. As practi-
cal applications of these concepts, we will discuss how power is measured
and reconsider how electric utility companies charge their customers.

11.2 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

Electronic Testing Tutorials
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an
element is the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element
and the instantaneous current i(t) through it. Assuming the passive sign
convention,

p(t) = v(t)i(t) (11.1)

The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time. It is the rate
We can also think of the instantaneous power at which an element absorbs energy.
as the power absorbed by the element at a spe- Consider the general case of instantaneous power absorbed by an
cific instant of time. Instantaneous quantities are arbitrary combination of circuit elements under sinusoidal excitation, as
denoted by lowercase letters. shown in Fig. 11.1. Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the
circuit be
i(t)
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv ) (11.2a)

Sinusoidal
+ Passive i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi ) (11.2b)
v(t) linear
source − network where Vm and Im are the amplitudes (or peak values), and θv and θi are the
phase angles of the voltage and current, respectively. The instantaneous
power absorbed by the circuit is
Figure 11.1 Sinusoidal source and passive
linear circuit. p(t) = v(t)i(t) = Vm Im cos(ωt + θv ) cos(ωt + θi ) (11.3)

We apply the trigonometric identity

1
cos A cos B = [cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)] (11.4)
2
and express Eq. (11.3) as
1 1
p(t) = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) + Vm Im cos(2ωt + θv + θi ) (11.5)
2 2
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 435

This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part is
constant or time independent. Its value depends on the phase difference
between the voltage and the current. The second part is a sinusoidal
function whose frequency is 2ω, which is twice the angular frequency of
the voltage or current.
A sketch of p(t) in Eq. (11.5) is shown in Fig. 11.2, where T =
2π/ω is the period of voltage or current. We observe that p(t) is periodic,
p(t) = p(t + T0 ), and has a period of T0 = T /2, since its frequency
is twice that of voltage or current. We also observe that p(t) is positive
for some part of each cycle and negative for the rest of the cycle. When
p(t) is positive, power is absorbed by the circuit. When p(t) is negative,
power is absorbed by the source; that is, power is transferred from the
circuit to the source. This is possible because of the storage elements
(capacitors and inductors) in the circuit.

p(t)

1
V I
2 m m

1
V I
2 m m
cos(uv − ui )

0 T T t
2

Figure 11.2 The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit.

The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult

to measure. The average power is more convenient to measure. In fact,
the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power, responds to average
power.

The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one period.

Thus, the average power is given by

1 T
P = p(t) dt (11.6)
T 0
Although Eq. (11.6) shows the averaging done over T , we would get the
same result if we performed the integration over the actual period of p(t)
which is T0 = T /2.
Substituting p(t) in Eq. (11.5) into Eq. (11.6) gives


1 T 1
P = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) dt
T 0 2


1 T 1
+ Vm Im cos(2ωt + θv + θi ) dt
T 0 2
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436 PART 2 AC Circuits

1 1 T
= Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) dt
2 T 0


1 1 T
+ Vm Im cos(2ωt + θv + θi ) dt (11.7)
2 T 0

The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same
constant. The second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the average of
a sinusoid over its period is zero because the area under the sinusoid during
a positive half-cycle is canceled by the area under it during the following
negative half-cycle. Thus, the second term in Eq. (11.7) vanishes and the
average power becomes

1
P = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) (11.8)
2
Since cos(θv − θi ) = cos(θi − θv ), what is important is the difference in
the phases of the voltage and current.
Note that p(t) is time-varying while P does not depend on time.
To find the instantaneous power, we must necessarily have v(t) and i(t)
in the time domain. But we can find the average power when voltage
and current are expressed in the time domain, as in Eq. (11.2), or when
they are expressed in the frequency domain. The phasor forms of v(t)
and i(t) in Eq. (11.2) are V = Vm θv and I = Im θi , respectively. P is
calculated using Eq. (11.8) or using phasors V and I. To use phasors, we
notice that
1 ∗ 1
VI = Vm Im θv − θi
2 2
(11.9)
1
= Vm Im [cos(θv − θi ) + j sin(θv − θi )]
2
We recognize the real part of this expression as the average power P
according to Eq. (11.8). Thus,

1   1
P = Re VI∗ = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) (11.10)
2 2

Consider two special cases of Eq. (11.10). When θv = θi , the

voltage and current are in phase. This implies a purely resistive circuit
or resistive load R, and
1 1 1
P = Vm Im = Im2 R = |I|2 R (11.11)
2 2 2

where |I|2 = I × I∗ . Equation (11.11) shows that a purely resistive

circuit absorbs power at all times. When θv − θi = ±90◦ , we have a
purely reactive circuit, and

1
P = Vm Im cos 90◦ = 0 (11.12)
2
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 437

showing that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power. In sum-

mary,

A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C)
absorbs zero average power.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1
Given that
v(t) = 120 cos(377t + 45◦ ) V and i(t) = 10 cos(377t − 10◦ ) A
find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the
passive linear network of Fig. 11.1.
Solution:
The instantaneous power is given by
p = vi = 1200 cos(377t + 45◦ ) cos(377t − 10◦ )
Applying the trigonometric identity
1
cos A cos B = [cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)]
2
gives
p = 600[cos(754t + 35◦ ) + cos 55◦ ]
or
p(t) = 344.2 + 600 cos(754t + 35◦ ) W
The average power is
1 1
P = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) = 120(10) cos[45◦ − (−10◦ )]
2 2
= 600 cos 55◦ = 344.2 W
which is the constant part of p(t) above.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.1

Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by the
passive linear network of Fig. 11.1 if
v(t) = 80 cos(10t + 20◦ ) V and i(t) = 15 sin(10t + 60◦ ) A
Answer: 385.7 + 600 cos(20t − 10◦ ) W, 385.7 W.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 2
Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z = 30 − j 70 
when a voltage V = 120 0◦ is applied across it.
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438 PART 2 AC Circuits

Solution:
The current through the impedance is
V 120 0◦ 120 0◦
I= = = = 1.576 66.8◦ A
Z 30 − j 70 76.16 − 66.8 ◦

The average power is

1 1
P = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) = (120)(1.576) cos(0 − 66.8◦ ) = 37.24 W
2 2
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.2
A current I = 10 30◦ flows through an impedance Z = 20 − 22◦ .
Find the average power delivered to the impedance.
Answer: 927.2 W.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 3
I 4Ω For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.3, find the average power supplied by the
source and the average power absorbed by the resistor.
Solution:
5 30° V +
− −j2 Ω
The current I is given by
5 30◦ 5 30◦
I= = = 1.118 56.57◦ A
Figure 11.3 For Example 11.3. 4 − j2 4.472 − 26.57 ◦

The average power supplied by the voltage source is

1
P = (5)(1.118) cos(30◦ − 56.57◦ ) = 2.5 W
2
The current through the resistor is
I = IR = 1.118 56.57◦ A
and the voltage across it is
VR = 4IR = 4.472 56.57◦ V
The average power absorbed by the resistor is
1
P = (4.472)(1.118) = 2.5 W
2
which is the same as the average power supplied. Zero average power is
absorbed by the capacitor.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.3

3Ω In the circuit of Fig. 11.4, calculate the average power absorbed by the
resistor and inductor. Find the average power supplied by the voltage
source.
8 45° V +
− j1 Ω
Answer: 9.6 W, 0 W, 9.6 W.

Figure 11.4 For Practice Prob. 11.3.

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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 439

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 4
Determine the power generated by each source and the average power ab-
sorbed by each passive element in the circuit of Fig. 11.5(a).

20 Ω −j5 Ω 20 Ω −j5 Ω

2 + −
4 V2
+
4 0° Α 1 j10 Ω 3 5 +
− 60 30° V 4 0° Α V1 j10 Ω +
− 60 30° V
− I1 I2

(a) (b)

Figure 11.5 For Example 11.4.

Solution:
We apply mesh analysis as shown in Fig. 11.5(b). For mesh 1,
I1 = 4 A
For mesh 2,
(j 10 − j 5)I2 − j 10I1 + 60 30◦ = 0, I1 = 4 A
or
j 5I2 = −60 30◦ + j 40 ⇒ I2 = −12 − 60◦ + 8
= 10.58 79.1◦ A

For the voltage source, the current flowing from it is I2 = 10.58 79.1◦ A
and the voltage across it is 60 30◦ V, so that the average power is
1
(60)(10.58) cos(30◦ − 79.1◦ ) = 207.8 W
P5 =
2
Following the passive sign convention (see Fig. 1.8), this average power
is absorbed by the source, in view of the direction of I2 and the polarity
of the voltage source. That is, the circuit is delivering average power to
the voltage source.
For the current source, the current through it is I1 = 4 0◦ and the
voltage across it is
V1 = 20I1 + j 10(I1 − I2 ) = 80 + j 10(4 − 2 − j 10.39)
= 183.9 + j 20 = 184.984 6.21◦ V
The average power supplied by the current source is
1
P1 = − (184.984)(4) cos(6.21◦ − 0) = −367.8 W
2
It is negative according to the passive sign convention, meaning that the
current source is supplying power to the circuit.
For the resistor, the current through it is I1 = 4 0◦ and the voltage
across it is 20I1 = 80 0◦ , so that the power absorbed by the resistor is
1
P2 = (80)(4) = 160 W
2
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440 PART 2 AC Circuits

For the capacitor, the current through it is I2 = 10.58 79.1◦ and the
voltage across it is −j 5I2 = (5 − 90◦ )(10.58 79.1◦ ) =
◦ ◦
52.9 79.1 − 90 . The average power absorbed by the capacitor is
1
P4 = (52.9)(10.58) cos(−90◦ ) = 0
2
For the inductor, the current through it is I1 − I2 = 2 − j 10.39 =
10.58 − 79.1◦ . The voltage across it is j 10(I1 − I2 ) =
105.8 − 79.1◦ + 90◦ . Hence, the average power absorbed by the in-
ductor is
1
P3 = (105.8)(10.58) cos 90◦ = 0
2
Notice that the inductor and the capacitor absorb zero average power
and that the total power supplied by the current source equals the power
absorbed by the resistor and the voltage source, or
P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 = −367.8 + 160 + 0 + 0 + 207.8 = 0
indicating that power is conserved.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.4

Calculate the average power absorbed by each of the five elements in the
circuit of Fig. 11.6.

8Ω j4 Ω

40 0° V +
− −j2 Ω +
− 20 90° V

Figure 11.6 For Practice Prob. 11.4.

Answer: 40-V Voltage source: −100 W; resistor: 100 W; others: 0 W.

11.3 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER

In Section 4.8 we solved the problem of maximizing the power deliv-
ered by a power-supplying resistive network to a load RL . Represent-
ing the circuit by its Thevenin equivalent, we proved that the maximum
power would be delivered to the load if the load resistance is equal to the
Thevenin resistance RL = RTh . We now extend that result to ac circuits.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.7, where an ac circuit is connected
to a load ZL and is represented by its Thevenin equivalent. The load
is usually represented by an impedance, which may model an electric
motor, an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the Thevenin
impedance ZTh and the load impedance ZL are
ZTh = RTh + j XTh (11.13a)
ZL = RL + j XL (11.13b)
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 441

The current through the load is

VTh VTh Linear
I= = (11.14) ZL
ZTh + ZL (RTh + j XTh ) + (RL + j XL ) circuit

From Eq. (11.11), the average power delivered to the load is

1 2 |VTh |2 RL /2 (a)
P = |I| RL = (11.15)
2 (RTh + RL )2 + (XTh + XL )2 Z Th I
Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is
maximum. To do this we set ∂P /∂RL and ∂P /∂XL equal to zero. From
Eq. (11.15), we obtain VTh +
− ZL

∂P |VTh |2 RL (XTh + XL )
=− (11.16a)
∂XL [(RTh + RL )2 + (XTh + XL )2 ]2 (b)
∂P |VTh | [(RTh + RL ) + (XTh + XL ) − 2RL (RTh + RL )]
2 2 2
= (11.16b) Figure 11.7 Finding the
∂RL 2[(RTh + RL )2 + (XTh + XL )2 ]2 maximum average power transfer:
(a) circuit with a load, (b) the
Setting ∂P /∂XL to zero gives Thevenin equivalent.

XL = −XTh (11.17)

and setting ∂P /∂RL to zero results in


RL = RTh 2
+ (XTh + XL )2 (11.18)

Combining Eqs. (11.17) and (11.18) leads to the conclusion that for max-
imum average power transfer, ZL must be selected so that XL = −XTh
and RL = RTh , i.e.,

ZL = RL + j XL = RTh − j XTh = Z∗Th (11.19)

For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the
complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh. When ZL = Z*Th , we say that the load is matched
to the source.
This result is known as the maximum average power transfer theorem for
the sinusoidal steady state. Setting RL = RTh and XL = −XTh in Eq.
(11.15) gives us the maximum average power as

|VTh |2
Pmax = (11.20)
8RTh

In a situation in which the load is purely real, the condition for

maximum power transfer is obtained from Eq. (11.18) by setting XL = 0;
that is,

RL = RTh 2
+ XTh
2
= |ZTh | (11.21)

This means that for maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive
load, the load impedance (or resistance) is equal to the magnitude of the
Thevenin impedance.
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442 PART 2 AC Circuits

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 5
4Ω j5 Ω Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average power
drawn from the circuit of Fig. 11.8. What is the maximum average power?
8Ω Solution:
10 0° V +
− ZL
−j6 Ω First we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load terminals. To get ZTh ,
consider the circuit shown in Fig. 11.9(a). We find

Figure 11.8 4(8 − j 6)

For Example 11.5. ZTh = j 5 + 4  (8 − j 6) = j 5 + = 2.933 + j 4.467 
4 + 8 − j6
To find VTh , consider the circuit in Fig. 11.8(b). By voltage division,
8 − j6
VTh = (10) = 7.454 − 10.3◦ V
4 + 8 − j6
The load impedance draws the maximum power from the circuit when
ZL = Z∗Th = 2.933 − j 4.467 
According to Eq. (11.20), the maximum average power is
|VTh |2 (7.454)2
Pmax = = = 2.368 W
8RTh 8(2.933)

4Ω j5 Ω 4Ω j5 Ω

+
8Ω Z Th 8Ω
10 V +
− VTh
−j6 Ω −j6 Ω
−

(a) (b)

Figure 11.9 Finding the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 11.8.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.5

−j4 Ω j10 Ω For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.10, find the load impedance ZL that ab-
sorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that maximum average
power.
8Ω 2A 5Ω ZL Answer: 3.415 − j 0.7317 , 1.429 W.

Figure 11.10 For Practice Prob. 11.5.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 6
In the circuit in Fig. 11.11, find the value of RL that will absorb the max-
imum average power. Calculate that power.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 443

Solution:
We first find the Thevenin equivalent at the terminals of RL .
j 20(40 − j 30)
ZTh = (40 − j 30)  j 20 = = 9.412 + j 22.35  40 Ω −j30 Ω
j 20 + 40 − j 30
By voltage division,
150 30° V +
− j20 Ω RL
j 20
VTh = (150 30◦ ) = 72.76 134◦ V
j 20 + 40 − j 30
The value of RL that will absorb the maximum average power is
 Figure 11.11 For Example 11.6.
RL = |ZTh | = 9.4122 + 22.352 = 24.25 
The current through the load is
VTh 72.76 134◦
I= = = 1.8 100.2◦ A
ZTh + RL 33.39 + j 22.35
The maximum average power absorbed by RL is
1 2 1
Pmax = |I| RL = (1.8)2 (24.25) = 39.29 W
2 2

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.6

In Fig. 11.12, the resistor RL is adjusted until it absorbs the maximum
average power. Calculate RL and the maximum average power absorbed
by it.

80 Ω j60 Ω

120 60° V +
− 90 Ω −j30 Ω RL

Figure 11.12 For Practice Prob. 11.6.

Answer: 30 , 9.883 W.

11.4 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUE

The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effec-
tiveness of a voltage or current source in delivering power to a resistive
load.

The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same
average power to a resistor as the periodic current.
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444 PART 2 AC Circuits

i(t) In Fig. 11.13, the circuit in (a) is ac while that of (b) is dc. Our objective
is to find Ieff that will transfer the same power to resistor R as the sinusoid
i. The average power absorbed by the resistor in the ac circuit is
+
v(t) − R


1 T 2 R T 2
P = i R dt = i dt (11.22)
T 0 T 0
(a)
while the power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is
Ieff P = Ieff
2
R (11.23)

+ Equating the expressions in Eqs. (11.22) and (11.23) and solving for Ieff ,
Veff R we obtain
− 


1 T 2
Ieff = i dt (11.24)
(b) T 0
The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as current;
Figure 11.13 Finding the that is,
effective current: (a) ac circuit, 
(b) dc circuit.

1 T 2
Veff = v dt (11.25)
T 0
This indicates that the effective value is the (square) root of the mean (or
average) of the square of the periodic signal. Thus, the effective value is
often known as the root-mean-square value, or rms value for short; and
we write
Ieff = Irms , Veff = Vrms (11.26)

For any periodic function x(t) in general, the rms value is given by


T
1
Xrms = x 2 dt (11.27)
T 0

The effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean square (rms) value.

Equation 11.27 states that to find the rms value of x(t), we first find
its square x 2 and then find the mean of that, or


1 T 2
x dt
T 0
√
and then the square root ( ) of that mean. The rms value of a
constant is the constant itself. For the sinusoid i(t) = Im cos ωt, the
effective or rms value is



1 T 2
Irms = I cos2 ωt dt
T 0 m
 (11.28)


Im2 T 1 Im
= (1 + cos 2ωt) dt = √
T 0 2 2
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 445

Similarly, for v(t) = Vm cos ωt,

Vm
Vrms = √ (11.29)
2
Keep in mind that Eqs. (11.28) and (11.29) are only valid for sinusoidal
signals.
The average power in Eq. (11.8) can be written in terms of the rms
values.
1 Vm Im
P = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) = √ √ cos(θv − θi )
2 2 2 (11.30)
= Vrms Irms cos(θv − θi )

Similarly, the average power absorbed by a resistor R in Eq. (11.11) can

be written as
2
Vrms
P = Irms
2
R= (11.31)
R
When a sinusoidal voltage or current is specified, it is often in terms
of its maximum (or peak) value or its rms value, since its average value
is zero. The power industries specify phasor magnitudes in terms of their
rms values rather than peak values. For instance, the 110 V available at
every household is the rms value of the voltage from the power company.
It is convenient in power analysis to express voltage and current in their
rms values. Also, analog voltmeters and ammeters are designed to read
directly the rms value of voltage and current, respectively.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 7
Determine the rms value of the current waveform in Fig. 11.14. If the i(t)
current is passed through a 2- resistor, find the average power absorbed
by the resistor. 10

Solution:
0
The period of the waveform is T = 4. Over a period, we can write the 2 4 6 8 10 t
current waveform as
 −10
5t, 0 < t < 2
i(t) =
−10, 2 < t < 4

The rms value is Figure 11.14 For Example 11.7.

  



4
1 T 2 1 2
Irms = i dt = (5t)2 dt + (−10)2 dt
T 0 4 0 2



1 
3 2
4    
t  1 200
= 25  + 100t  = + 200 = 8.165 A
4 3 0 2 4 3

The power absorbed by a 2- resistor is

P = Irms
2
R = (8.165)2 (2) = 133.3 W
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446 PART 2 AC Circuits

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.7

i(t) Find the rms value of the current waveform of Fig. 11.15. If the current
flows through a 9- resistor, calculate the average power absorbed by the
4 resistor.
Answer: 2.309 A, 48 W.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t

Figure 11.15 For Practice Prob. 11.7.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 8
v(t) The waveform shown in Fig. 11.16 is a half-wave rectified sine wave.
Find the rms value and the amount of average power dissipated in a 10-
10
resistor.
Solution:
The period of the voltage waveform is T = 2π, and
0 p 2p 3p t 
10 sin t, 0 < t < π
v(t) =
Figure 11.16 For Example 11.8. 0, π < t < 2π
The rms value is obtained as


π
2π
1 T 2 1
2
Vrms = v (t) dt = (10 sin t)2 dt + 02 dt
T 0 2π 0 π

But sin2 t = 12 (1 − cos 2t). Hence

π  
1 100 50 sin 2t π
Vrms =
2
(1 − cos 2t) dt = t− 
2π 0 2 2π 2 0
 
50 1
= π − sin 2π − 0 = 25, Vrms = 5 V
2π 2
The average power absorbed is
2
Vrms 52
P = = = 2.5 W
R 10

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.8

v(t) Find the rms value of the full-wave rectified sine wave in Fig. 11.17. Cal-
culate the average power dissipated in a 6- resistor.
8
Answer: 5.657 V, 5.334 W.

0 p 2p 3p t

Figure 11.17 For Practice Prob. 11.8.

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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 447

11.5 APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR Electronic Testing Tutorials

In Section 11.2 we see that if the voltage and current at the terminals of
a circuit are
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv ) and i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi ) (11.32)

or, in phasor form, V = Vm θv and I = Im θi , the average power is

1
P = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) (11.33)
2
In Section 11.4, we saw that
P = Vrms Irms cos(θv − θi ) = S cos(θv − θi ) (11.34)

We have added a new term to the equation:

S = Vrms Irms (11.35)

The average power is a product of two terms. The product Vrms Irms is
known as the apparent power S. The factor cos(θv − θi ) is called the
power factor (pf).

The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.

The apparent power is so called because it seems apparent that the power
should be the voltage-current product, by analogy with dc resistive cir-
cuits. It is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from the
average or real power, which is measured in watts. The power factor is
dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the average power to the apparent
power,

P
pf = = cos(θv − θi ) (11.36)
S
The angle θv − θi is called the power factor angle, since it is the
angle whose cosine is the power factor. The power factor angle is equal
to the angle of the load impedance if V is the voltage across the load and
I is the current through it. This is evident from the fact that
V Vm θv Vm
Z= = = θv − θ i (11.37)
I I m θi Im
Alternatively, since
V
Vrms = √ = Vrms θv (11.38a)
2
and
I
Irms = √ = Irms θi (11.38b)
2
the impedance is
V Vrms Vrms
Z= = = θv − θ i (11.39)
I Irms Irms
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448 PART 2 AC Circuits

The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current.
It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

From Eq. (11.36), the power factor may also be From Eq. (11.36), the power factor may be seen as that factor by which the
regarded as the ratio of the real power dissipated apparent power must be multiplied to obtain the real or average power.
in the load to the apparent power of the load. The value of pf ranges between zero and unity. For a purely resistive
load, the voltage and current are in phase, so that θv − θi = 0 and pf
= 1. This implies that the apparent power is equal to the average power.
For a purely reactive load, θv − θi = ±90◦ and pf = 0. In this case the
average power is zero. In between these two extreme cases, pf is said
to be leading or lagging. Leading power factor means that current leads
voltage, which implies a capacitive load. Lagging power factor means
that current lags voltage, implying an inductive load. Power factor affects
the electric bills consumers pay the electric utility companies, as we will
see in Section 11.9.2.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 9
A series-connected load draws a current i(t) = 4 cos(100π t + 10◦ ) A
when the applied voltage is v(t) = 120 cos(100π t − 20◦ ) V. Find the
apparent power and the power factor of the load. Determine the element
values that form the series-connected load.
Solution:
The apparent power is
120 4
S = Vrms Irms = √ √ = 240 VA
2 2
The power factor is
pf = cos(θv − θi ) = cos(−20◦ − 10◦ ) = 0.866 (leading)
The pf is leading because the current leads the voltage. The pf may also
be obtained from the load impedance.
V 120 − 20◦
Z= = = 30 − 30◦ = 25.98 − j 15 
I 4 10◦
pf = cos(−30◦ ) = 0.866 (leading)
The load impedance Z can be modeled by a 25.98- resistor in series
with a capacitor with
1
XC = −15 = −
ωC
or
1 1
C= = = 212.2 µF
15ω 15 × 100π
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.9
Obtain the power factor and the apparent power of a load whose imped-
ance is Z = 60 + j 40  when the applied voltage is v(t) =
150 cos(377t + 10◦ ) V.
Answer: 0.832 lagging, 156 VA.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 449

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 0
Determine the power factor of the entire circuit of Fig. 11.18 as seen by 6Ω
the source. Calculate the average power delivered by the source.
Solution: 30 0° V rms + −j2 Ω 4Ω
−
The total impedance is
−j 2 × 4
Z = 6 + 4  (−j 2) = 6 + = 6.8 − j 1.6 = 7 − 13.24 
4 − j2 Figure 11.18 For Example 11.10.
The power factor is
pf = cos(−13.24) = 0.9734 (leading)
since the impedance is capacitive. The rms value of the current is
Vrms 30 0◦
Irms = = = 4.286 13.24◦ A
Z 7 − 13.24◦
The average power supplied by the source is
P = Vrms Irms pf = (30)(4.286)0.9734 = 125 W
or
P = Irms
2
R = (4.286)2 (6.8) = 125 W
where R is the resistive part of Z.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.10

Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit of Fig. 11.19 as seen by 10 Ω 8Ω
the source. What is the average power supplied by the source?
Answer: 0.936 lagging, 118 W. 40 0° V rms + j4 Ω −j6 Ω
−

Figure 11.19 For Practice Prob. 11.10.

11.6 COMPLEX POWER Electronic Testing Tutorials

Considerable effort has been expended over the years to express power
relations as simply as possible. Power engineers have coined the term
complex power, which they use to find the total effect of parallel loads.
Complex power is important in power analysis because it contains all the
information pertaining to the power absorbed by a given load. I
Consider the ac load in Fig. 11.20. Given the phasor form V =
+
Vm θv and I = Im θi of voltage v(t) and current i(t), the complex
power S absorbed by the ac load is the product of the voltage and the Load
V
complex conjugate of the current, or Z

1 −
S = VI∗ (11.40)
2
assuming the passive sign convention (see Fig. 11.20). In terms of the Figure 11.20 The
rms values, voltage and current
phasors associated
S = Vrms I∗rms (11.41) with a load.
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450 PART 2 AC Circuits

where
V
Vrms = √ = Vrms θv (11.42)
2
and
I
Irms = √ = Irms θi (11.43)
2
When working with the rms values of currents Thus we may write Eq. (11.41) as
or voltages, we may drop the subscript rms if no S = Vrms Irms θv − θi
confusion will be caused by doing so. (11.44)
= Vrms Irms cos(θv − θi ) + j Vrms Irms sin(θv − θi )
This equation can also be obtained from Eq. (11.9). We notice from Eq.
(11.44) that the magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power;
hence, the complex power is measured in volt-amperes (VA). Also, we
notice that the angle of the complex power is the power factor angle.
The complex power may be expressed in terms of the load impedance
Z. From Eq. (11.37), the load impedance Z may be written as
V Vrms Vrms
Z= = = θv − θ i (11.45)
I Irms Irms
Thus, Vrms = ZIrms . Substituting this into Eq. (11.41) gives

2
Vrms
S = Irms
2
Z= (11.46)
Z∗

Since Z = R + j X, Eq. (11.46) becomes

S = Irms
2
(R + j X) = P + j Q (11.47)

where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power;
that is,
P = Re(S) = Irms
2
R (11.48)
Q = Im(S) = 2
Irms X (11.49)

P is the average or real power and it depends on the load’s resistance

R. Q depends on the load’s reactance X and is called the reactive (or
quadrature) power.
Comparing Eq. (11.44) with Eq. (11.47), we notice that
P = Vrms Irms cos(θv − θi ), Q = Vrms Irms sin(θv − θi ) (11.50)

The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it

is the only useful power. It is the actual power dissipated by the load.
The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the
source and the reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is the volt-ampere
reactive (VAR) to distinguish it from the real power, whose unit is the watt.
We know from Chapter 6 that energy storage elements neither dissipate
nor supply power, but exchange power back and forth with the rest of
the network. In the same way, the reactive power is being transferred
back and forth between the load and the source. It represents a lossless
interchange between the load and the source. Notice that:
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 451

1. Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).

2. Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
3. Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).
Thus,

Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the
complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a complex quantity, its
real part is real power P and its imaginary part is reactive power Q.

Introducing the complex power enables us to obtain the real and reactive
powers directly from voltage and current phasors.

1 ∗
Complex Power = S = P + j Q = VI
2
= Vrms Irms θv − θ i

Apparent Power = S = |S| = Vrms Irms = P 2 + Q2
(11.51)
Real Power = P = Re(S) = S cos(θv − θi )
Reactive Power = Q = Im(S) = S sin(θv − θi )
P
Power Factor = = cos(θv − θi )
S
This shows how the complex power contains all the relevant power in-
formation in a given load. S contains all power information of a load. The
It is a standard practice to represent S, P , and Q in the form of real part of S is the real power P; its imaginary
a triangle, known as the power triangle, shown in Fig. 11.21(a). This part is the reactive power Q; its magnitude is the
is similar to the impedance triangle showing the relationship between apparent power S; and the cosine of its phase
Z, R, and X, illustrated in Fig. 11.21(b). The power triangle has four angle is the power factor pf.
items—the apparent/complex power, real power, reactive power, and the
power factor angle. Given two of these items, the other two can easily
be obtained from the triangle. As shown in Fig. 11.22, when S lies in the
first quadrant, we have an inductive load and a lagging pf. When S lies
in the fourth quadrant, the load is capacitive and the pf is leading. It is
also possible for the complex power to lie in the second or third quadrant.
This requires that the load impedance have a negative resistance, which Im
is possible with active circuits.

+Q (lagging pf)
S

S Q |Z| X uv − ui
uv − ui P Re
u u
P R
S
−Q (leading pf)
(a) (b)

Figure 11.21 (a) Power triangle,

(b) impedance triangle. Figure 11.22 Power triangle.
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452 PART 2 AC Circuits

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 1
The voltage across a load is v(t) = 60 cos(ωt − 10◦ ) V and the cur-
rent through the element in the direction of the voltage drop is i(t) =
1.5 cos(ωt + 50◦ ) A. Find: (a) the complex and apparent powers, (b) the
real and reactive powers, and (c) the power factor and the load impedance.
Solution:
(a) For the rms values of the voltage and current, we write
60 1.5
Vrms = √ − 10◦ , Irms = √ + 50◦
2 2
The complex power is
  
60 1.5
S = Vrms I∗rms = √ − 10◦ √ − 50◦ = 45 − 60◦ VA
2 2
The apparent power is
S = |S| = 45 VA
(b) We can express the complex power in rectangular form as
S = 45 − 60◦ = 45[cos(−60◦ ) + j sin(−60◦ )] = 22.5 − j 38.97
Since S = P + j Q, the real power is
P = 22.5 W
while the reactive power is
Q = −38.97 VAR
(c) The power factor is
pf = cos(−60◦ ) = 0.5 (leading)
It is leading, because the reactive power is negative. The load impedance
is
V 60 − 10◦
Z= = = 40 − 60◦ 
I 1.5 + 50 ◦

which is a capacitive impedance.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.11

For a load, Vrms = 110 85◦ V, Irms = 0.4 15◦ A. Determine: (a) the
complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and reactive powers, and (c)
the power factor and the load impedance.
Answer: (a) 44 70◦ VA, 44 VA, (b) 15.05 W, 41.35 VAR,
(c) 0.342 lagging, 94.06 + j 258.4 .

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 2
A load Z draws 12 kVA at a power factor of 0.856 lagging from a 120-V
rms sinusoidal source. Calculate: (a) the average and reactive powers
delivered to the load, (b) the peak current, and (c) the load impedance.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 453

Solution:
(a) Given that pf = cos θ = 0.856, we obtain the power angle as θ =
cos−1 0.856 = 31.13◦ . If the apparent power is S = 12,000 VA, then the
average or real power is
P = S cos θ = 12,000 × 0.856 = 10.272 kW
while the reactive power is
Q = S sin θ = 12,000 × 0.517 = 6.204 kVA
(b) Since the pf is lagging, the complex power is
S = P + j Q = 10.272 + j 6.204 kVA
From S = Vrms I∗rms , we obtain
S 10,272 + j 6204
I∗rms = = = 85.6 + j 51.7 A = 100 31.13◦ A
Vrms 120 0◦
Thus Irms = 100 − 31.13◦ and the peak current is
√ √
Im = 2Irms = 2(100) = 141.4 A
(c) The load impedance
Vrms 120 0◦
Z= = = 1.2 31.13◦ 
Irms 100 − 31.13 ◦

which is an inductive impedance.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.12

A sinusoidal source supplies 10 kVA reactive power to load Z =
250 − 75◦ . Determine: (a) the power factor, (b) the apparent power
delivered to the load, and (c) the peak voltage.
Answer: (a) 0.2588 leading, (b) −10.35 kVAR, (c) 2.275 kV.

† 11.7 CONSERVATION OF AC POWER

The principle of conservation of power applies to ac circuits as well as to In fact, we already saw in Examples 11.3 and 11.4
dc circuits (see Section 1.5). that average power is conserved in ac circuits.
To see this, consider the circuit in Fig. 11.23(a), where two load
impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel across an ac source V.
KCL gives
I = I1 + I2 (11.52)

The complex power supplied by the source is

1 ∗ 1 1 ∗ 1 ∗
S= VI = V(I∗1 + I∗2 ) = VI + VI = S1 + S2 (11.53)
2 2 2 1 2 2
where S1 and S2 denote the complex powers delivered to loads Z1 and
Z2 , respectively.
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454 PART 2 AC Circuits

I
I Z1 Z2
I1 I2
+V − +V −
V +
− Z1 Z2 1 2
V +
−

(a) (b)

Figure 11.23 An ac voltage source supplied loads connected in:

(a) parallel, (b) series.

If the loads are connected in series with the voltage source, as shown
in Fig. 11.23(b), KVL yields
V = V1 + V2 (11.54)

The complex power supplied by the source is

1 ∗ 1 1 1
S= VI = (V1 + V2 )I∗ = V1 I∗ + V2 I∗ = S1 + S2 (11.55)
2 2 2 2
where S1 and S2 denote the complex powers delivered to loads Z1 and
Z2 , respectively.
We conclude from Eqs. (11.53) and (11.55) that whether the loads
are connected in series or in parallel (or in general), the total power
supplied by the source equals the total power delivered to the load. Thus,
in general, for a source connected to N loads,

S = S1 + S1 + · · · + SN (11.56)

This means that the total complex power in a network is the sum of the
complex powers of the individual components. (This is also true of real
power and reactive power, but not true of apparent power.) This expresses
In fact, all forms of ac power are conserved: in- the principle of conservation of ac power:
stantaneous, real, reactive, and complex.

The complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources equal the respective sums
of the complex, real, and reactive powers of the individual loads.

From this we imply that the real (or reactive) power flow from sources in
a network equals the real (or reactive) power flow into the other elements
in the network.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 3
Figure 11.24 shows a load being fed by a voltage source through a trans-
mission line. The impedance of the line is represented by the (4 + j 2) 
impedance and a return path. Find the real power and reactive power
absorbed by: (a) the source, (b) the line, and (c) the load.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 455

I 4Ω j2 Ω

15 Ω
220 0° V rms +
−
−j10 Ω

Source Line Load

Figure 11.24 For Example 11.13.

Solution:
The total impedance is
Z = (4 + j 2) + (15 − j 10) = 19 − j 8 = 20.62 − 22.83◦ 
The current through the circuit is

Vs 220 0◦
I= = = 10.67 22.83◦ A rms
Z 20.62 − 22.83 ◦

(a) For the source, the complex power is

Ss = Vs I∗ = (220 0◦ )(10.67 − 22.83◦ )
= 2347.4 − 22.83◦ = (2163.5 − j 910.8) VA
From this, we obtain the real power as 2163.5 W and the reactive power
as 910.8 VAR (leading).
(b) For the line, the voltage is
Vline = (4 + j 2)I = (4.472 26.57◦ )(10.67 22.83◦ )
= 47.72 49.4◦ V rms
The complex power absorbed by the line is
Sline = Vline I∗ = (47.72 49.4◦ )(10.67 − 22.83◦ )
= 509.2 26.57◦ = 455.4 + j 227.7 VA
or

Sline = |I|2 Zline = (10.67)2 (4 + j 2) = 455.4 + j 227.7 VA

That is, the real power is 455.4 W and the reactive power is 227.76 VAR
(lagging).
(c) For the load, the voltage is
VL = (15 − j 10)I = (18.03 − 33.7◦ )(10.67 22.83◦ )
= 192.38 − 10.87◦ V rms
The complex power absorbed by the load is
SL = VL I∗ = (192.38 − 10.87◦ )(10.67 − 22.83◦ )
= 2053 − 33.7◦ = (1708 − j 1139) VA
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456 PART 2 AC Circuits

The real power is 1708 W and the reactive power is 1139 VAR (leading).
Note that Ss = Sline + SL , as expected. We have used the rms values of
voltages and currents.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.13

20 Ω In the circuit in Fig. 11.25, the 60- resistor absorbs an average power
of 240 W. Find V and the complex power of each branch of the circuit.
30 Ω j20 Ω What is the overall complex power of the circuit?
V +
−
Answer: 240.67 21.45◦ V (rms); the 20- resistor: 656 VA; the
−j10 Ω 60 Ω (30 − j 10)  impedance: 480 − j 160 VA; the (60 + j 20)  impedance:
240 + j 80 VA; overall: 1376 − j 80 VA.

Figure 11.25 For Practice Prob. 11.13.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 4
It In the circuit of Fig. 11.26, Z1 = 60 − 30◦  and Z2 = 40 45◦ .
Calculate the total: (a) apparent power, (b) real power, (c) reactive power,
I1 I2 and (d) pf.
120 10° V rms + Z1 Z2 Solution:
−
The current through Z1 is
V 120 10◦
I1 = = = 2 40◦ A rms
Figure 11.26 For Example 11.14. Z1 60 − 30 ◦

while the current through Z2 is

V 120 10◦
I2 = = =3 − 35◦ A rms
Z2 40 45◦
The complex powers absorbed by the impedances are
2
Vrms (120)2
S1 = = = 240 − 30◦ = 207.85 − j 120 VA
Z∗1 60 30◦
2
Vrms (120)2
S2 = = = 360 45◦ = 254.6 + j 254.6 VA
Z∗2 40 − 45◦
The total complex power is
St = S1 + S2 = 462.4 + j 134.6 VA
(a) The total apparent power is
√
|St | = 462.42 + 134.62 = 481.6 VA.
(b) The total real power is
Pt = Re(St ) = 462.4 W or Pt = P1 + P2 .
(c) The total reactive power is
Qt = Im(St ) = 134.6 VAR or Qt = Q1 + Q2 .
(d) The pf = Pt /|St | = 462.4/481.6 = 0.96 (lagging).
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 457

We may cross check the result by finding the complex power Ss supplied
by the source.
It = I1 + I2 = (1.532 + j 1.286) + (2.457 − j 1.721)
= 4 − j 0.435 = 4.024 − 6.21◦ A rms
Ss = VI∗t = (120 10◦ )(4.024 6.21◦ )
= 482.88 16.21◦ = 463 + j 135 VA
which is the same as before.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.14

Two loads connected in parallel are respectively 2 kW at a pf of 0.75 lead-
ing and 4 kW at a pf of 0.95 lagging. Calculate the pf of the two loads.
Find the complex power supplied by the source.
Answer: 0.9972 (leading), 6 − j 0.4495 kVA.

11.8 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Most domestic loads (such as washing machines, air conditioners, and
refrigerators) and industrial loads (such as induction motors) are inductive
and operate at a low lagging power factor. Although the inductive nature
of the load cannot be changed, we can increase its power factor.
Alternatively, power factor correction may be
viewed as the addition of a reactive element (usu-
The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or current ally a capacitor) in parallel with the load in order
to the original load is known as power factor correction. to make the power factor closer to unity.

Since most loads are inductive, as shown in Fig. 11.27(a), a load’s An inductive load is modeled as a series combi-
power factor is improved or corrected by deliberately installing a capacitor nation of an inductor and a resistor.
in parallel with the load, as shown in Fig. 11.27(b). The effect of adding
the capacitor can be illustrated using either the power triangle or the
phasor diagram of the currents involved. Figure 11.28 shows the latter,
where it is assumed that the circuit in Fig. 11.27(a) has a power factor of
cos θ1 , while the one in Fig. 11.27(b) has a power factor of cos θ2 . It is

I IC

+ IL + IL IC

u2 V
V Inductive V Inductive C u1
load load I IC

− −
IL
(a) (b)

Figure 11.28 Phasor diagram showing the

Figure 11.27 Power factor correction: (a) original inductive load, effect of adding a capacitor in parallel with
(b) inductive load with improved power factor. the inductive load.
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458 PART 2 AC Circuits

evident from Fig. 11.28 that adding the capacitor has caused the phase
angle between the supplied voltage and current to reduce from θ1 to θ2 ,
thereby increasing the power factor. We also notice from the magnitudes
of the vectors in Fig. 11.28 that with the same supplied voltage, the circuit
in Fig. 11.27(a) draws larger current IL than the current I drawn by the
circuit in Fig. 11.27(b). Power companies charge more for larger currents,
because they result in increased power losses (by a squared factor, since
P = IL2 R). Therefore, it is beneficial to both the power company and the
consumer that every effort is made to minimize current level or keep the
power factor as close to unity as possible. By choosing a suitable size for
the capacitor, the current can be made to be completely in phase with the
voltage, implying unity power factor.
We can look at the power factor correction from another perspective.
Consider the power triangle in Fig. 11.29. If the original inductive load
has apparent power S1 , then
QC
P = S1 cos θ1 , Q1 = S1 sin θ1 = P tan θ1 (11.57)
S1 If we desire to increase the power factor from cos θ1 to cos θ2 without
S2 Q1 altering the real power (i.e., P = S2 cos θ2 ), then the new reactive power
is
Q2
Q2 = P tan θ2 (11.58)

u1 u2 The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the shunt capacitor, that
is,
P
QC = Q1 − Q2 = P (tan θ1 − tan θ2 ) (11.59)
Figure 11.29 Power triangle illustrating power But from Eq. (11.49), QC = 2
Vrms =
/XC 2
ωCVrms . The value of the
factor correction.
required shunt capacitance C is determined as

QC P (tan θ1 − tan θ2 )
C= 2
= 2
(11.60)
ωVrms ωVrms

Note that the real power P dissipated by the load is not affected by the
power factor correction because the average power due to the capacitance
is zero.
Although the most common situation in practice is that of an in-
ductive load, it is also possible that the load is capacitive, that is, the load
is operating at a leading power factor. In this case, an inductor should
be connected across the load for power factor correction. The required
shunt inductance L can be calculated from
V2 V2 V2
QL = rms = rms ⇒ L = rms (11.61)
XL ωL ωQL
where QL = Q1 − Q2 , the difference between the new and old reactive
powers.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 5
When connected to a 120-V (rms), 60-Hz power line, a load absorbs 4 kW
at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance necessary
to raise the pf to 0.95.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 459

Solution:
If the pf = 0.8, then
cos θ1 = 0.8 ⇒ θ1 = 36.87◦
where θ1 is the phase difference between voltage and current. We obtain
the apparent power from the real power and the pf as
P 4000
S1 = = = 5000 VA
cos θ1 0.8
The reactive power is
Q1 = S1 sin θ = 5000 sin 36.87 = 3000 VAR
When the pf is raised to 0.95,
cos θ2 = 0.95 ⇒ θ2 = 18.19◦
The real power P has not changed. But the apparent power has changed;
its new value is
P 4000
S2 = = = 4210.5 VA
cos θ2 0.95
The new reactive power is
Q2 = S2 sin θ2 = 1314.4 VAR
The difference between the new and old reactive powers is due to the
parallel addition of the capacitor to the load. The reactive power due to
the capacitor is
QC = Q1 − Q2 = 3000 − 1314.4 = 1685.6 VAR
and
QC 1685.6
C= = = 310.5 µF
2π × 60 × 1202
2
ωVrms
@
Network Analysis
PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.15
Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to correct a load of
140 kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf to unity pf. Assume that the load is supplied
by a 110-V (rms), 60-Hz line.
Answer: 30.69 mF.

† 11.9 APPLICATIONS
In this section, we consider two important application areas: how power
is measured and how electric utility companies determine the cost of
electricity consumption.
Reactive power is measured by an instrument
called the varmeter. The varmeter is often con-
11.9.1 Power Measurement nected to the load in the same way as the
The average power absorbed by a load is measured by an instrument wattmeter.
called the wattmeter.
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460 PART 2 AC Circuits

The wattmeter is the instrument for measuring the average power.

Figure 11.30 shows a wattmeter that consists essentially of two

coils: the current coil and the voltage coil. A current coil with very
Some wattmeters do not have coils; the watt-
meter considered here is the electromagnetic low impedance (ideally zero) is connected in series with the load (Fig.
type. 11.31) and responds to the load current. The voltage coil with very high
impedance (ideally infinite) is connected in parallel with the load as shown
in Fig. 11.31 and responds to the load voltage. The current coil acts like
a short circuit because of its low impedance; the voltage coil behaves like
an open circuit because of its high impedance. As a result, the presence
of the wattmeter does not disturb the circuit or have an effect on the power
measurement.

i i
±
Current coil
±
R +
± v ZL
+ Voltage coil −
v
−

Figure 11.31 The wattmeter connected to the load.

±
When the two coils are energized, the mechanical inertia of the
Figure 11.30 A wattmeter. moving system produces a deflection angle that is proportional to the
average value of the product v(t)i(t). If the current and voltage of the
load are v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv ) and i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi ), their corre-
sponding rms phasors are

Vm Im
Vrms = √ θv and Irms = √ θi (11.62)
2 2

and the wattmeter measures the average power given by

1
P = |Vrms ||Irms | cos(θv − θi ) = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) (11.63)
2

As shown in Fig. 11.31, each wattmeter coil has two terminals

with one marked ±. To ensure upscale deflection, the ± terminal of the
current coil is toward the source, while the ± terminal of the voltage coil
is connected to the same line as the current coil. Reversing both coil
connections still results in upscale deflection. However, reversing one
coil and not the other results in downscale deflection and no wattmeter
reading.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 461

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 6
Find the wattmeter reading of the circuit in Fig. 11.32.

12 Ω j10 Ω ±

±
8Ω
150 0° V rms +
−
−j6 Ω

Figure 11.32 For Example 11.16.

Solution:
In Fig. 11.32, the wattmeter reads the average power absorbed by the
(8 − j 6)  impedance because the current coil is in series with the
impedance while the voltage coil is in parallel with it. The current through
the circuit is
150 0◦ 150
I= = A rms
(12 + j 10) + (8 − j 6) 20 + j 4
The voltage across the (8 − j 6)  impedance is
150(8 − j 6)
V = I(8 − j 6) = V rms
20 + j 4
The complex power is
150(8 − j 6) 150 1502 (8 − j 6)
S = VI∗ = · =
20 + j 4 20 − j 4 202 + 42
= 423.7 − j 324.6 VA
The wattmeter reads
P = Re(S) = 432.7 W

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.16

For the circuit in Fig. 11.33, find the wattmeter reading.

4Ω −j2 Ω
±

120 30° V rms +

− j9 Ω 12 Ω

Figure 11.33 For Practice Prob. 11.16.

Answer: 1437 W.
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462 PART 2 AC Circuits

11.9.2 Electricity Consumption Cost

In Section 1.7, we considered a simplified model of the way the cost of
electricity consumption is determined. But the concept of power factor
was not included in the calculations. Now we consider the importance of
power factor in electricity consumption cost.
Loads with low power factors are costly to serve because they re-
quire large currents, as explained in Section 11.8. The ideal situation
would be to draw minimum current from a supply so that S = P , Q = 0,
and pf = 1. A load with nonzero Q means that energy flows forth and back
between the load and the source, giving rise to additional power losses.
In view of this, power companies often encourage their customers to have
power factors as close to unity as possible and penalize some customers
who do not improve their load power factors.
Utility companies divide their customers into categories: as resi-
dential (domestic), commercial, and industrial, or as small power, medium
power, and large power. They have different rate structures for each
category. The amount of energy consumed in units of kilowatt-hours
(kWh) is measured using a kilowatt-hour meter installed at the customer’s
premises.
Although utility companies use different methods for charging cus-
tomers, the tariff or charge to a consumer is often two-part. The first part
is fixed and corresponds to the cost of generation, transmission, and dis-
tribution of electricity to meet the load requirements of the consumers.
This part of the tariff is generally expressed as a certain price per kW of
maximum demand. Or it may instead be based on kVA of maximum de-
mand, to account for the power factor (pf) of the consumer. A pf penalty
charge may be imposed on the consumer whereby a certain percentage of
kW or kVA maximum demand is charged for every 0.01 fall in pf below
a prescribed value, say 0.85 or 0.9. On the other hand, a pf credit may be
given for every 0.01 that the pf exceeds the prescribed value.
The second part is proportional to the energy consumed in kWh; it
may be in graded form, for example, the first 100 kWh at 16 cents/kWh,
the next 200 kWh at 10 cents/kWh and so forth. Thus, the bill is deter-
mined based on the following equation:
Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Cost of Energy (11.64)

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 7
A manufacturing industry consumes 200 MWh in one month. If the
maximum demand is 1600 kW, calculate the electricity bill based on the
following two-part rate:
Demand charge: $5.00 per month per kW of billing demand.
Energy charge: 8 cents per kWh for the first 50,000 kWh, 5 cents
per kWh for the remaining energy.
Solution:
The demand charge is
$5.00 × 1600 = $8000 (11.17.1)
The energy charge for the first 50,000 kWh is
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 463

$0.08 × 50,000 = $4000 (11.17.2)

The remaining energy is 200,000 kWh − 50,000 kWh = 150,000 kWh,

and the corresponding energy charge is

$0.05 × 150,000 = $7500 (11.17.3)

Adding Eqs. (11.17.1) to (11.17.3) gives

Total bill for the month = $8000 + $4000 + $7500 = $19,500

It may appear that the cost of electricity is too high. But this is often a
small fraction of the overall cost of production of the goods manufactured
or the selling price of the finished product.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.17

The monthly reading of a paper mill’s meter is as follows:
Maximum demand: 32,000 kW
Energy consumed: 500 MWh
Using the two-part rate in Example 11.17, calculate the monthly bill for
the paper mill.
Answer: $186,500.

E X A M P L E 1 1 . 1 8
A 300-kW load supplied at 13 kV (rms) operates 520 hours a month at
80 percent power factor. Calculate the average cost per month based on
this simplified tariff:
Energy charge: 6 cents per kWh
Power-factor penalty: 0.1 percent of energy charge for every 0.01
that pf falls below 0.85.
Power-factor credit: 0.1 percent of energy charge for every 0.01
that pf exceeds 0.85.
Solution:
The energy consumed is

W = 300 kW × 520 h = 156,000 kWh

The operating power factor pf = 80% = 0.8 is 5 × 0.01 below the

prescribed power factor of 0.85. Since there is 0.1 percent energy charge
for every 0.01, there is a power-factor penalty charge of 0.5 percent. This
amounts to an energy charge of

5 × 0.1
%W = 156,000 × = 780 kWh
100
The total energy is
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464 PART 2 AC Circuits

Wt = W + %W = 156,000 + 780 = 156,780 kWh

The cost per month is given by
Cost = 6 cents × Wt = $0.06 × 156,780 = $9406.80

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11.18

An 800-kW induction furnace at 0.88 power factor operates 20 hours per
day for 26 days in a month. Determine the electricity bill per month based
on the tariff in Example 11.16.
Answer: $24,885.12.

11.10 SUMMARY
1. The instantaneous power absorbed by an element is the product of
the element’s terminal voltage and the current through the element:
p = vi.
2. Average or real power P (in watts) is the average of instantaneous
power p:


1 T
P = p dt
T 0
√ = Vm cos(ωt√+ θv ) and i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi ), then Vrms =
If v(t)
Vm / 2, Irms = Im / 2, and
1
P = Vm Im cos(θv − θi ) = Vrms Irms cos(θv − θi )
2
Inductors and capacitors absorb no average power, while the aver-
age power absorbed by a resistor is 1/2 Im2 R = Irms2
R.
3. Maximum average power is transferred to a load when the load
impedance is the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance as
seen from the load terminals, ZL = Z∗Th .
4. The effective value of a periodic signal x(t) is its root-mean-square
(rms) value.



1 T 2
Xeff = Xrms = x dt
T 0
For
√ a sinusoid, the effective or rms value is its amplitude divided by
2.
5. The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between volt-
age and current:
pf = cos(θv − θi )
It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance or the ratio
of real power to apparent power. The pf is lagging if the current
lags voltage (inductive load) and is leading when the current leads
voltage (capacitive load).
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 465

6. Apparent power S (in VA) is the product of the rms values of volt-
age and current:
S = Vrms Irms

It is also given by S = |S| = P 2 + Q2 , where Q is reactive
power.
7. Reactive power (in VAR) is:
1
Q= Vm Im sin(θv − θi ) = Vrms Irms sin(θv − θi )
2
8. Complex power S (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor
and the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. It is also the
complex sum of real power P and reactive power Q.
S = Vrms I∗rms = Vrms Irms θv − θi = P + j Q
Also,
2
Vrms
S = Irms
2
Z=
Z∗
9. The total complex power in a network is the sum of the complex
powers of the individual components. Total real power and reactive
power are also, respectively, the sums of the individual real powers
and the reactive powers, but the total apparent power is not calcu-
lated by the process.
10. Power factor correction is necessary for economic reasons; it is the
process of improving the power factor of a load by reducing the
overall reactive power.
11. The wattmeter is the instrument for measuring the average power.
Energy consumed is measured with a kilowatt-hour meter.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
11.1 The average power absorbed by an inductor is zero. 11.5 A quantity that contains all the power information in
(a) True (b) False a given load is the
(a) power factor (b) apparent power
11.2 The Thevenin impedance of a network seen from the (c) average power (d) reactive power
load terminals is 80 + j 55 . For maximum power
(e) complex power
transfer, the load impedance must be:
(a) −80 + j 55  (b) −80 − j 55  11.6 Reactive power is measured in:
(c) 80 − j 55  (d) 80 + j 55  (a) watts (b) VA
(c) VAR (d) none of these
11.3 The amplitude of the voltage available in the 60-Hz,
120-V power outlet in your home is: 11.7 In the power triangle shown in Fig. 11.34(a), the
(a) 110 V (b) 120 V reactive power is:
(c) 170 V (d) 210 V (a) 1000 VAR leading (b) 1000 VAR lagging
(c) 866 VAR leading (d) 866 VAR lagging
11.4 If the load impedance is 20 − j 20, the power factor
is
(a) − 45◦ (b) 0 (c) 1
(d) 0.7071 (e) none of these
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466 PART 2 AC Circuits

(a) 2000 VA (b) 1000 VAR

(c) 866 VAR (d) 500 VAR
11.9 A source is connected to three loads Z1 , Z2 , and Z3
in parallel. Which of these is not true?
30°
(a) P = P1 + P2 + P3 (b) Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
1000 VAR
60° (c) S = S1 + S2 + S3 (d) S = S1 + S2 + S3
500 W 11.10 The instrument for measuring average power is the:
(a) (b) (a) voltmeter (b) ammeter
(c) wattmeter (d) varmeter
Figure 11.34 For Review Questions 11.7 and 11.8. (e) kilowatt-hour meter

11.8 For the power triangle in Fig. 11.34(b), the apparent Answers: 11.1a, 11.2c, 11.3c, 11.4d, 11.5e, 11.6c, 11.7d, 11.8a,
power is: 11.9c, 11.10c.

PROBLEMS
Section 11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 20 Ω 10 Ω

11.1 If v(t) = 160 cos 50tV and i(t) =

−20 sin(50t − 30◦ ) A, calculate the instantaneous 50 0° V + −j10 Ω j5 Ω
power and the average power. −

11.2 At t = 2 s, find the instantaneous power on each of

the elements in the circuit of Fig. 11.35.
Figure 11.37 For Prob. 11.4.

11.5 Compute the average power absorbed by the 4-

20 mF
resistor in the circuit of Fig. 11.38.
−j1 Ω
30 cos 500t A + 0.3 H 200 Ω
−
4Vo
2Ω
+−
Figure 11.35 For Prob. 11.2. + V −
o

4 60° Α j2 Ω 4Ω

11.3 Refer to the circuit depicted in Fig. 11.36. Find the

average power absorbed by each element.
Figure 11.38 For Prob. 11.5.

4Ω 2Ω
11.6 Given the circuit of Fig. 11.39, find the average
power absorbed by the 10- resistor.
10 cos(2t + 30°) V + 1H 0.25 F
− 4Ω Io −j5 Ω

+
Figure 11.36 For Prob. 11.3. 8 20° V +
− 0.1Vo +
− 8Io j5 Ω 10 Ω Vo
−

11.4 Given the circuit in Fig. 11.37, find the average

power absorbed by each of the elements. Figure 11.39 For Prob. 11.6.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 467

11.7 In the circuit of Fig. 11.40, determine the average Section 11.3 Maximum Average Power
power absorbed by the 40- resistor. Transfer
Io −j20 Ω 11.11 For each of the circuits in Fig. 11.44, determine the
value of load Z for maximum power transfer and the
maximum average power transferred.

6 0° A j10 Ω 0.5Io 40 Ω

8Ω Z −j2 Ω 4 0° Α

Figure 11.40 For Prob. 11.7.

11.8 Calculate the average power absorbed by each (a)

resistor in the op amp circuit of Fig. 11.41 if the rms
value of vs is 2 V. 5Ω −j3 Ω

+
− j2 Ω
10 30° V +
− 4Ω
vs + 6 kΩ 10 kΩ Z
−
2 kΩ
(b)

Figure 11.44 For Prob. 11.11.

Figure 11.41 For Prob. 11.8.

11.9 In the op amp circuit in Fig. 11.42, find the total 11.12 For the circuit in Fig. 11.45, find:
average power absorbed by the resistors. (a) the value of the load impedance that absorbs the
maximum average power
R
(b) the value of the maximum average power
+ absorbed
+
−
−
R
j100 Ω
Vo cos vt V +
− R

3 20° Α 80 Ω −j40 Ω Load

Figure 11.42 For Prob. 11.9.

11.10 For the network in Fig. 11.43, assume that the port
impedance is Figure 11.45 For Prob. 11.12.

R
Zab = √ − tan−1 ωRC 11.13 In the circuit of Fig. 11.46, find the value of ZL that
1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 will absorb the maximum power and the value of the
Find the average power consumed by the network maximum power.
when R = 10 k, C = 200 nF, and i =
2 sin(377t + 22◦ ) mA.
1Ω −j1 Ω
i
a +
+
Linear 12 0° V +
− Vo j1 Ω 2Vo ZL
network v −
−
b

Figure 11.43 For Prob. 11.10. Figure 11.46 For Prob. 11.13.
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468 PART 2 AC Circuits

11.14 Calculate the value of ZL in the circuit of Fig. 11.47 a-b of the circuits in Fig. 11.51 so that the maximum
in order for ZL to receive maximum average power. power is transferred to the load?
What is the maximum average power received by Z?
100 Ω −j10 Ω
a
−j10 Ω 30 Ω
40 Ω
ZL +
120 60° V − 50 Ω 2 90° A
5 90° A
j30 Ω

40 Ω j20 Ω b

Figure 11.51 For Prob. 11.18.

Figure 11.47 For Prob. 11.14.
Section 11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.15 Find the value of ZL in the circuit of Fig. 11.48 for
maximum power transfer. 11.19 Find the rms value of the periodic signal in Fig.
11.52.
v(t)
−
40 Ω + 60 0° V −j10 Ω
15
40 Ω 80 Ω

j20 Ω 5 0° A ZL 5

0 2 4 6 8 t

Figure 11.48 For Prob. 11.15. Figure 11.52 For Prob. 11.19.
11.16 The variable resistor R in the circuit of Fig. 11.49 is 11.20 Determine the rms value of the waveform in Fig.
adjusted until it absorbs the maximum average 11.53.
power. Find R and the maximum average power
absorbed. v(t)

3Ω −j2 Ω
5

0
j1 Ω 4 0° A 6Ω R 1 2 3 4 t
−5

Figure 11.53 For Prob. 11.20.

Figure 11.49 For Prob. 11.16.
11.21 Find the effective value of the voltage waveform in
11.17 The load resistance RL in Fig. 11.50 is adjusted until Fig. 11.54.
it absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate
the value of RL and the maximum average power. v(t)

Io 40 Ω 4Io
10
+−

5
120 0° V + j20 Ω −j10 Ω −j10 Ω
− RL

0 2 4 6 8 10 t

Figure 11.50 For Prob. 11.17. Figure 11.54 For Prob. 11.21.

11.18 Assuming that the load impedance is to be purely 11.22 Calculate the rms value of the current waveform of
resistive, what load should be connected to terminals Fig. 11.55.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 469

i(t) i(t)

10t 2
5
10

0 5 10 15 20 25 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Figure 11.55 For Prob. 11.22.
Figure 11.59 For Prob. 11.26.

11.23 Find the rms value of the voltage waveform of Fig.

11.56 as well as the average power absorbed by a 11.27 Determine the effective value of the periodic
2- resistor when the voltage is applied across the waveform in Fig. 11.60.
resistor.
v(t) i(t)
8 10

0 2 5 7 10 12 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Figure 11.56 For Prob. 11.23.
Figure 11.60 For Prob. 11.27.

11.24 Calculate the effective value of the current

waveform in Fig. 11.57 and the average power 11.28 One cycle of a periodic voltage waveform is depicted
delivered to a 12- resistor when the current runs in Fig. 11.61. Find the effective value of the voltage.
through the resistor.

i(t) v(t)

10 30

20
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 t
10
−10

Figure 11.57 For Prob. 11.24. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t

11.25 Compute the rms value of the waveform depicted in Figure 11.61 For Prob. 11.28.
Fig. 11.58.
v(t) Section 11.5 Apparent Power and Power
Factor
2
11.29 A relay coil is connected to a 210-V, 50-Hz supply.
If it has a resistance of 30  and an inductance of
0 0.5 H, calculate the apparent power and the power
2 4 6 8 10 t
−1 factor.
11.30 A certain load comprises 12 − j 8  in parallel with
Figure 11.58 For Prob. 11.25. j 4 . Determine the overall power factor.
11.31 Obtain the power factor for each of the circuits in
11.26 Obtain the rms value of the current waveform shown Fig. 11.62. Specify each power factor as leading or
in Fig. 11.59. lagging.
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470 PART 2 AC Circuits

4Ω j5 Ω 11.37 Obtain the overall impedance for the following

cases:
(a) P = 1000 W, pf = 0.8 (leading),
−j2 Ω −j2 Ω
Vrms = 220 V
(b) P = 1500 W, Q = 2000 VAR (inductive),
Irms = 12 A
(a)
(c) S = 4500 60◦ VA, V = 120 45◦ V
−j1 Ω 4Ω
11.38 For the entire circuit in Fig. 11.63, calculate:
(a) the power factor
1Ω j2 Ω j1 Ω (b) the average power delivered by the source
(c) the reactive power
(d) the apparent power
(b)
(e) the complex power
Figure 11.62 For Prob. 11.31.

Section 11.6 Complex Power 2Ω

11.32 A load draws 5 kVAR at a power factor of 0.86

(leading) from a 220-V rms source. Calculate the −j5 Ω j6 Ω
peak current and the apparent power supplied to the 16 45° V +
−
load.
10 Ω 8Ω
11.33 For the following voltage and current phasors,
calculate the complex power, apparent power, real
power, and reactive power. Specify whether the pf is
leading or lagging. Figure 11.63 For Prob. 11.38.
(a) V = 220 30◦ V rms, I = 0.5 60◦ A rms
(b) V = 250 − 10◦ V rms,
Section 11.7 Conservation of AC Power
I = 6.2 − 25◦ A rms
(c) V = 120 0◦ V rms, I = 2.4 − 15◦ A rms 11.39 For the network in Fig. 11.64, find the complex
power absorbed by each element.
(d) V = 160 45◦ V rms, I = 8.5 90◦ A rms
11.34 For each of the following cases, find the complex
power, the average power, and the reactive power: −j3 Ω
(a) v(t) = 112 cos(ωt + 10◦ ) V, 8 −20° V + j5 Ω
−
i(t) = 4 cos(ωt − 50◦ ) A 4Ω
(b) v(t) = 160 cos 377t V,
i(t) = 4 cos(377t + 45◦ ) A
(c) V = 80 60◦ V rms, Z = 50 30◦  Figure 11.64 For Prob. 11.39.
(d) I = 10 60◦ V rms, Z = 100 45◦ 
11.35 Determine the complex power for the following 11.40 Find the complex power absorbed by each of the
cases: five elements in the circuit of Fig. 11.65.
(a) P = 269 W, Q = 150 VAR (capacitive)
(b) Q = 2000 VAR, pf = 0.9 (leading) −j20 Ω j10 Ω
(c) S = 600 VA, Q = 450 VAR (inductive)
(d) Vrms = 220 V, P = 1 kW, 40 0° V rms + 20 Ω + 50 90° V rms
− −
|Z| = 40  (inductive)
11.36 Find the complex power for the following cases:
(a) P = 4 kW, pf = 0.86 (lagging) Figure 11.65 For Prob. 11.40.
(b) S = 2 kVA, P = 1.6 kW (capacitive)
(c) Vrms = 208 20◦ V, Irms = 6.5 − 50◦ A
11.41 Obtain the complex power delivered by the source in
(d) Vrms = 120 30◦ V, Z = 40 + j 60  the circuit of Fig. 11.66.
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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 471

3Ω j4 Ω 11.46 Given the circuit in Fig. 11.71, find Io and the

overall complex power supplied.

2 30° Α 5Ω −j2 Ω 6Ω Io
1.2 kW
0.8 kVAR (cap)

+ 2 kVA 4 kW
Figure 11.66 For Prob. 11.41. 100 90° V −
0.707 pf leading 0.9 pf lagging
11.42 For the circuit in Fig. 11.67, find the average,
reactive, and complex power delivered by the
dependent voltage source.
Figure 11.71 For Prob. 11.46.
4Ω −j1 Ω 2Ω
11.47 For the circuit in Fig. 11.72, find Vs .
+
24 0° V + 1Ω Vo j2 Ω 2Vo 0.2 Ω j0.04 Ω 0.3 Ω j0.15 Ω
−
−
+

+ 10 W 15 W
Vs − 120 V rms
Figure 11.67 For Prob. 11.42. 0.9 pf lagging 0.8 pf leading

11.43 Obtain the complex power delivered to the 10-k −

resistor in Fig. 11.68 below.

11.44 Calculate the reactive power in the inductor and Figure 11.72 For Prob. 11.47.
capacitor in the circuit of Fig. 11.69.
11.48 Find Io in the circuit of Fig. 11.73 on the bottom of
50 Ω j30 Ω the next page.

11.49 In the op amp circuit of Fig. 11.74, vs =

240 0° V +
− −j20 Ω 4 0° A 40 Ω 4 cos 104 t V. Find the average power delivered to the
50-k resistor.

100 kΩ
+
Figure 11.69 For Prob. 11.44. −

11.45 For the circuit in Fig. 11.70, find Vo and the input
power factor. vs +
− 1 nF 50 kΩ

+
20 kW 16 kW
6 0° A rms Vo
0.8 pf lagging 0.9 pf lagging
Figure 11.74 For Prob. 11.49.
−
11.50 Obtain the average power absorbed by the 6-k
Figure 11.70 For Prob. 11.45. resistor in the op amp circuit in Fig. 11.75.

500 Ω Io −j3 kΩ j1 kΩ

0.2 0° V rms + 20Io 4 kΩ 10 kΩ

−

Figure 11.68 For Prob. 11.43.

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472 PART 2 AC Circuits

2 kΩ j4 kΩ
(b) What is the average power dissipated?
(c) What is the value of the capacitance that will
4 kΩ j3 kΩ give a unity power factor when connected to the
− load?
+
4 45° V +
−
6 kΩ

−j2 kΩ

120 V +
Figure 11.75 For Prob. 11.50. − C Z = 10 + j12 Ω
60 Hz

11.51 Calculate the complex power delivered to each

resistor and capacitor in the op amp circuit of Fig. Figure 11.78 For Prob. 11.53.
11.76. Let vs = 2 cos 103 t V.

20 kΩ
11.54 An 880-VA, 220-V, 50-Hz load has a power factor of
10 kΩ 0.2 mF 0.8 lagging. What value of parallel capacitance will
− correct the load power factor to unity?
+
vs + 0.1 mF
11.55 An 40-kW induction motor, with a lagging power
− 40 kΩ factor of 0.76, is supplied by a 120-V rms 60-Hz
sinusoidal voltage source. Find the capacitance
needed in parallel with the motor to raise the power
factor to:
(a) 0.9 lagging (b) 1.0.
Figure 11.76 For Prob. 11.51.
11.56 A 240-V rms 60-Hz supply serves a load that is
11.52 Compute the complex power supplied by the current 10 kW (resistive), 15 kVAR (capacitive), and
source in the series RLC circuit in Fig. 11.77. 22 kVAR (inductive). Find:
(a) the apparent power
R L (b) the current drawn from the supply
(c) the kVAR rating and capacitance required to
improve the power factor to 0.96 lagging
Io cos vt C (d) the current drawn from the supply under the new
power-factor conditions
11.57 A 120-V rms 60-Hz source supplies two loads
Figure 11.77 For Prob. 11.52. connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 11.79.
(a) Find the power factor of the parallel
Section 11.8 Power Factor Correction combination.
(b) Calculate the value of the capacitance connected
11.53 Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 11.78. in parallel that will raise the power factor to
(a) What is the power factor? unity.

Io

+ 12 kW 16 kW 20 kVAR
220 0° V − 0.866 pf leading 0.85 pf lagging 0.6 pf lagging

Figure 11.73 For Prob. 11.48.

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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 473

6Ω 4H ±
Load 1 Load 2 ±
24 kW 40 kW
pf = 0.8 pf = 0.95
120 cos 2t V +
− 15 Ω
lagging lagging 0.1 F

Figure 11.79 For Prob. 11.57.

Figure 11.82 For Prob. 11.60.
11.58 Consider the power system shown in Fig. 11.80.
Calculate: 11.61 Find the wattmeter reading of the circuit shown in
(a) the total complex power Fig. 11.83 below.
(b) the power factor
11.62 The circuit of Fig. 11.84 portrays a wattmeter
(c) the capacitance necessary to establish a unity connected into an ac network.
power factor
(a) Find the load current.
(b) Calculate the wattmeter reading.
+
240 V rms, 50 Hz
− WM

80 − j50 Ω + ZL = 6.4 Ω
110 V − pf = 0.825
120 + j70 Ω

60 + j0
Figure 11.84 For Prob. 11.62.
Figure 11.80 For Prob. 11.58.
11.63 The kilowatthour-meter of a home is read once a
Section 11.9 Applications month. For a particular month, the previous and
present readings are as follows:
11.59 Obtain the wattmeter reading of the circuit in Fig. Previous reading: 3246 kWh
11.81 below.
Present reading: 4017 kWh
11.60 What is the reading of the wattmeter in the network Calculate the electricity bill for that month
of Fig. 11.82? based on the following residential rate schedule:

4 Ω −j3 Ω ±
±
12 0° V +
− j2 Ω 8Ω 3 30° A

Figure 11.81 For Prob. 11.59.

10 Ω ± 5Ω 1H

±
20 cos 4t V +
1
− 4Ω 12 F

Figure 11.83 For Prob. 11.61.

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 474 PART 2 AC Circuits

Minimum monthly charge—$12.00 The maximum demand charge is $30 per kVA per
First 100 kWh per month at 16 cents/kWh annum, and the energy charge per kWh is 4 cents.
Next 200 kWh per month at 10 cents/kWh (a) Determine the annual cost of energy.
Over 300 kWh per month at 6 cents/kWh (b) Calculate the charge per kWh with a flat-rate
tariff if the revenue to the utility company is to
11.64 A consumer has an annual consumption of remain the same as for the two-part tariff.
1200 MWh with a maximum demand of 2.4 MVA.

COMPREHENSIVE PROBLEMS
11.65 A transmitter delivers maximum power to an (b) Determine the overall pf.
antenna when the antenna is adjusted to represent a (c) Find the current in the feeder line.
load of 75- resistance in series with an inductance
of 4 µH. If the transmitter operates at 4.12 MHz,
find its internal impedance.
11.66 In a TV transmitter, a series circuit has an
impedance of 3 k and a total current of 50 mA. If + 60 kW
550 V − 20 kVAR 10 kW
the voltage across the resistor is 80 V, what is the pf = 0.75
power factor of the circuit?
11.67 A certain electronic circuit is connected to a 110-V
ac line. The root-mean-square value of the current Figure 11.85 For Prob. 11.71.
drawn is 2 A, with a phase angle of 55◦ .
(a) Find the true power drawn by the circuit.
(b) Calculate the apparent power. 11.72 A factory has the following four major loads:
11.68 An industrial heater has a nameplate which reads: • A motor rated at 5 hp, 0.8 pf lagging
210 V 60 Hz 12 kVA 0.78 pf lagging (1 hp = 0.7457 kW).
Determine: • A heater rated at 1.2 kW, 1.0 pf.
(a) the apparent and the complex power • Ten 120-W lightbulbs.
(b) the impedance of the heater • A synchronous motor rated at 1.6 kVA, 0.6 pf
leading.
∗
11.69 A 2000-kW turbine-generator of 0.85 power factor (a) Calculate the total real and reactive power.
operates at the rated load. An additional load of (b) Find the overall power factor.
300 kW at 0.8 power factor is added. What kVAR of
capacitors is required to operate the turbine 11.73 A 1-MVA substation operates at full load at 0.7
-generator but keep it from being overloaded? power factor. It is desired to improve the power
factor to 0.95 by installing capacitors. Assume that
11.70 The nameplate of an electric motor has the new substation and distribution facilities cost $120
following information: per kVA installed, and capacitors cost $30 per kVA
Line voltage: 220 V rms installed.
Line current: 15 A rms (a) Calculate the cost of capacitors needed.
Line frequency: 60 Hz (b) Find the savings in substation capacity released.
Power: 2700 W (c) Are capacitors economical for releasing the
Determine the power factor (lagging) of the motor. amount of substation capacity?
Find the value of the capacitance C that must be 11.74 A coupling capacitor is used to block dc current
connected across the motor to raise the pf to unity. from an amplifier as shown in Fig. 11.86(a). The
11.71 As shown in Fig. 11.85, a 550-V feeder line supplies amplifier and the capacitor act as the source, while
an industrial plant consisting of a motor drawing the speaker is the load as in Fig. 11.86(b).
60 kW at 0.75 pf (inductive), a capacitor with a (a) At what frequency is maximum power
rating of 20 kVAR, and lighting drawing 20 kW. transferred to the speaker?
(a) Calculate the total reactive power and apparent (b) If Vs = 4.6 V rms, how much power is delivered
power absorbed by the plant. to the speaker at that frequency?

*An asterisk indicates a challenging problem.

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 CHAPTER 11 AC Power Analysis 475

Amplifier (a) Determine the impedance of the load that

Coupling capacitor achieves maximum power transfer.
Vin Speaker (b) Calculate the load power under this matching
condition.
11.76 A power transmission system is modeled as shown
(a) in Fig. 11.87. If Vs = 240 0◦ rms, find the average
power absorbed by the load.
10 Ω 40 nF
0.1 Ω j1 Ω

4Ω
vs 100 Ω
+
80 mH
Vs −
j1 Ω
0.1 Ω j1 Ω
Amplifier Speaker
Source Line Load
(b)
Figure 11.87 For Prob. 11.76.
Figure 11.86 For Prob. 11.74.

11.75 A power amplifier has an output impedance of

40 + j 8 . It produces a no-load output voltage of
146 V at 300 Hz.

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