1

Page 1 of 21
ordinary division, in 11.05.

1.11 DIVISION
OF
DECIMALS
If one decimal number is to
be divided by another, it is It is common practice to
desirable to make the divisor an place the decimal point of the
integer by multiplying (if quotient above the decimal point
necessary) both numbers by a of the dividend, as shown in the
sufficiently high power of 10. computation above.
This does not affect the value of
the quotient. The procedure is Dividing a number by 10
then to divide as in ordinary long will move the decimal point one
division, placing a decimal point place to the left; division by 100
in the answer after the last digit will move it 2 places to the left;
before the decimal point in the etc. Thus,
dividend has been brought
down.
EXAMPLE 1.17. Divide 0.1547 1.12

by 0.014. ROUNDING
Move the decimal point 3 OFF
places to the right in each of the
numbers to make the divisor an DECIMALS
integer.
In some cases it is desirable
The desired quotient to express a decimal to fewer
0.1547/0.014 is equivalent to places. This type of
154.7/14, which results, under approximation is called
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Page 2 of 21
rounding off. dropped is 5 followed by zeros,

then the last retained digit is
There are four commonly kept unchanged if it is even. If
used rules for rounding off the last digit to be kept is odd,
decimals: then it is increased by 1.
Rule 1. If the first of the digits to EXAMPLE 1.20. Round off

be dropped is less than 5, then 16.450 to one decimal place.
the last retained digit is
unchanged. The first digit to be dropped
is 5 followed by a zero. Since the
EXAMPLE 1.18. Round off last digit to be kept is even, it is
3.1416 to two decimal places. left unchanged. The rounded
number is 16.4.
Since 4 is the last digit to be
retained and the next digit to its EXAMPLE 1.21. Round off
right is less than 5, the rounded 193.73500 to two decimal places.
number becomes 3.14.
The first digit to be dropped
Rule 2. If the first of the digits to is 5 followed by two zeros. The
be dropped is greater than 5, last digit to be kept is 3, which is
then the last retained digit is increased to 4. The rounded
increased by 1. number is 193.74.
EXAMPLE 1.19. Round off Rule 4. If the first digit to be
0.4536 to three decimal places. dropped is 5 followed by a
nonzero digit, then the last
Since 6 is the digit to be
retained digit is increased by 1.
dropped and it is greater than 5,
the last retained digit is changed EXAMPLE 1.22. Round off
from 3 to 4. The rounded 2.8530 to one decimal place.
number is 0.454.
The first digit to be dropped
Rule 3. If the first digit to be is 5 followed by 3. The last digit
Page 3 of 21
to be kept is 8; it is increased to 1.2. Write the following

9. The rounded number is 2.9. numbers in
decimal form: (a)
Solved Problems forty-five and sixty-
three hundreths,
1.1. Read the following (b) one and
numbers: (a) 24.7, thirteen
(b) 0.285, (c) 6.03, thousandths, (c)
(d) 0.0015, (e) ninety-five
0.000437. hundredths, (d)
three and one
Using the
hundred twenty-
positional
five ten-
values of the
thousandths, (e)
digits, the
nine hundred
numbers are
eighty and three
read as: (a)
tenths.
twenty-four
and seven From the
tenths, (b) values of the
two hundred places in the
eighty-five decimal
thousandths, sequence, the
(c) six and numbers are
three written as: (a)
hundredths, 45.63, (b)
(d) fifteen 1.013, (c)
ten- 0.95, (d)
thousandths, 3.0125, (e)
(e) four 980.3.
hundred
thirty-seven 1.3. Add the following
millionths. numbers: (a) 97,
Page 4 of 21
364.23, and 0.759;

(b) 23.5, 816.07,
8.62, and 0.233;
(c) 7.001, 24.9,
96.93, and 0.682;
(d) 7.58, 94.6, and
4.989.
Set up the 1.4. Subtract:

numbers so
(a) 24.61 from 393.5
that their
decimal (b) 0.917 from 1.165
points are in a
vertical line, (c) 362.78 from 457.06
and add the
digits in the (d) 14.758 from 100.39.
usual Set up the
manner. The numbers so
decimal point that the larger
of the answer is above the
is in line with smaller with
the other their decimal
decimal points lined
points. up vertically.
Subtract in
the same way
as with
integers. The
decimal point
of the answer
is in line with
the other
decimal
Page 5 of 21
points.
1.6. Without dividing

longhand, write out
the result if the
number 2.540 is
divided by: (a) 10,
(b) 10,000, (c)
100,000, (d)
10,000,000.
Division by
each factor of
1.5. Multiplying
10 moves the
longhand, write out
decimal point
the result if the
one place to
number 1.602 is
the left.
multiplied by: (a)
100, (b) 100,000,
(c) 10,000,000, (d)
1,000,000.
For each power of 10 the

decimal point has to be moved
one place to the right.
1.7. Multiply: (a) 4.5 by

9.72, (b) 57.8 by
0.023, (c) 9389 by
0.52, (d) 4.186 by
1.03.
Page 6 of 21
The numbers is
multiplication .
process is
shown below.
The
product has 3
1.8. Divide to three
decimal
decimal places and
places since
round off the
the sum of the
quotient to two
numbers of
places: (a) 22 by
places in the
26, (b) 2.913 by
two given
0.37, (c) 50.219 by
numbers is
9.35, (d) 6.75 by
.
106.
Move the
decimal point
in the divisor
and dividend
There are so that divisor
four decimal becomes an
places in the integer. Place
product, since the decimal
the sum of the point of the
numbers of quotient
places in the above the
two given
Page 7 of 21
changed (c) 0.8750 to two decimal

decimal point places
of the (d) 752.6412 to three
dividend. decimal places
(e) 17.3652 to two decimal
places
Using the rules
for rounding
off:
(a) 1.61, since
the first digit
to be dropped
is greater
than 5.
(b) 10.6, since
the first digit
to be dropped
is 5 followed
by zero and
the last digit
to be kept is
even.
(c) 0.88, since
1.9. Round off the the first digit
following decimals to be dropped
to the indicated is 5 followed
number of places. by zero and
the last digit
(a) 1.609 to two decimal
to be kept is
places
initially odd.
(b) 10.650 to one decimal
(d) 752.641,
place
since the first
Page 8 of 21
digit to be 1.11. Read the following:

dropped is (a) 0.103, (b)
smaller than 752.05, (c) 36.708,
5. (d) 2.0419.
(e) 17.37, since
the first digit 1.12. Without multiplying
to be dropped longhand, write out
is 5 followed the result if the
by a nonzero number 4.19 is
digit. multiplied by: (a)
10, (b) 10,000, (c)
Supplementary 1,000,000, (d)
0.01.
Problems
1.13. Without performing
The answers to this set of longhand division,
problems are at the end of this write out the result
chapter. when the number
6.02 is divided by:
1.10. Write the following
(a) 100, (b) 1000,
numbers in
(c) 100,000, (d)
decimal form: (a)
10,000,000.
six and sixty-seven
hundredths, (b) 1.14. Find the sum of the
nine hundred decimal numbers
thirty-one and two in each of the
tenths, (c) one following sets: (a)
hundred and fifty- 12.314, 4.5932,
five thousandths, 5.416, 2.59; (b)
(d) one thousand 0.0012, 0.0145,
eighty-three ten- 4.65; (c) 0.05467,
thousandths. 4.5862, 6.496; (d)
12.6, 0.135, 3.56,
Page 9 of 21
6.013. integer, (d)

0.27750 to three
1.15. Find the product of places, (e) 4.0251
the numbers in to two places.
each of the
following sets to Answers to
four rounded
decimal places: (a) Supplementary
3.567, 45.65; (b) Problems
1.498, 0.0065; (c)
56.2, 0.015; (d) 1.10. (a) 6.67 (b)
0.62, 0.047. 931.2 (c) 100.055
(d) 0.1083
1.16. Divide the first of
each of the 1.11. (a) One hundred
following pairs of three thousandths,
numbers by the (b) seven
second to four hundred fifty-two
rounded decimal and five
places: (a) 4.567, hundredths, (c)
34.46; (b) 4.006, thirty-six and
0.0063; (c) 45.02, seven hundred
0.047; (d) 70, eight thousandths,
1.609. (d) two and four
hundred nineteen
1.17. Round off the ten-thousandths.
following to the
specified number 1.12. (a) 41.9 (b) 41,900
of places: (a) (c) 4,190,000 (d)
54.109 to two 0.0419
places, (b) 8.53 to
1.13. (a) 0.0602 (b)
one place, (c)
0.00602 (c)
762.50 to an
Page 10 of 21
0.0000602 (d)
0.000000602
1.14. (a) 24.9132 (b) Chapter 2

4.6657 (c) 11.13687
(d) 22.308 Measurement
1.15. (a) 162.8336 (b) and Scientific
0.0097 (c) 0.8430
(d) 0.0291 Notation
1.16. (a) 0.1325 (b)
635.8730 (c) Measurement
957.8723 (d)
43.5053 2.1 BASIC
1.17. (a) 54.11 (b) 8.5 (c) CONCEPTS
762 (d) 0.278 (e)
4.03 To measure a physical
quantity means to compare it in
size (magnitude) with a similar
standard quantity called a unit.
For example, the measurement
4.35 in for the length of a room
indicates thai a meter was used
as a unit of length and that the
length of the room was 4.35
times larger than the length of
the meterstick.
A measurement is the ratio

of the magnitude of any physical
quantity to that of a standard.
Page 11 of 21
Mensuration is the process final positions of the instrument

of making a measurement. pointer, which may be a needle
Mensuration involves counting or the top of a mercury column.
either whole units or their
fractions. The choice of units Exactness in mensuration is
depends on convenience, a relative term; even an
tradition, or law. experimental genius using the
most delicate known instrument
Standard Unit cannot take a perfect
measurement of a continuous
A measure of a physical quantity. Thus, the record of
quantity with which other units every measurement must consist
are compared is called a of a number, an estimate of its
standard unit. All standards of uncertainty, and a unit.
measure are defined by some
legal authority or by a conference
of scientists. For example, the
2.2
universally accepted standard of EXPERIMEN
mass is the International
Prototype Kilogram. TAL ERRORS
There are many different OR
devices for taking measurements UNCERTAINT
of physical quantities: rules,
balances, stopwatches, IES
voltmeters, thermometers,
barometers, etc. Each one of the One of the axioms of
above instruments has a scale experimental science is: No
with divisions. Basically, measurement of a continuous
mensuration by means of an physical quantity is absolutely
instrument requires an exact. Even if it were possible to
estimation of the distance on the find the accurate value of a
scale between the initial and measure, there is no way to
Page 12 of 21
prove that this value is EXAMPLE 2.1. The slider of a

absolutely true or correct. Thus, laboratory balance must be
every measurement of a moved to the 0.2-g position on
continuous quantity is only an the beam to produce equilibrium
approximation to the true or when there is no load on the
absolute value of that measure. weighing pan. This means that
The inherent uncertainties in every weight measurement will
mensuration are called be 0.2 g too high. To correct for
experimental errors or this error, the adjusting screw
uncertainties. There are of two must be turned until the balance
types: systematic and random. is in equilibrium with the slider
on the 0.0 division; the
Systematic Errors alternative is to correct each
weighing for the “zero error” by
These errors have the same
subtracting 0.2 g from the
algebraic sign, thus making the
indicated weight measurement.
measurement either too large or
too small. Systematic errors are Random Errors
also called constant.
Random errors in the
Worn or corroded weights, measurement of a physical
electrical instruments with quantity result from the chance
needles off the zero mark, clocks variations in it or in the
which gain or lose time are measuring devices. Random
examples of faulty measuring errors are generally small and
devices which may be have an equal probability of
responsible for systematic being positive and negative.
uncertainties. Heat leakage, These errors are unavoidable.
friction, barometric pressure, Random errors are also called
temperature, and humidity are accidental.
some of the external conditions
that may cause systematic errors. Random errors can be
caused by changes in pressure
Page 13 of 21
and temperature, by small measurement

irregularities in the object being s might have
measured, by building been caused
vibrations, by the variations in by the
the observer’s reading of a scale, variations in
and by many other small the
fluctuations. manufacture
of the rod,
EXAMPLE 2.2. The diameter small
of a metal rod is measured with a differences in
micrometer which can be read to its wear, the
0.0001 cm. The results of three variation in
measurements are recorded in pressure
Table 2.1. when the
micrometer
Table 2.1
jaws were
closed, or the
changes in
the observer’s
estimate of
the scale
reading.
The deviations
from the The effect of random errors
average value can be minimized by taking a
are small, and large number of observations
do not appear under the same conditions and
to vary in any averaging the measurements.
systematic
fashion. The Mistakes and Personal Bias
random
Arithmetical mistakes are
errors in this
not considered to be
set of
Page 14 of 21
experimental errors. There is experimental value of a physical

need for alertness in performing quantity and the accepted value
and checking calculations so as is called an absolute error or
to avoid arithmetical mistakes. absolute uncertainty. This term
The improper use of instruments is somewhat misleading because
is a personal mistake and can it suggests that the “true” value is
lead to worthless results. The known exactly.
personal bias against certain
digits or colors can sometimes be EXAMPLE 2.3. The
discovered by checking against a acceleration of gravity g is
standard or by comparing the measured in the laboratory. The
observations of several experimental value of g is 962
experimenters. cm/sec2. The accepted value of g
is 980 cm/sec2. How large is the
2.3 ACCURACY absolute error?
Accuracy refers to the

degree of agreement between an
experimental value of a physical
quantity and its “true” or correct The minus sign means that
value. Since it is impossible to the experimental value is lower
eliminate all experimental than the accepted value.
errors, absolute accuracy can
never be attained. Usually, an Relative Error
“accurate” or “accepted” value is
The relative error or relative
the result of many
uncertainty of an experimental
measurements by a number of
value is the ratio of the absolute
experts in the field.
error to the accepted value.
Absolute Error
EXAMPLE 2.4. Using the data
The difference between an of Example 2.3, determine the
relative error.
Page 15 of 21
For example, one could

determine the surface tension of
a liquid with a precision of ±0.01
dyne/cm. Yet this experimental
value could be 2 dyne/cm lower
Since the two quantities in
than the value obtained in
the ratio have identical units, the
another trial with the same
units cancel out.
apparatus because the purity of
the liquid was not rigidly
2.4 PRECISION controlled. The presence of a
small amount of impurity
The degree of consistency or radically changes the value of
reproducibility of a surface tension.
measurement is called precision.
The more precise the A measurement has high
measurement, the less difference precision only if the random
there is between two errors are very small. Precision is
observations of the same event. indicated by the use of
significant figures, instrument
EXAMPLE 2.5. A sample is reading uncertainties, and by
weighed on a balance having 0.1 statistical treatment of data.
g as the smallest subdivision.
Even the most skilled observer Significant Figures
could not estimate the balance
reading to better than 0.1 of the
smallest subdivision, or 0.1 × 0.1
2.5
g = 0.01 g. Therefore, the DEFINITION
maximum or “upper bound”
precision of a measurement with The digits in a measurement
this balance is ±0.01 g. which a scientist reads and
estimates on a scale are called
High precision does not of significant figures. These
itself guarantee high accuracy. include all the certain digits and
Page 16 of 21
one additional doubtful digit recorded to three significant

based on the observer’s estimate figures as 10.6 cm. It is also
of a fractional part of the necessary to indicate the reading
smallest scale subdivision. uncertainty of the scale. The
recorded value is then 10.6 ±0.1
EXAMPLE 2.6. Let the length cm.
of an object be measured with a
ruler whose smallest subdivision EXAMPLE 2.7. The object of
is 1 cm (Fig. 2-1). Since the end Example 2.6 is remeasured with
of the object falls between the a ruler with 0.1 cm subdivisions.
10- and 11-cm marks, we are sure The end of the object and a
of the first two digits (1 and 0) portion of the enlarged scale are
but are doubtful of the third shown in Fig. 2-2.
digit.
Fig. 2-2. Length of an

Fig. 2-1. Length of an object to four significant figures
object to three significant figures
The certain digits are 10.6. The
A reasonable estimate of the fourth digit is doubtful, but is
object’s end position might be estimated as 4. The
0.6 of the distance between the measurement is recorded to four
10- and 11-cm marks. Therefore, significant figures as 10.64 ±0.01
the length of the object to three cm.
significant figures is 10.6 cm.
The third digit might well be any Sometimes a scale can not
number between 5 and 7, but not be read to better than one-half of
even the most experienced the smallest scale subdivision.
observer would dare to estimate Example 2.7, the measurement
that fraction to 0.01 cm. Thus, would then be recorded as 10.65
the length of the object should be ±0.05 cm, because the end of the
Page 17 of 21
object is closest to the middle of 3. Zeros which occur

the smallest subdivision. If the between two significant
end of the object were near the digits are significant since
10.7 mark the measurement they are part of the
would be recorded as 10.70 measurement. In the
±0.05 cm. measurement 30.0809 g,
the zeros are significant
2.6 READING figures because they occur
between the digits 3 and
SIGNIFICANT 9. There are thus six
significant figures in this
FIGURES measurement.
The number of significant 4. Final zeros in
figures in a measurement can be measurements containing
ascertained by the use of the decimal fractions are
following rules: significant. Thus in the
1. The first significant figure measurement 7.0 sec the
in a measurement is the final zero is significant; it
first digit other than zero, indicates that the
counting from left to right. measurement was precise
In the measurement 29.84 to one-tenth of a second
ml, the first significant and has two significant
figure is 2. figures. The measurement
2. Zeros to the left of the first 7.00 sec is more precise
nonzero digit are not and has three significant
significant. In the figures.
measurement 0.002335 5. The number of significant
figures is independent of
g/cm3, the zeros to the left
the measurement unit.
of 2 are not significant.
The measurement of the
There are four significant
object in Fig. 2-2 could be
figures in this
expressed as 10.6 cm, 106
measurement.
Page 18 of 21
mm, 0.106 m, or ml.

0.000106 km. In each
case the number of (b) Addition and
significant figures is three. Subtraction with
Significant Figures
2.7
When measured values are
OPERATIONS to be added or subtracted, they
should be rounded off to the
WITH precision of the least precise
SIGNIFICANT measurement.
FIGURES EXAMPLE 2.9. A speed of

331.46 m/sec is increased by 14.9
(a) Rounding Off m/sec. What is the resultant
Significant Figures speed?
If the first digit to the right Before combining the two

of the last significant figure is measurements, round off 331.46
less than 5, it is dropped; if the to the nearest tenth. The
first digit to the right of the last addition gives .
significant figure is more than 5, The sum of the two
then the last significant figure is measurements is 346.4 m/sec.
increased by one and retained. If
EXAMPLE 2.10. The original
the first digit to be dropped is 5
temperature of a liquid is 99.27 °
followed by zeros, then Rule 3 on
C; its final temperature is 22.5 °
page 4 is applicable.
C. What is the temperature
EXAMPLE 2.8. 42.54 ml to change?
three significant figures is 42.5
Round off 99.27 to 99.3 and
ml; 42.5 ml to two significant
perform the subtraction:
figures is 42 ml; 425.6 ml to
. The temperature
three significant figures is 426
Page 19 of 21
change is 76.8 °C. given to three significant figures

is 0.0313 cal/g because 3.78 cal
(c) Multiplication and has three and 120.7 g has four
Division with significant figures.
Significant Figures
(d) Operations with
In the multiplication or Pure Numbers and
division of measurements, the Defined Ratios
number of significant figures in
the result is no greater than the Natural Numbers are the
number of significant figures in sequence of whole numbers
the measurement with the fewest starting with 1. They are the
significant figures. numbers that we use when
counting with our fingers. A
EXAMPLE 2.11. The natural number like 6 can be
dimensions of a plate are: length written as 6 or 6.0, 6.00, 6.000,
= 13.2 cm; width = 4.8 cm. Find etc.—i.e., with an arbitrary
the area of the plate. number of zeros. Therefore
multiplication and division of
Multiply 13.2 by 4.8.
measurements by natural
Longhand multiplication gives
numbers preserve the number of
63.36. The answer should be
significant figures. For example,
rounded off to 63 cm2 because
if the measured radius of a circle
4.8 cm has only two significant
is 1.96 cm, then the diameter of
figures.
the same circle is
EXAMPLE 2.12. An object cm. The
weighing 120.7 g absorbs 3.78 number of significant figures
cal. Determine the number of remains three.
calories absorbed by 1 g.
The above discussion
Performing the division, applies also to quantities whose
. The answer is relationship is fixed by
Page 20 of 21
definition. Thus, since 1 in. =

2.5400 cm, the conversion of
2.9
centimeters to inches, or vice ADVANTAGE
versa, will result in as many
significant figures as there are in S OF
the measured quantity. A SCIENTIFIC
measured length of 4.3 cm is
4.3/2.5400 ≈1.7 in. NOTATION
Scientific Notation There are several
advantages of expressing
numbers in this notation.
2.8 1. Very large and very small
DEFINITION numbers can be written
more compactly. The
A number is said to be in arithmetical operations
scientific notation if it is with them are greatly
expressed as the product of a simplified.
number between 1 and 10 and 2. An estimate of the result of
some integral power of 10. For an involved computation
example, 1000 is written in can be obtained quickly.
scientific notation as 1 × 103 or, 3. Scientific notation is used
more simply, 103; 0.0001 is widely by scientists to
indicate the precision of
written as 10–4;
measurements. The
;
measurements in this
.
form are recorded with
Another name for this the correct number of
method is powers-of-ten significant figures.
notation.
Page 21 of 21
2.10
CONVERSIO
N TO AND
FROM
SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION

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Page 1 of 21

ordinary division, in 11.05.

EXAMPLE 1.17. Divide 0.1547 1.12

rounding off. dropped is 5 followed by zeros,

Rule 1. If the first of the digits to EXAMPLE 1.20. Round off

to be kept is 8; it is increased to 1.2. Write the following

364.23, and 0.759;

Set up the 1.4. Subtract:

1.6. Without dividing

For each power of 10 the

1.7. Multiply: (a) 4.5 by

changed (c) 0.8750 to two decimal

digit to be 1.11. Read the following:

6.013. integer, (d)

1.14. (a) 24.9132 (b) Chapter 2

A measurement is the ratio

Mensuration is the process final positions of the instrument

prove that this value is EXAMPLE 2.1. The slider of a

and temperature, by small measurement

experimental errors. There is experimental value of a physical

Accuracy refers to the

For example, one could

one additional doubtful digit recorded to three significant

Fig. 2-2. Length of an

object is closest to the middle of 3. Zeros which occur

mm, 0.106 m, or ml.

FIGURES EXAMPLE 2.9. A speed of

If the first digit to the right Before combining the two

change is 76.8 °C. given to three significant figures

definition. Thus, since 1 in. =

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