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Electroencephalography
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Contents Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of
Featured content electrical activity along the scalp. EEG measures
Current events
voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows
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within the neurons of the brain.[1] In clinical contexts,
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Wikipedia store EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous
electrical activity over a short period of time, usually
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20–40 minutes[citation needed], as recorded from multiple
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electrodes placed on the scalp. Diagnostic applications
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Community portal generally focus on the spectral content of EEG, that is,
Recent changes the type of neural oscillations that can be observed in
Contact page EEG signals.
Tools EEG is most often used to diagnose epilepsy, which
What links here causes abnormalities in EEG readings.[2] It is also used
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to diagnose sleep disorders, coma, encephalopathies,
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and brain death. EEG used to be a first-line method of
Special pages
diagnosis for tumors, stroke and other focal brain
An EEG recording setup
Permanent link
Page information disorders,[3] but this use has decreased with the advent
Wikidata item of high-resolution anatomical imaging techniques such as MRI and CT. Despite limited spatial
Cite this page resolution, EEG continues to be a valuable tool for research and diagnosis, especially when
Print/export millisecond-range temporal resolution (not possible with CT or MRI) is required.
Create a book Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which involves averaging the
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EEG activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus of some sort (visual, somatosensory,
Printable version
or auditory). Event-related potentials (ERPs) refer to averaged EEG responses that are time-
Languages locked to more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used in cognitive science,
Afrikaans cognitive psychology, and psychophysiological research.
‫العربية‬
Български Contents
 [hide] 
Català
1 History
Čeština
2 Source of EEG activity
Dansk
3 Clinical use
Deutsch
4 Research use
Español
4.1 Relative advantages
Esperanto
Euskara 4.2 Relative disadvantages
‫فارسی‬ 4.3 Combining EEG with other neuroimaging techniques
Français 5 Method

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Gaeilge 5.1 Limitations

한국어 5.2 EEG vs fMRI, fNIRS and PET
Հայերեն 5.3 EEG vs MEG
Hrvatski 6 Normal activity
Bahasa Indonesia 6.1 Comparison table of EEG rhythmic activity frequency bands
Interlingua 6.2 Wave patterns
Íslenska
7 Artifacts
Italiano
7.1 Biological artifacts
‫עברית‬
7.2 Environmental artifacts
Кыргызча
7.3 Artifact correction
Latviešu
Lietuvių 8 Abnormal activity
Magyar 9 Various uses
9.1 EEG and remote communication
Nederlands 10 Low-cost EEG devices
日本語 11 Images
Norsk bokmål 12 See also
Polski 13 References
Português 14 External links
Română
Русский
Shqip
History [edit]
Simple English
Slovenčina The following history of EEG is detailed by Barbara E. Schwartz in Electroencephalography and
Slovenščina Clinical Neurophysiology.[4] In 1875, Richard Caton (1842–1926), a physician practicing in
Српски / srpski Liverpool, presented his findings about electrical phenomena of the exposed cerebral
Srpskohrvatski /
српскохрватски hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys in the British Medical Journal. In 1890, Polish physiologist
Suomi Adolf Beck published an investigation of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits
Svenska and dogs that included rhythmic oscillations altered by light. Beck started experiments on the
electrical brain activity of animals. Beck placed electrodes directly on the surface of brain to test
for sensory stimulation. His observation of fluctuating brain activity lead to the conclusion of
Türkçe
brain waves. [5]
Українська
‫اردو‬ In 1912, Russian physiologist Vladimir Vladimirovich
Tiếng Việt Pravdich-Neminsky published the first animal EEG and
Winaray the evoked potential of the mammalian (dog).[6] In
中文 1914, Napoleon Cybulski and Jelenska-Macieszyna
Edit links
photographed EEG recordings of experimentally
induced seizures.

German physiologist and psychiatrist Hans Berger

(1873–1941) recorded the first human EEG in 1924.[7]
Expanding on work previously conducted on animals
by Richard Caton and others, Berger also invented the
electroencephalogram (giving the device its name), an
invention described "as one of the most surprising,
remarkable, and momentous developments in the
history of clinical neurology".[8] His discoveries were

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first confirmed by British scientists Edgar Douglas

Adrian and B. H. C. Matthews in 1934 and developed
An EEG recording setup
by them.

In 1934, Fisher and Lowenback first demonstrated epileptiform

spikes. In 1935 Gibbs, Davis and Lennox described interictal
spike waves and the three cycles/s pattern of clinical absence
seizures, which began the field of clinical
electroencephalography. Subsequently, in 1936 Gibbs and
Jasper reported the interictal spike as the focal signature of

Hans Berger
epilepsy. The same year, the first EEG laboratory opened at
Massachusetts General Hospital.

Franklin Offner (1911–1999), professor of biophysics at Northwestern University developed a

prototype of the EEG that incorporated a piezoelectric inkwriter called a Crystograph (the whole
device was typically known as the Offner Dynograph).

In 1947, The American EEG Society was founded and the first International EEG congress was
held. In 1953 Aserinsky and Kleitman described REM sleep.

In the 1950s, William Grey Walter developed an adjunct to EEG called EEG topography, which
allowed for the mapping of electrical activity across the surface of the brain. This enjoyed a
brief period of popularity in the 1980s and seemed especially promising for psychiatry. It was
never accepted by neurologists and remains primarily a research tool.

Source of EEG activity [edit]

The brain's electrical charge is maintained by billions of neurons. Neurons are electrically
charged (or "polarized") by membrane transport proteins that pump ions across their
membranes. Neurons are constantly exchanging ions with the extracellular milieu, for example
to maintain resting potential and to propagate action potentials. Ions of similar charge repel
each other, and when many ions are pushed out of many neurons at the same time, they can
push their neighbours, who push their neighbours, and so on, in a wave. This process is known

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as volume conduction. When the wave of ions reaches the electrodes on the scalp, they can
push or pull electrons on the metal on the electrodes. Since metal conducts the push and pull
of electrons easily, the difference in push or pull voltages between any two electrodes can be
measured by a voltmeter. Recording these voltages over time gives us the EEG.[9]

The electric potential generated by an individual neuron is far too small to be picked up by EEG
or MEG.[10] EEG activity therefore always reflects the summation of the synchronous activity of
thousands or millions of neurons that have similar spatial orientation. If the cells do not have
similar spatial orientation, their ions do not line up and create waves to be detected. Pyramidal
neurons of the cortex are thought to produce the most EEG signal because they are well-
aligned and fire together. Because voltage fields fall off with the square of distance, activity from
deep sources is more difficult to detect than currents near the skull.[11]

Scalp EEG activity shows oscillations at a variety of frequencies. Several of these oscillations
have characteristic frequency ranges, spatial distributions and are associated with different
states of brain functioning (e.g., waking and the various sleep stages). These oscillations
represent synchronized activity over a network of neurons. The neuronal networks underlying
some of these oscillations are understood (e.g., the thalamocortical resonance underlying sleep
spindles), while many others are not (e.g., the system that generates the posterior basic
rhythm). Research that measures both EEG and neuron spiking finds the relationship between
the two is complex, with a combination of EEG power in the gamma band and phase in the
delta band relating most strongly to neuron spike activity.[12]

Clinical use [edit]

A routine clinical EEG recording typically lasts 20–30

minutes (plus preparation time) and usually involves
recording from scalp electrodes. Routine EEG is
typically used in the following clinical circumstances:

to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of

spells, such as psychogenic non-epileptic seizures,
syncope (fainting), sub-cortical movement disorders
and migraine variants.
to differentiate "organic" encephalopathy or delirium
from primary psychiatric syndromes such as
catatonia
Epileptic spike and wave discharges
to serve as an adjunct test of brain death
monitored with EEG
to prognosticate, in certain instances, in patients
with coma
to determine whether to wean anti-epileptic medications

At times, a routine EEG is not sufficient, particularly when it is necessary to record a patient
while he/she is having a seizure. In this case, the patient may be admitted to the hospital for
days or even weeks, while EEG is constantly being recorded (along with time-synchronized
video and audio recording). A recording of an actual seizure (i.e., an ictal recording, rather than
an inter-ictal recording of a possibly epileptic patient at some period between seizures) can give

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significantly better information about whether or not a spell is an epileptic seizure and the focus
in the brain from which the seizure activity emanates.

Epilepsy monitoring is typically done:

to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of spells, such as psychogenic non-
epileptic seizures, syncope (fainting), sub-cortical movement disorders and migraine
variants.
to characterize seizures for the purposes of treatment
to localize the region of brain from which a seizure originates for work-up of possible seizure
surgery

Additionally, EEG may be used to monitor certain procedures:

to monitor the depth of anesthesia

as an indirect indicator of cerebral perfusion in carotid endarterectomy
to monitor amobarbital effect during the Wada test

EEG can also be used in intensive care units for brain function monitoring:

to monitor for non-convulsive seizures/non-convulsive status epilepticus

to monitor the effect of sedative/anesthesia in patients in medically induced coma (for
treatment of refractory seizures or increased intracranial pressure)
to monitor for secondary brain damage in conditions such as subarachnoid hemorrhage
(currently a research method)

If a patient with epilepsy is being considered for resective surgery, it is often necessary to
localize the focus (source) of the epileptic brain activity with a resolution greater than what is
provided by scalp EEG. This is because the cerebrospinal fluid, skull and scalp smear the
electrical potentials recorded by scalp EEG. In these cases, neurosurgeons typically implant
strips and grids of electrodes (or penetrating depth electrodes) under the dura mater, through
either a craniotomy or a burr hole. The recording of these signals is referred to as
electrocorticography (ECoG), subdural EEG (sdEEG) or intracranial EEG (icEEG)--all terms for
the same thing. The signal recorded from ECoG is on a different scale of activity than the brain
activity recorded from scalp EEG. Low voltage, high frequency components that cannot be
seen easily (or at all) in scalp EEG can be seen clearly in ECoG. Further, smaller electrodes
(which cover a smaller parcel of brain surface) allow even lower voltage, faster components of
brain activity to be seen. Some clinical sites record from penetrating microelectrodes.[1]

EEG is not indicated for diagnosing headache.[13] Recurring headache is a common pain
problem, and this procedure is sometimes used in a search for a diagnosis, but it has no
advantage over routine clinical evaluation.[13]

Research use [edit]

EEG, and the related study of ERPs are used extensively in neuroscience, cognitive science,
cognitive psychology, neurolinguistics and psychophysiological research. Many EEG
techniques used in research are not standardized sufficiently for clinical use.

Relative advantages [edit]

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Several other methods to

study brain function exist,
including functional
magnetic resonance
The first human EEG recording obtained by Hans Berger in 1924. The
upper tracing is EEG, and the lower is a 10 Hz timing signal.
imaging (fMRI), positron
emission tomography,
magnetoencephalography (MEG), Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy,
Electrocorticography, Single-photon emission computed tomography, Near-infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS), and Event-related optical signal (EROS). Despite the relatively poor
spatial sensitivity of EEG, it possesses multiple advantages over some of these techniques:

Hardware costs are significantly lower than those of most other techniques [14]
EEG prevents limited availability of technologists to provide immediate care in high traffic
hospitals.[15]
EEG sensors can be used in more places than fMRI, SPECT, PET, MRS, or MEG, as these
techniques require bulky and immobile equipment. For example, MEG requires equipment
consisting of liquid helium-cooled detectors that can be used only in magnetically shielded
rooms, altogether costing upwards of several million dollars;[16] and fMRI requires the use of
a 1-ton magnet in, again, a shielded room.
EEG has very high temporal resolution, on the order of milliseconds rather than seconds.
EEG is commonly recorded at sampling rates between 250 and 2000 Hz in clinical and
research settings, but modern EEG data collection systems are capable of recording at
sampling rates above 20,000 Hz if desired. MEG and EROS are the only other noninvasive
cognitive neuroscience techniques that acquire data at this level of temporal resolution.[16]
EEG is relatively tolerant of subject movement, unlike most other neuroimaging techniques.
There even exist methods for minimizing, and even eliminating movement artifacts in EEG
data [17]
EEG is silent, which allows for better study of the responses to auditory stimuli.
EEG does not aggravate claustrophobia, unlike fMRI, PET, MRS, SPECT, and sometimes
MEG[18]
EEG does not involve exposure to high-intensity (>1 Tesla) magnetic fields, as in some of
the other techniques, especially MRI and MRS. These can cause a variety of undesirable
issues with the data, and also prohibit use of these techniques with participants that have
metal implants in their body, such as metal-containing pacemakers[19]
EEG does not involve exposure to radioligands, unlike positron emission tomography.[20]
ERP studies can be conducted with relatively simple paradigms, compared with IE block-
design fMRI studies
Extremely uninvasive, unlike Electrocorticography, which actually requires electrodes to be
placed on the surface of the brain.

EEG also has some characteristics that compare favorably with behavioral testing:

EEG can detect covert processing (i.e., processing that does not require a response)[21]
EEG can be used in subjects who are incapable of making a motor response[22]
Some ERP components can be detected even when the subject is not attending to the

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stimuli
Unlike other means of studying reaction time, ERPs can elucidate stages of processing
(rather than just the final end result)[23]
EEG is a powerful tool for tracking brain changes during different phases of life. EEG sleep
analysis can indicate significant aspects of the timing of brain development, including
evaluating adolescent brain maturation.[24] Brain activity can also be monitored by ct's.[25]
In EEG there is a better understanding of what signal is measured as compared to other
research techniques, i.e. the BOLD response in MRI.

Relative disadvantages [edit]

Low spatial resolution on the scalp. fMRI, for example, can directly display areas of the brain
that are active, while EEG requires intense interpretation just to hypothesize what areas are
activated by a particular response.[26]
EEG poorly measures neural activity that occurs below the upper layers of the brain (the
cortex).
Unlike PET and MRS, cannot identify specific locations in the brain at which various
neurotransmitters, drugs, etc. can be found.[20]
Often takes a long time to connect a subject to EEG, as it requires precise placement of
dozens of electrodes around the head and the use of various gels, saline solutions, and/or
pastes to keep them in place. While the length of time differs dependent on the specific
EEG device used, as a general rule it takes considerably less time to prepare a subject for
MEG, fMRI, MRS, and SPECT.
Signal-to-noise ratio is poor, so sophisticated data analysis and relatively large numbers of
subjects are needed to extract useful information from EEG[27]

Combining EEG with other neuroimaging techniques [edit]

Simultaneous EEG recordings and fMRI scans have been obtained successfully,[28][29] though
successful simultaneous recording requires that several technical difficulties be overcome, such
as the presence of ballistocardiographic artifact, MRI pulse artifact and the induction of
electrical currents in EEG wires that move within the strong magnetic fields of the MRI. While
challenging, these have been successfully overcome in a number of studies.[30]

MRI’s produce detailed images created by generating strong magnetic fields that may induce
potentially harmful displacement force and torque. These fields produce potentially harmful
radio frequency heating and create image artifacts rendering images useless. Due to these
potential risks, only certain medical devices can be used in an MR environment.

Similarly, simultaneous recordings with MEG and EEG have also been conducted, which has
several advantages over using either technique alone:

EEG requires accurate information about certain aspects of the skull that can only be
estimated, such as skull radius, and conductivities of various skull locations. MEG does not
have this issue, and a simultaneous analysis allows this to be corrected for.
MEG and EEG both detect activity below the surface of the cortex very poorly, and like EEG,
the level of error increases with the depth below the surface of the cortex one attempts to
examine. However, the errors are very different between the techniques, and combining

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them thus allows for correction of some of this noise.

MEG has access to virtually no sources of brain activity below a few centimetres under the
cortex. EEG, on the other hand, can receive signals from greater depth, albeit with a high
degree of noise. Combining the two makes it easier to determine what in the EEG signal
comes from the surface (since MEG is very accurate in examining signals from the surface
of the brain), and what comes from deeper in the brain, thus allowing for analysis of deeper
brain signals than either EEG or MEG on its own.[31]

EEG has also been combined with positron emission tomography. This provides the advantage
of allowing researchers to see what EEG signals are associated with different drug actions in
the brain.[32]

Method [edit]

In conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained by

placing electrodes on the scalp with a conductive gel or
paste, usually after preparing the scalp area by light
abrasion to reduce impedance due to dead skin cells.
Many systems typically use electrodes, each of which
is attached to an individual wire. Some systems use
caps or nets into which electrodes are embedded; this
Computer Electroencephalograph
is particularly common when high-density arrays of Neurovisor-BMM 40
electrodes are needed.

Electrode locations and names are specified by the International 10–20 system[33] for most
clinical and research applications (except when high-density arrays are used). This system
ensures that the naming of electrodes is consistent across laboratories. In most clinical
applications, 19 recording electrodes (plus ground and system reference) are used.[34] A
smaller number of electrodes are typically used when recording EEG from neonates. Additional
electrodes can be added to the standard set-up when a clinical or research application
demands increased spatial resolution for a particular area of the brain. High-density arrays
(typically via cap or net) can contain up to 256 electrodes more-or-less evenly spaced around
the scalp.

Each electrode is connected to one input of a differential amplifier (one amplifier per pair of
electrodes); a common system reference electrode is connected to the other input of each
differential amplifier. These amplifiers amplify the voltage between the active electrode and the
reference (typically 1,000–100,000 times, or 60–100 dB of voltage gain). In analog EEG, the
signal is then filtered (next paragraph), and the EEG signal is output as the deflection of pens
as paper passes underneath. Most EEG systems these days, however, are digital, and the
amplified signal is digitized via an analog-to-digital converter, after being passed through an
anti-aliasing filter. Analog-to-digital sampling typically occurs at 256–512 Hz in clinical scalp
EEG; sampling rates of up to 20 kHz are used in some research applications.

During the recording, a series of activation procedures may be used. These procedures may
induce normal or abnormal EEG activity that might not otherwise be seen. These procedures
include hyperventilation, photic stimulation (with a strobe light), eye closure, mental activity,

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sleep and sleep deprivation. During (inpatient) epilepsy monitoring, a patient's typical seizure
medications may be withdrawn.

The digital EEG signal is stored electronically and can be filtered for display. Typical settings for
the high-pass filter and a low-pass filter are 0.5-1 Hz and 35–70 Hz, respectively. The high-
pass filter typically filters out slow artifact, such as electrogalvanic signals and movement
artifact, whereas the low-pass filter filters out high-frequency artifacts, such as
electromyographic signals. An additional notch filter is typically used to remove artifact caused
by electrical power lines (60 Hz in the United States and 50 Hz in many other countries).[1]

As part of an evaluation for epilepsy surgery, it may be necessary to insert electrodes near the
surface of the brain, under the surface of the dura mater. This is accomplished via burr hole or
craniotomy. This is referred to variously as "electrocorticography (ECoG)", "intracranial EEG (I-
EEG)" or "subdural EEG (SD-EEG)". Depth electrodes may also be placed into brain structures,
such as the amygdala or hippocampus, structures, which are common epileptic foci and may
not be "seen" clearly by scalp EEG. The electrocorticographic signal is processed in the same
manner as digital scalp EEG (above), with a couple of caveats. ECoG is typically recorded at
higher sampling rates than scalp EEG because of the requirements of Nyquist theorem—the
subdural signal is composed of a higher predominance of higher frequency components. Also,
many of the artifacts that affect scalp EEG do not impact ECoG, and therefore display filtering
is often not needed.

A typical adult human EEG signal is about 10 µV to 100 µV in amplitude when measured from
the scalp[35] and is about 10–20 mV when measured from subdural electrodes.

Since an EEG voltage signal represents a difference between the voltages at two electrodes,
the display of the EEG for the reading encephalographer may be set up in one of several ways.
The representation of the EEG channels is referred to as a montage.

Sequential montage 
Each channel (i.e., waveform) represents the difference between two adjacent electrodes.
The entire montage consists of a series of these channels. For example, the channel "Fp1-
F3" represents the difference in voltage between the Fp1 electrode and the F3 electrode.
The next channel in the montage, "F3-C3," represents the voltage difference between F3
and C3, and so on through the entire array of electrodes.

Referential montage
Each channel represents the difference between a certain electrode and a designated
reference electrode. There is no standard position for this reference; it is, however, at a
different position than the "recording" electrodes. Midline positions are often used because
they do not amplify the signal in one hemisphere vs. the other. Another popular reference is
"linked ears," which is a physical or mathematical average of electrodes attached to both
earlobes or mastoids.

Average reference montage 

The outputs of all of the amplifiers are summed and averaged, and this averaged signal is
used as the common reference for each channel.

Laplacian montage 

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Each channel represents the difference between an electrode and a weighted average of the
surrounding electrodes.[36]

When analog (paper) EEGs are used, the technologist switches between montages during the
recording in order to highlight or better characterize certain features of the EEG. With digital
EEG, all signals are typically digitized and stored in a particular (usually referential) montage;
since any montage can be constructed mathematically from any other, the EEG can be viewed
by the electroencephalographer in any display montage that is desired.

The EEG is read by a clinical neurophysiologist or neurologist (depending on local custom and
law regarding medical specialities), optimally one who has specific training in the interpretation
of EEGs for clinical purposes. This is done by visual inspection of the waveforms, called
graphoelements. The use of computer signal processing of the EEG—so-called quantitative
EEG—is somewhat controversial when used for clinical purposes (although there are many
research uses).

Limitations [edit]
EEG has several limitations. Most important is its poor spatial resolution.[37]EEG is most
sensitive to a particular set of post-synaptic potentials: those generated in superficial layers of
the cortex, on the crests of gyri directly abutting the skull and radial to the skull. Dendrites,
which are deeper in the cortex, inside sulci, in midline or deep structures (such as the cingulate
gyrus or hippocampus), or producing currents that are tangential to the skull, have far less
contribution to the EEG signal.

EEG recordings do not directly capture axonal action potentials. An action potential can be
accurately represented as a current quadrupole, meaning that the resulting field decreases
more rapidly than the ones produced by the current dipole of post-synaptic potentials.[38] In
addition, since EEGs represent averages of thousands of neurons, a large population of cells in
synchronous activity is necessary to cause a significant deflection on the recordings. Action
potentials are very fast and, as a consequence, the chances of field summation are slim.
However, neural backpropagation, as a typically longer dendritic current dipole, can be picked
up by EEG electrodes and is a reliable indication of the occurrence of neural output.

Not only do EEGs capture dendritic currents almost exclusively as opposed to axonal currents,
they also show a preference for activity on populations of parallel dendrites and transmitting
current in the same direction at the same time. Pyramidal neurons of cortical layers II/III and V
extend apical dendrites to layer I. Currents moving up or down these processes underlie most
of the signals produced by electroencephalography.[39]

Therefore, EEG provides information with a large bias to select neuron types, and generally
should not be used to make claims about global brain activity. The meninges, cerebrospinal
fluid and skull "smear" the EEG signal, obscuring its intracranial source.

It is mathematically impossible to reconstruct a unique intracranial current source for a given

EEG signal,[1] as some currents produce potentials that cancel each other out. This is referred
to as the inverse problem. However, much work has been done to produce remarkably good
estimates of, at least, a localized electric dipole that represents the recorded
currents.[citation needed]

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EEG vs fMRI, fNIRS and PET [edit]

EEG has several strong points as a tool for exploring brain activity. EEGs can detect changes
over milliseconds, which is excellent considering an action potential takes approximately 0.5-
130 milliseconds to propagate across a single neuron, depending on the type of neuron.[40]
Other methods of looking at brain activity, such as PET and fMRI have time resolution between
seconds and minutes. EEG measures the brain's electrical activity directly, while other methods
record changes in blood flow (e.g., SPECT, fMRI) or metabolic activity (e.g., PET, NIRS), which
are indirect markers of brain electrical activity. EEG can be used simultaneously with fMRI so
that high-temporal-resolution data can be recorded at the same time as high-spatial-resolution
data, however, since the data derived from each occurs over a different time course, the data
sets do not necessarily represent exactly the same brain activity. There are technical difficulties
associated with combining these two modalities, including the need to remove the MRI gradient
artifact present during MRI acquisition and the ballistocardiographic artifact (resulting from the
pulsatile motion of blood and tissue) from the EEG. Furthermore, currents can be induced in
moving EEG electrode wires due to the magnetic field of the MRI.

EEG can be used simultaneously with NIRS without major technical difficulties. There is no
influence of these modalities on each other and a combined measurement can give useful
information about electrical activity as well as local hemodynamics.

EEG vs MEG [edit]

EEG reflects correlated synaptic activity caused by post-synaptic potentials of cortical neurons.
The ionic currents involved in the generation of fast action potentials may not contribute greatly
to the averaged field potentials representing the EEG .[10][41] More specifically, the scalp
electrical potentials that produce EEG are generally thought to be caused by the extracellular
ionic currents caused by dendritic electrical activity, whereas the fields producing
magnetoencephalographic signals[16] are associated with intracellular ionic currents .[42]

EEG can be recorded at the same time as MEG so that data from these complementary high-
time-resolution techniques can be combined.

Studies on numerical modeling of EEG and MEG have also been done.[43] For example, see Dr.
Oguz Tanzer, Ph.D. Thesis .

Normal activity [edit]

The EEG is typically

described in terms of (1)
rhythmic activity and (2)
transients. The rhythmic
activity is divided into
One second of EEG signal
bands by frequency. To
some degree, these
frequency bands are a matter of nomenclature (i.e., any rhythmic activity between 8–12 Hz can
be described as "alpha"), but these designations arose because rhythmic activity within a

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certain frequency range was noted to have a certain distribution over the scalp or a certain
biological significance. Frequency bands are usually extracted using spectral methods (for
instance Welch) as implemented for instance in freely available EEG software such as
EEGLAB or the the neurophysiological biomarker toolbox .

Most of the cerebral signal observed in the scalp EEG falls in the range of 1–20 Hz (activity
below or above this range is likely to be artifactual, under standard clinical recording
techniques). Waveforms are subdivided into bandwidths known as alpha, beta, theta, and delta
to signify the majority of the EEG used in clinical practice.[44]

Comparison table of EEG rhythmic activity frequency bands [edit]

Comparison of EEG bands

Frequency
Band Location Normally Pathologically
(Hz)

adult slow-wave
frontally in subcortical lesions
sleep
adults, diffuse lesions
in babies
posteriorly in metabolic
Delta <4 Has been found
children; high- encephalopathy
during some
amplitude hydrocephalus
continuous-
waves deep midline lesions
attention tasks[45]

higher in young
children
drowsiness in
adults and teens
idling
Associated with focal subcortical lesions
Found in inhibition of metabolic
locations not elicited encephalopathy
Theta 4–7
related to task responses (has deep midline disorders
at hand been found to some instances of
spike in situations hydrocephalus
where a person is
actively trying to
repress a
response or
action).[45]

relaxed/reflecting
posterior closing the eyes
regions of Also associated
head, both with inhibition
sides, higher control,
Alpha 8 – 15 in amplitude coma

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seemingly with
on dominant the purpose of
side. Central timing inhibitory
sites (c3-c4) at activity in
rest different locations
across the brain.

both sides, range span: active

symmetrical calm -> intense -
distribution, > stressed -> mild
Beta 16 – 31 most evident obsessive benzodiazepines
frontally; low- active thinking,
amplitude focus, hi alert,
waves anxious

Displays during
cross-modal
sensory
processing
(perception that A decrease in gamma-
combines two band activity may be
different senses, associated with cognitive
such as sound decline, especially when
Somatosensory
Gamma 32 + and sight)[46][47] related to the theta band;
cortex
Also is shown however, this has not
during short-term been proven for use as a
memory clinical diagnostic
matching of measurement
recognized
objects, sounds,
or tactile
sensations

Mu suppression could
indicate that motor mirror
Shows rest-state neurons are working.
Sensorimotor
Mu 8 – 12 motor Deficits in Mu
cortex
neurons.[48] suppression, and thus in
mirror neurons, might
play a role in autism.[49]

While these are the universally recognized frequency ranges that researchers tend to follow,
many scholars use their own specific range boundaries depending on the frequencies they
choose to focus on. Additionally, some researchers define the bands using decimal values
rather than rounding to whole numbers (for example, one researcher may define the lower Beta
band cut-off as 12.1, while another may use the value 13), while still others sometimes divide

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the bands into sub bands for the purposes of data analysis.

Wave patterns [edit]

Delta is the frequency
range up to 4 Hz. It
tends to be the
highest in amplitude
and the slowest delta waves.
waves. It is seen
normally in adults in
slow wave sleep. It is also seen normally in babies. It may occur focally with subcortical
lesions and in general distribution with diffuse lesions, metabolic encephalopathy
hydrocephalus or deep midline lesions. It is usually most prominent frontally in adults (e.g.
FIRDA - Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta) and posteriorly in children (e.g. OIRDA -
Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta).
Theta is the frequency
range from 4 Hz to
7 Hz. Theta is seen
normally in young
children. It may be theta waves.
seen in drowsiness or
arousal in older
children and adults; it can also be seen in meditation.[50] Excess theta for age represents
abnormal activity. It can be seen as a focal disturbance in focal subcortical lesions; it can be
seen in generalized distribution in diffuse disorder or metabolic encephalopathy or deep
midline disorders or some instances of hydrocephalus. On the contrary this range has been
associated with reports of relaxed, meditative, and creative states.
Alpha is the frequency
range from 7 Hz to
14 Hz. Hans Berger
named the first
rhythmic EEG activity alpha waves.
he saw as the "alpha
wave". This was the
"posterior basic rhythm" (also called the "posterior dominant rhythm" or the "posterior alpha
rhythm"), seen in the posterior regions of the head on both sides, higher in amplitude on the
dominant side. It emerges with closing of the eyes and with relaxation, and attenuates with
eye opening or mental exertion. The posterior basic rhythm is actually slower than 8 Hz in
young children (therefore technically in the theta range).
In addition to the posterior basic
rhythm, there are
other normal alpha
rhythms such as the
mu rhythm (alpha
activity in the

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sensorimotor rhythm aka mu rhythm.

contralateral sensory
and motor cortical
areas) that emerges when the hands and arms are idle; and the "third rhythm" (alpha
activity in the temporal or frontal lobes).[51][52] Alpha can be abnormal; for example, an EEG
that has diffuse alpha occurring in coma and is not responsive to external stimuli is referred
to as "alpha coma".
Beta is the frequency
range from 15 Hz to
about 30 Hz. It is seen
usually on both sides
in symmetrical beta waves.
distribution and is
most evident frontally.
Beta activity is closely linked to motor behavior and is generally attenuated during active
movements.[53] Low amplitude beta with multiple and varying frequencies is often
associated with active, busy or anxious thinking and active concentration. Rhythmic beta
with a dominant set of frequencies is associated with various pathologies and drug effects,
especially benzodiazepines. It may be absent or reduced in areas of cortical damage. It is
the dominant rhythm in patients who are alert or anxious or who have their eyes open.
Gamma is the
frequency range
approximately 30–
100 Hz. Gamma
rhythms are thought to gamma waves.
represent binding of
different populations
of neurons together into a network for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or
motor function.[1]
Mu ranges 8–13 Hz., and partly overlaps with other frequencies. It reflects the synchronous
firing of motor neurons in rest state. Mu suppression is thought to reflect motor mirror
neuron systems, because when an action is observed, the pattern extinguishes, possibly
because of the normal neuronal system and the mirror neuron system "go out of sync", and
interfere with each other.[49]

"Ultra-slow" or "near-DC" (Direct current) activity is recorded using DC amplifiers in some

research contexts. It is not typically recorded in a clinical context because the signal at these
frequencies is susceptible to a number of artifacts.

Some features of the EEG are transient rather than rhythmic. Spikes and sharp waves may
represent seizure activity or interictal activity in individuals with epilepsy or a predisposition
toward epilepsy. Other transient features are normal: vertex waves and sleep spindles are seen
in normal sleep.

Note that there are types of activity that are statistically uncommon, but not associated with
dysfunction or disease. These are often referred to as "normal variants." The mu rhythm is an

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example of a normal variant.

The normal Electroencephalography (EEG) varies by age. The neonatal EEG is quite different
from the adult EEG. The EEG in childhood generally has slower frequency oscillations than the
adult EEG.

The normal EEG also varies depending on state. The EEG is used along with other
measurements (EOG, EMG) to define sleep stages in polysomnography. Stage I sleep
(equivalent to drowsiness in some systems) appears on the EEG as drop-out of the posterior
basic rhythm. There can be an increase in theta frequencies. Santamaria and Chiappa
cataloged a number of the variety of patterns associated with drowsiness. Stage II sleep is
characterized by sleep spindles—transient runs of rhythmic activity in the 12–14 Hz range
(sometimes referred to as the "sigma" band) that have a frontal-central maximum. Most of the
activity in Stage II is in the 3–6 Hz range. Stage III and IV sleep are defined by the presence of
delta frequencies and are often referred to collectively as "slow-wave sleep." Stages I-IV
comprise non-REM (or "NREM") sleep. The EEG in REM (rapid eye movement) sleep appears
somewhat similar to the awake EEG.

EEG under general anesthesia depends on the type of anesthetic employed. With halogenated
anesthetics, such as halothane or intravenous agents, such as propofol, a rapid (alpha or low
beta), nonreactive EEG pattern is seen over most of the scalp, especially anteriorly; in some
older terminology this was known as a WAR (widespread anterior rapid) pattern, contrasted
with a WAIS (widespread slow) pattern associated with high doses of opiates. Anesthetic
effects on EEG signals are beginning to be understood at the level of drug actions on different
kinds of synapses and the circuits that allow synchronized neuronal activity (see:
http://www.stanford.edu/group/maciverlab/ ).

Artifacts [edit]

Biological artifacts [edit]

Electrical signals detected along the scalp by an EEG, but that originate from non-cerebral
origin are called artifacts. EEG data is almost always contaminated by such artifacts. The
amplitude of artifacts can be quite large relative to the size of amplitude of the cortical signals of
interest. This is one of the reasons why it takes considerable experience to correctly interpret
EEGs clinically. Some of the most common types of biological artifacts include:

Eye-induced artifacts (includes eye blinks, eye movements and extra-ocular muscle activity)
ECG (cardiac) artifacts
EMG (muscle activation)-induced artifacts
Glossokinetic artifacts

The most prominent eye-induced artifacts are caused by the potential difference between the
cornea and retina, which is quite large compared to cerebral potentials. When the eyes and
eyelids are completely still, this corneo-retinal dipole does not affect EEG. However, blinks
occur several times per minute, the eyes movements occur several times per second. Eyelid
movements, occurring mostly during blinking or vertical eye movements, elicit a large potential
seen mostly in the difference between the Electrooculography (EOG) channels above and

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below the eyes. An established explanation of this potential regards the eyelids as sliding
electrodes that short-circuit the positively charged cornea to the extra-ocular skin.[54][55]
Rotation of the eyeballs, and consequently of the corneo-retinal dipole, increases the potential
in electrodes towards which the eyes are rotated, and decrease the potentials in the opposing
electrodes.[56] Eye movements called saccades also generate transient electromyographic
potentials, known as saccadic spike potentials (SPs).[57] The spectrum of these SPs overlaps
the gamma-band (see Gamma wave), and seriously confounds analysis of induced gamma-
band responses,[58] requiring tailored artifact correction approaches.[57] Purposeful or reflexive
eye blinking also generates electromyographic potentials, but more importantly there is
reflexive movement of the eyeball during blinking that gives a characteristic artifactual
appearance of the EEG (see Bell's phenomenon).

Eyelid fluttering artifacts of a characteristic type were previously called Kappa rhythm (or Kappa
waves). It is usually seen in the prefrontal leads, that is, just over the eyes. Sometimes they are
seen with mental activity. They are usually in the Theta (4–7 Hz) or Alpha (7–14 Hz) range.
They were named because they were believed to originate from the brain. Later study revealed
they were generated by rapid fluttering of the eyelids, sometimes so minute that it was difficult
to see. They are in fact noise in the EEG reading, and should not technically be called a rhythm
or wave. Therefore, current usage in electroencephalography refers to the phenomenon as an
eyelid fluttering artifact, rather than a Kappa rhythm (or wave).[59]

Some of these artifacts can be useful in various applications. The EOG signals, for instance,
can be used to detect[57] and track eye-movements, which are very important in
polysomnography, and is also in conventional EEG for assessing possible changes in
alertness, drowsiness or sleep.

ECG artifacts are quite common and can be mistaken for spike activity. Because of this, modern
EEG acquisition commonly includes a one-channel ECG from the extremities. This also allows
the EEG to identify cardiac arrhythmias that are an important differential diagnosis to syncope
or other episodic/attack disorders.

Glossokinetic artifacts are caused by the potential difference between the base and the tip of
the tongue. Minor tongue movements can contaminate the EEG, especially in parkinsonian and
tremor disorders.

Environmental artifacts [edit]

In addition to artifacts generated by the body, many artifacts originate from outside the body.
Movement by the patient, or even just settling of the electrodes, may cause electrode pops,
spikes originating from a momentary change in the impedance of a given electrode. Poor
grounding of the EEG electrodes can cause significant 50 or 60 Hz artifact, depending on the
local power system's frequency. A third source of possible interference can be the presence of
an IV drip; such devices can cause rhythmic, fast, low-voltage bursts, which may be confused
for spikes.

Artifact correction [edit]

Recently, independent component analysis techniques have been used to correct or remove
[57][60][61][62][63][64]

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EEG contaminants. These techniques attempt to "unmix" the EEG signals

into some number of underlying components. There are many source separation algorithms,
often assuming various behaviors or natures of EEG. Regardless, the principle behind any
particular method usually allow "remixing" only those components that would result in "clean"
EEG by nullifying (zeroing) the weight of unwanted components. Fully automated artifact
rejection methods, which use ICA, have also been developed.[65]

In the last few years, by comparing data from paralysed and unparalysed subjects, EEG
contamination by muscle has been shown to be far more prevalent than had previously been
realized, particularly in the gamma range above 20 Hz.[66] However, Surface Laplacian has
been shown to be effective in eliminating muscle artefact, particularly for central electrodes,
which are further from the strongest contaminants.[67]

Abnormal activity [edit]

Abnormal activity can broadly be separated into epileptiform and non-epileptiform activity. It can
also be separated into focal or diffuse.

Focal epileptiform discharges represent fast, synchronous potentials in a large number of

neurons in a somewhat discrete area of the brain. These can occur as interictal activity,
between seizures, and represent an area of cortical irritability that may be predisposed to
producing epileptic seizures. Interictal discharges are not wholly reliable for determining
whether a patient has epilepsy nor where his/her seizure might originate. (See focal epilepsy.)

Generalized epileptiform discharges often have an anterior maximum, but these are seen
synchronously throughout the entire brain. They are strongly suggestive of a generalized
epilepsy.

Focal non-epileptiform abnormal activity may occur over areas of the brain where there is focal
damage of the cortex or white matter. It often consists of an increase in slow frequency rhythms
and/or a loss of normal higher frequency rhythms. It may also appear as focal or unilateral
decrease in amplitude of the EEG signal.

Diffuse non-epileptiform abnormal activity may manifest as diffuse abnormally slow rhythms or
bilateral slowing of normal rhythms, such as the PBR.

Intracortical Encephalogram electrodes and sub-dural electrodes can be used in tandem to

discriminate and discretize artifact from epileptiform and other severe neurological events.

More advanced measures of abnormal EEG signals have also recently received attention as
possible biomarkers for different disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.[68]

Various uses [edit]

This section relies too much on references to primary

sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or
tertiary sources. (May 2012)

The EEG has been used for many purposes besides the conventional uses of clinical diagnosis
and conventional cognitive neuroscience. An early use was during World War II by the U.S.

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Army Air Corps to screen out pilots in danger of having seizures;[69] long-term EEG recordings
in epilepsy patients are still used today for seizure prediction. Neurofeedback remains an
important extension, and in its most advanced form is also attempted as the basis of brain
computer interfaces. The EEG is also used quite extensively in the field of neuromarketing.

The EEG is altered by drugs that affect brain functions, the chemicals that are the basis for
psychopharmacology. Berger's early experiments recorded the effects of drugs on EEG. The
science of pharmaco-electroencephalography has developed methods to identify substances
that systematically alter brain functions for therapeutic and recreational use.

Honda is attempting to develop a system to enable an operator to control its Asimo robot using
EEG, a technology it eventually hopes to incorporate into its automobiles.[70]

EEGs have been used as an evidence in criminal trials in the Indian state of Maharastra.[71][72]

EEG and remote communication [edit]

The United States Army Research Office budgeted $4 million in 2009 to researchers at the
University of California, Irvine to develop EEG processing techniques to identify correlates of
imagined speech and intended direction to enable soldiers on the battlefield to communicate
via computer-mediated reconstruction of team members' EEG signals, in the form of
understandable signals such as words.[73]

Low-cost EEG devices [edit]

Inexpensive EEG devices exist for the low-cost research and consumer markets. Recently, a
few companies have miniaturized medical grade EEG technology to create versions accessible
to the wider public. Some of these companies have even built commercial EEG devices
retailing for less than $100 USD.

In 2004 OpenEEG released its ModularEEG as open source hardware. Compatible open
source software includes a game for balancing a ball.
In 2007 NeuroSky released the first affordable consumer based EEG along with the game
NeuroBoy. This was also the first large scale EEG device to use dry sensor technology.[74]
In 2008 OCZ Technology developed device for use in video games relying primarily on
electromyography.
In 2008 the Final Fantasy developer Square Enix announced that it was partnering with
NeuroSky to create a game, Judecca.[75][76]
In 2009 Mattel partnered with NeuroSky to release the Mindflex, a game that used an EEG
to steer a ball through an obstacle course. By far the best selling consumer based EEG to
date.[75][77]
In 2009 Uncle Milton Industries partnered with NeuroSky to release the Star Wars Force
Trainer, a game designed to create the illusion of possessing The Force.[75][78]
In 2009 Emotiv released the EPOC, a 14 channel EEG device. The EPOC is the first
commercial BCI to not use dry sensor technology, requiring users to apply a saline solution
to electrode pads (which need remoistening after an hour or two of use).[79]
In 2010, NeuroSky added a blink and electromyography function to the MindSet.[80]
In 2011, NeuroSky released the MindWave, an EEG device designed for educational

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purposes and games.[81] The MindWave won the Guinness Book of World Records award
for “Heaviest machine moved using a brain control interface”.[82]
In 2011, Rhythmlink released Disposable WebbedTM EEG Electrodes, a flat, single-use
EEG electrode. The Webbed Electrode provides a greater surface area to provide more
area to be in contact with conductive material and a more comfortable experience for the
patient.
In 2012, a Japanese gadget project, neurowear, released Necomimi: a headset with
motorized cat ears. The headset is a NeuroSky MindWave unit with two motors on the
headband where a cat's ears might be. Slipcovers shaped like cat ears sit over the motors
so that as the device registers emotional states the ears move to relate. For example, when
relaxed, the ears fall to the sides and perk up when excited again.
In 2014, OpenBCI released an eponymous Open Source brain-computer interface after a
successful kickstarter campaign in 2013. The basic OpenBCI has 8 channels, expandable
to 16, and supports EEG, EKG, and EMG. The OpenBCI is based on the Texas Instruments
ADS1299 IC and the Arduino or PIC microcontroller, and costs $399 for the basic version. It
uses standard metal cup electrodes and conductive paste.

Images [edit]

Portable recording OpenBCI, an open- EEG

device for EEG source brain-computer electroencephalophone
interface used during a music
performance in which
bathers from around the
world were networked
together as part of a
collective musical
performance, using their
brainwaves to control
sound, lighting, and the
bath
environment[citation needed

See also [edit]

10-20 system (EEG) Event-related potential

Binaural beats Evoked potential
Brain-computer interface FieldTrip

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Brainwave synchronization God helmet

CAET-Canadian association of EEG Hemoencephalography
Technology Hypersynchronization of
Comparison of consumer brain-computer electrophysiological activity in epilepsy
interface devices Imagined Speech
Direct brain interfaces Induced activity
EEG measures during anesthesia Intracranial EEG
EEG microstates Local field potentials
Electrocorticography Magnetoencephalography
Electromagnetic Weapon Mind machine
Electroneurogram Neural oscillations
Electropalatograph Neurofeedback
Emotiv Systems Ongoing brain activity
European data format Spontaneous potential

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