Iloilo State College of Fisheries

School of Graduate Studies

TAKE HOME EXAM in ASTRONOMY and METEOROLOGY

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1. Enumerate and characterized the different layers of the atmosphere.

The atmosphere has five different layers that are determined by the changes in
temperature that happen with increasing altitude. This includes the exosphere, thermosphere,
mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere.

a. Exosphere
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the
atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an
altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it
merges into the solar wind.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several
heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms
and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one
another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into
space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of
the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be
possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the
exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites
orbiting Earth.

b. Thermosphere
The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the
mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft)
up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft).
The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the
thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The
lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface,
contains the ionosphere.
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere
beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the
inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The
temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far
apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an
individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft)
between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of

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molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is
too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However non-hydrometeorological
phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the
thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and
260 mi).

c. Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the
stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about
50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft) above sea
level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle
layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around
−85 °C (−120 °F; 190 K).
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude
can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the
atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two
after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is
around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as
either sprites or ELVES occasionally forms far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is
also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to
be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The
mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft.

d. Stratosphere
The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere
and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at
roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50
to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea
level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high
concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing
altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation
from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature
may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and
may be near 0 °C.
Stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the
stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere.
Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather.
However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer
of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed
by jet-powered aircraft.

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 e. Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an
average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at
the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is
bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e.
a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with
height.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the
troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface.
Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the
troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word
τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's
atmosphere.The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger
atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty
percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the
troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where
most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types
generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate
the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional
aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by
propeller-driven aircraft.

Other layers
Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary
layers may be distinguished by other properties:

 The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about
2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small
compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion
of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi; 49,000–115,000 ft), though the thickness
varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained
in the stratosphere.
 The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible
for auroras. During daytime hours, it stretyphoonhes from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000
to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere.
However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally
seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of
the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it influences, for
example, radio propagation on Earth.
 The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed.
The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the
lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not
depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.[19] This relatively
homogeneous layer ends at the turbopause found at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the
very edge of space itself as accepted by the FAI, which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft)
above the mesopause.
Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of the
thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because

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 the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared
with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular
weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom of
the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of
hydrogen, the lightest element.

 The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface
and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the planetary
boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak
or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as
about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the
afternoon in dry regions.

2. Discuss the stages of typhoon formation, enumerate the different signal number and
characterize each.

STAGES OF TYPHOON FORMATION:

1.Formation or Genesis Stage

Since the nature of TYPHOON development is continuous, features associated with earliest
stages of the TYPHOON life-cycle can overlap. To complicate the issue, there is no standard language
for these initial stages. For example, some meteorologists prefer the term "genesis" to describe both
the earliest stages of the life-cycle and progression to a mature hurricane or typhoon. Others use the
term "genesis" to describe the earliest stages and "formation" to somewhat later stages in the life-
cycle.

2. Intensification or Deepening Stage

In this stage, the TYPHOON central pressure falls and the maximum surface wind speed
increases. An eye may develop at the center of the TYPHOON if the stage continues.

3. Mature Stage

The mature stage of a TYPHOON is usually associated with the period in which the TYPHOON
reaches maximum intensity. The central pressure has reached a minimum, and the surface winds have
reached a maximum.

4. Decay Stage

When a TYPHOON decays, the central pressure increases and the maximum surface winds
weaken. Usually, the decaying process is the result of a TYPHOON moving over land, moving over cool
water, recurving and assuming extratropical characteristics, or a combination of these processes. Even
though the TYPHOON is decaying, it can produce high winds and heavy rains.

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 TYPHOON SIGNAL:

Signal No. 1
- Winds of 30 - 60 kilometers per hour (kph) may be expected in at least 36 hours or intermittent
rains may be expected within 36 hours. (When the tropical cyclone develops very close to the locality
- a shorter lead time of the occurrence of the winds will be specified in the warning bulletin)

Signal No. 2
- Winds of greater than 60 kph and up to 100 kph may be expected in at least 24 hours.
Signal No. 3
- Winds greater than 100 kph up to 185 kph may be expected in at least 18 hours.

Public Storm Warning Signal No. 4

3. What is global warming? Describe its effect.

GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of
the Earth's atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be permanently changing the
Earth’s climate.
A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed
to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other
pollutants.

Effects of global warming

 Increase of temperature on the earth by about 3° to 5° C (5.4° to 9° Fahrenheit) by the year 2100.
 Rise of sea levels by at least 25 meters (82 feet) by the year 2100.

More details about the effects of global warming :

Increasing global temperatures are causing a broad range of changes. Sea levels are rising due
to thermal expansion of the ocean, in addition to melting of land ice. Amounts and patterns of
precipitation are changing. The total annual power of hurricanes has already increased markedly since
1975 because their average intensity and average duration have increased (in addition, there has been
a high correlation of hurricane power with tropical sea-surface temperature).

Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns increase the frequency, duration, and
intensity of other extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, heat waves, and tornadoes.
Other effects of global warming include higher or lower agricultural yields, further glacial retreat,
reduced summer stream flows, species extinctions. As a further effect of global warming, diseases like
malaria are returning into areas where they have been extinguished earlier.

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 4. Discuss your own report.
HEAT BUDGET
Earth's climate is largely determined by the planet's energy budget, the balance of incoming
and outgoing radiation which is measured by satellites and shown in W/m2.

A heat budget is the perfect balance between incoming heat absorbed by earth and outgoing
heat escaping it in the form of radiation. If the balance is disturbed, then earth would get progressively
warmer or cooler with each passing year.
An accounting of how much energy enters the Earth's climate system from the Sun, how much
energy is lost to space and accounts for the remainder as stored on the Earth and its atmosphere.
Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial
regions more than polar regions. Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and lithosphere, and, in a process informally described as Earth's heat engine, the solar heating is
redistributed through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation.
When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, the Earth is said to be
in radiative equilibrium and under that condition, global temperatures will be stable.
Disturbances of Earth's radiative equilibrium, such as an increase of greenhouse gases, will
change global temperatures in response. However, Earth's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on
many factors, such as atmospheric composition (mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases),
the albedo (reflectivity) of surface properties, cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns.
Changes in surface temperature due to Earth's energy budget do not occur instantaneously, due to
the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere. The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part
of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcing and
the climate response.
In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a constant
temperature because, as a whole, there is no net gain or loss: Earth receives the same amount of
energy via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation) as it emits via atmospheric and terrestrial
radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space.
To quantify Earth's heat budget or heat balance, let the insolation received at the top of the
atmosphere be 100 units, as shown in the accompanying illustration. Called the albedo of Earth,
around 35 units are reflected back to space: 27 from the top of clouds, 2 from snow and ice-covered
areas, and 6 by other parts of the atmosphere. The 65 remaining units are absorbed: 14 within the
atmosphere and 51 by the Earth’s surface. These 51 units are radiated to space in the form of
terrestrial radiation: 17 directly radiated to space and 34 absorbed by the atmosphere (19 through
latent heat of condensation, 9 via convection and turbulence, and 6 directly absorbed). The 48 units
absorbed by the atmosphere (34 units from terrestrial radiation and 14 from insolation) are finally
radiated back to space. These 65 units (17 from the ground and 48 from the atmosphere) balance the
65 units absorbed from the sun; thereby demonstrating no net gain of energy by the Earth.
Incoming radiant energy (shortwave)
The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's atmosphere (TOA) is
measured in watts and is given by the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth.
Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the
area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately
340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual
variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite
measurements.

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 Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected
back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving
~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This gives the earth a mean net albedo
of 0.29.
Earth's internal heat and other small effects
The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is estimated to be 47 terawatts. This comes
to 0.087 watt/square metre, which represents only 0.027% of Earth's total energy budget at the
surface, which is dominated by 173,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation.
Other minor sources of energy are usually ignored in these calculations, including accretion
of interplanetary dust and solar wind, light from distant stars and the thermal radiation from space.
Earlier, Joseph Fourier had claimed that deep space radiation was significant in a paper often cited as
the first on the greenhouse effect.
Longwave radiation
Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing infrared energy leaving the planet.
However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat
energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere,
transported via evapotranspiration and latent heat fluxes or conduction/ convection processes.
Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave infrared radiation back into space.
Recent satellite observations indicate additional precipitation, which is sustained by increased
energy leaving the surface through evaporation (the latent heat flux), offsetting increases in longwave
flux to the surface.
Earth's energy imbalance
If the incoming energy flux is not equal to the outgoing energy flux, the result is an energy
imbalance, that amounts to net heat added to or lost by the planet (if the incoming flux is larger or
smaller than the outgoing respectively). Earth's energy imbalance measurements provided by Argo
floats have detected an accumulation of ocean heat content(OHC). The estimated imbalance was
measured during a deep solar minimum of 2005-2010 to be 0.58 ± 0.15 W/m².Later research
estimated the surface energy imbalance to be 0.60 ± 0.17 W/m².

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