Mohiden Amina 2008 PDF

Load flow calculation and Network planning
for medium voltage networks
Master’s Thesis
Institute of Electrical Power Systems

Graz University of Technology
Supervisor: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert

Assistant: DI Beti Trajanoska
Author: Amina Mohiden
Head of Institute: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert
A - 8010 Graz, Inffeldgasse 18-I

Telefon: (+43 316) 873 – 7551
Telefax: (+43 316) 873 – 7553
http://www.ifea.tugraz.at
http://www.tugraz.at
Graz / July - 2008

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratefulness to: My dear supervisor Prof. Lothar Fickert, for his
continuous helping by providing references, encouragement guiding and useful comments,
also for his full meaning support words. I appreciate my dear husband for his full cooperation
and support during my study time. I also appreciate Dr. Sumereder Christof’s effort, who
taught me in my thesis, and guide me through his friendly supports and gave me references.
I appreciate DI Trajanoska Beti for her effort and full support in my thesis also for giving
references and her best cooperation during the work time. I appreciate all those who helped
me even by a word and become an encouragement for my thesis.
Dedicate
I would like to dedicate my thesis to:
• My dear Parents
• My dear supervisor
• My dear husband
• My dear daughter
• My friends
• All those who help me to write this thesis.

Abstract
Title: Load flow calculation and network planning for medium voltage networks
The aim of this thesis is to analyse a 10 kV distribution network in South-East Europe and to
report an investigation of load flow calculation thereof. Using the available data, the
distribution network was modeled in the network analaysing program NEPLAN®, where all
the calculations were carried out. The load flow analysis shows a progressive overload of the
10 kV network and busbar voltages problems. Because of the above congestion and the
future network expansion a new substation is proposed.
Keywords: medium voltage network, network planning, power quality, load flow calculation,
and simulation.
Kurzfassung
Titel: Lastfluss Berechnung und Netzplanung für ein Mittelspannungsnetz
Das Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit ist es, die Netzsituation eines 10-kV-Verteilnetzes in Süd-Ost
Europa zu analysieren. Anhand der zur Verfügung gestellten Daten wurde das Netz im
Netzanalyseprogramm NEPLAN® modelliert, um Lastflussberechnungen durchzuführen.
Die Lastflussanalyse ergibt eine fortschreitende Überlastung des 10-kV-Netzes, die zu

Stromüberlastungen und Spannungsproblemen führt. Auf Grund der genannten
Überlastungen wurde einen Vorschlag für den Netzausbau zusammengestellt.
Schlüsselwörter: Mittelspannungsnetz, Netzplanung, Lastflussanalyse, Lastfluss Berechnung

und Simulation.
Table of Contents
1 Symbols ............................................................................................ 6
2 List of Tables .................................................................................... 8
3 List of Figures .................................................................................. 9
4 Summary......................................................................................... 10
4.1 Objective ................................................................................................................. 10
4.2 Method .................................................................................................................... 10
4.3 Results .................................................................................................................... 10
4.4 Conclusions............................................................................................................. 10
5 Introduction .................................................................................... 11
6 Methods .......................................................................................... 13
6.1 Load Flow................................................................................................................ 13
6.1.1 Analysed Sample Network ............................................................................... 13
6.1.2 Description ....................................................................................................... 15
6.1.3 Load-Flow Explanation..................................................................................... 16
6.1.4 Single Line Diagram......................................................................................... 16
6.2 Power Quality .......................................................................................................... 19
6.3 Load Flow Calculation Method ................................................................................ 20
6.4 Power Flow Methods............................................................................................... 22
6.4.1 Newton’s Method ............................................................................................. 23
6.4.2 Gauss-Seidel Method....................................................................................... 24
6.5 Electrical Power Industry......................................................................................... 25
6.5.1 Transmission of Power..................................................................................... 25
6.5.2 Power Factor.................................................................................................... 27
6.6 Network planning..................................................................................................... 29

6.6.1 Network Planning Methodology ....................................................................... 29
6.6.2 Planning Criteria............................................................................................... 30
6.6.3 Contingency Criteria......................................................................................... 30
6.6.4 Steady State Criteria ........................................................................................ 31
6.7 Network Losses....................................................................................................... 32
6.8 Network Topology ................................................................................................... 32
6.8.1 Ring Network.................................................................................................... 33
6.9 Load Flow Calculation ............................................................................................. 33
6.9.1 Load Flow Calculation of the Sample Network ................................................ 35
6.9.2 Simple Representation of Load Flow Characteristic ........................................ 36
6.10 Solutions .............................................................................................................. 37
6.11 Example and practical Application of Load Flow Calculation .............................. 38
6.11.1 Inserting a new Substation in a Proposed Location ......................................... 39
7 Results ............................................................................................ 43
7.1 Line Parameter........................................................................................................ 43
7.2 Changing OHL Cross Section ................................................................................. 43
7.3 Overloaded elements .............................................................................................. 44
7.4 Voltage Drop at Busbars ......................................................................................... 45
7.5 Busbar Voltage after Inserting the New Substation................................................. 47
8 Discussion ...................................................................................... 49
9 Bibliography ................................................................................... 50
Load flow calculation and Network planning for medium voltage networks
1 Symbols
Un nominal voltage
Pv active power losses
ϑ transmission angle
ϑgr transmission angle of a high voltage overhead line
V1, V2 voltage at the beginning / end of the conductor
I1, I2 current at the beginning / end of the conductor
P1, P2 effective power at the beginning / end of the conductor
Q1, Q2 reactive power at the beginning / end of the conductor
S1, S2 apparent power at the beginning / end of the conductor
ZL conductor impedance
ZB load impedance
pf Power factor
SAOD System Average Outage Duration time
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
p.u. per unit
OHL Overhead line
NEPLAN® fully integrated Power System Analysis Software for Electrical

Transmission, Distribution and Industrial Networks, including Optimal
Power Flow, Transient Stability, Reliability Analysis and much more.
flicker Random or repetitive variations in the RMS voltage between 90 and

110% of nominal can produce a phenomena known as "flicker" in
lighting equipment. Flicker is the impression of unsteadiness of visual
sensation induced by a light stimulus on the human eye.
dip (in British English) or “sag" (in American English - the two terms are
equivalent) is the opposite situation: the RMS voltage is below the
nominal voltage by 10 to 90% for 0.5 cycles to 1 minute.
Undervoltage occurs when the nominal voltage drops below 90% for more than 1
minute. The term "brownout" is an apt description for voltage drops
somewhere between full power (bright lights) and a blackout (no power
Mohiden Amina Seite 6

- no light). It comes from the noticeable to significant dimming of

regular incandescent lights, during system faults or overloading etc.,
when insufficient power is available to achieve full brightness in
(usually) domestic lighting. This term is in common usage has no
formal definition but is commonly used to describe a reduction in
system voltage by the utility or system operator to decrease demand or
to increase system operating margins.
Overvoltage occurs when the nominal voltage rises above 110% for more than 1
minute.

2 List of Tables
Table 6-1 Classification of busbar voltage and overloaded element [14] .............................. 16
Table 6-2 Classification of load flow busses [16]................................................................... 21
Table 6-3 Load flow parameter [7]......................................................................................... 37
Table 6-4 Voltage level [7] ..................................................................................................... 37
Table 6-5 Evaluation criteria of load flow investigations [7] ................................................... 37
Table 7-1 Table of parameter for 21 lines.............................................................................. 43
Table 7-2 Table of the OHL solved by changing to 50 al pex conductor ............................... 43
Table 7-3 Table of overloaded elements ............................................................................... 44
Table 7-4 Table of voltage drop at busbars ........................................................................... 46
Table 7-5 Table of bus bar voltage after inserting the new substation .................................. 48
Table 10-1 Table of Substation Transformer Parameters .Fehler! Textmarke nicht definiert.

3 List of Figures
Figure 5-1; One-line diagram of a power system [1].............................................................. 12
Figure 6-1; Complete network of the capital city.................................................................... 14
Figure 6-2; Single line diagram of the existing network for the Capital city ........................... 15
Figure 6-3; Single line diagram of 11 kV switchgear ............................................................. 18
Figure 6-4; Typical electricity power system in an Asian country [17] ................................... 19
Figure 6-5; Typical scheme of load flow characteristic .......................................................... 22
Figure 6-6; The concept of lagging power factor [3] .............................................................. 28
Figure 6-7; The concept of leading power factor [3] .............................................................. 28
Figure 6-8; Diagram of different network topologies [10]....................................................... 32
Figure 6-9; Diagram of ring type network topologies [10] ...................................................... 33
Figure 6-10; Single line diagram of existing and planed 110 kV and 35 kV for the capital city
............................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 6-11; Existing 10 kV network ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 6-12; Load flow calculation of the existing 10 kV network .......................................... 36
Figure 6-13; Load flow along a line [7]................................................................................... 36
Figure 6-14; The network after changing the conductor type ................................................ 39
Figure 6-15; Existing 110-35 kV network............................................................................... 41
Figure 6-16; Inserting a new transformer............................................................................... 42

4 Summary
4.1 Objective
The objectives of this thesis are
• to analyse 10 kV (medium-voltage-network) distribution network
• to build network plans with data for the network elements
• Load flow calculation
• Identification of the voltage quality
• Identification of the busbar
• to propose a solution for both conductors and busbars
4.2 Method
Based on the available data (a winter record of maximum load), the network was modeled in
a network analyzing program NEPLAN® 5.3.4 to conduct load flow calculations and to review
(n-1) secure operation thereof. This is necessary in order to ensure the final secure future
supply to the customers. Particular focus will be the utilization of operational equipment and
voltages quality, as these variables represent the state of the network.
4.3 Results
After the calculation of load flow for the existing network, it is noticed that:
• Some voltage problems in busbars exist
• Some lines become overloaded
4.4 Conclusions
As the load flow calculation in the distribution system shows, the voltage at the load end
tends to get lower due to the lack of reactive power. In the case of long transmission lines,
their active power available at the end of the line during peak load conditions is small and
hence according to the system connection and future need of the network, solution should be
made by changing conductor type or by inserting a new substation.

5 Introduction
Power systems typically operate under slowly changing conditions, which can be analyzed
using steady-state analysis. Power flow analysis provides the starting point for most other
analyses. For example, disturbances resulting in instability under heavily loaded system
conditions may not have any adverse effects under lightly loaded conditions.
Power flow analysis is fundamental to the study of power systems; in fact, power flow forms
the core of power system analysis. A power flow study is valuable for many reasons. For
example, power flow analyses play a key role in the planning of additions or expansions to
transmission and generation facilities. A power flow solution is often the starting point for
many other types of power system analyses. In addition, power flow analysis and many of its
extensions are an essentially ingredient of the studies performed in power system
operations. It is at the heart of contingency analysis and the implementation of real-time
monitoring systems. The power flow problem (popularly known as the load flow problem) can
be stated as follows:
For a given power network, with known complex power loads and some set of specifications
or restrictions on power generations and voltages, solve for the unknown bus voltages and
unspecified generation and finally for the complex power flow in the network components.
Additionally, the losses in individual components and the total network as a whole are usually
calculated. Furthermore, the system is often checked for component overloads and voltages
outside allowable tolerances. Three-phase balanced operation is assumed for the most
power flow studies. Consequently, the positive sequence network is used for the analysis. In
the solution of the power flow problem, the network element values are almost always taken
to be in per-unit. Like wise, the calculations within the power flow analysis are typically in per-
unit. However, the solution is usually expressed in a mixed format. Solution voltages are
usually expressed in per-unit; powers are most often given in kVA or MVA. The ‘‘given
network’’ may be in the form of a system map and accompanying data tables for the network
components. More often, however, the network structure is given in the form of an one-line
diagram such as shown in Figure (5-1). Regardless of the form of the given network and how
the network data is given, the steps to be followed in a power flow study can be summarized
as follows:

1. Determine the element values for passive network components.
2. Determine the locations and values of all complex power loads.
3. Determine the generation specifications and constraints.
4. Develop a mathematical model describing power flow in the network.
5. Check for constraint violations. [1]
6. Computation of the voltages at all system buses
7. Determination of the real and reactive power flows in the transmission lines of
a system [8]
The figure below shows the single line diagram of a power system.
Figure 5-1; One-line diagram of a power system [1]

6 Methods
6.1 Load Flow
A load-flow study is carried out to determine the steady-state bus voltages, active and
reactive power flows, transformer tap settings, component or circuit loading, generator
exciter regulator voltage set points, system performance under contingency or emergency
operations, and system losses. Load flow can also be used to determine the voltage profile
at the time of starting a large motor. Two algorithms, Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson,
are used to solve the load-flow equations. Both are options in commercially available
programs. The Gauss-Seidel method gives a simple and stable solution and works well up to
100 buses. The solution iterates one bus at a time, corrects that bus voltage to the specified
value, and continues until an error is detected. The solution may not converge for the fol-
lowing reasons:
• Error in the input data
• System is too weak to carry the load
• Insufficient VAR in the system to support the voltage
In the Newton-Raphson method, the n quadratic equations are first linearized by forming a
Jacobian matrix. The present value of the bus voltage is then calculated, and then n linear
equations are solved in steps. The number of iterations is small, between five and ten. [4]
6.1.1 Analysed Sample Network
The System Model used is a capital in South-East Europe with more than 600,000
inhabitants. The supplied energy for the model consists of 2x (400/110) kV Substations with
(2 x 300) MVA Transformers and 1x 220/110 kV Substation with (3x150) MVA Transformers.
The medium voltage network in question consists of the following elements:
10 x Substations 110/x kV, (x= 35 kV or 10 kV)
17 x Substations 35/10 kV
9 x 110 kV, (OHL type with total length=37, 5 km)
33 x 35 kV, (OHL type with total length=144 km and Cable with total length=31 km)

The complete network representation of the capital city is shown in Figure (6-1).
Figure 6-1; Complete network of the capital city

The single line diagram of the existing network for the capital city is shown in Figure (6-2).
Figure 6-2; Single line diagram of the existing network for the Capital city
6.1.2 Description
The load flow calculations are carried out in order to keep the system running in a stable and
safe state and are used to determine possible or optimal choice of the grid’s components
(transformers’ voltage regulators, automatic control settings of the machine regulators). The
determining inputs are usually the voltages and/or currents and/or the active/reactive power
at the consumer’s port or at the generator’s port.
Lines - overhead lines and cables – are important elements. In order to carry out grid
calculations in a simple way, it is common practice to use as few circuit elements as is
possible for the given task. In the case of low voltage lines in most cases an ohmic
resistance will do and even for high voltage lines in most cases the longitudinal impedance is
taken into consideration. For long lines one must also take the capacitive components into
account [7]

To classify the equipment overload and busbar voltages the following limit values together
with network operator are defined:
Network equipment description Degree of loading

- %
rated load < 80
heavy load ≥ 80, < 100
over load ≥ 100
Voltage level description The Voltage is more than % of Nominal Voltage

- %
busbar voltage is ok ≥ 94, ≤ 106
busbar voltage is to low < 94
Table 6-1 Classification of busbar voltage and overloaded element [14]
According to the Europe Standard EN 50160 for medium-voltage-supply the supply voltage
variations are characterized as:
Under normal operating conditions excluding voltage interruptions, during each period of one
week, 95 % of the 10 min mean r.m.s. values of the supply voltage shall be within the range
of Uc ± 10 %.[15]
6.1.3 Load-Flow Explanation
System and equipment data are common for load-flow and short-circuit studies, with the
exception of the tolerance given in the standards. Apply positive tolerance for load flow and
negative tolerance for short circuit. Suggested guide lines to help avoid errors are:
• Enter the data with care, especially with units. This is the most common cause of
error.
• Start with a small system, for example a 10-bus network, and expand the system as
the solution is found.
• Do not use very small impedances for ties and feeders.
• Add a dummy capacitor or a synchronous condenser for voltage support if the

solution does not converge. [4]
6.1.4 Single Line Diagram
A one-line diagram is a simplified notation for representing a three-phase power system. The
one-line diagram has its largest application in power flow studies. Electrical elements such as
circuit breakers, transformers, capacitors, busbars and conductors are shown by
standardized schematic symbols. Instead of representing each of three phases with a
separate line or terminal, only one conductor is represented see figure (6.3). The theory of
three-phase power systems tells us that as long as the loads on each of the three phases are

balanced and the lines, transformers and busbars are symmetrical, we can consider each
phase separately. In power engineering, this assumption is usually true (although an
important exception is the asymmetric fault), and to consider all three phases requires more
effort with very little potential advantage. A one-line diagram is usually used along with other
notational simplifications, such as the per-unit system. A secondary advantage to using a
one-line diagram is that the simpler diagram leaves more space for non-electrical, such as
economic, information to be included. A presentation of a single line diagram of an 11-kV
Switchgear as an example in Asian country (Iraq) is shown bellow in Figure (6-3), and a
typical electricity power system in the same country is shown in Figure (6-4).

Figure 6-3; Single line diagram of 11 kV switchgear

Figure 6-4; Typical electricity power system in an Asian country [17]
6.2 Power Quality
Classification of Power system disturbances:
To make the study of Power Quality problems useful, the various types of disturbances need
to be classified by magnitude and duration. This is especially important for manufacturers
and users of equipment that may be at risk. The principal standards in this field are IEC
61000, EN 50160, and IEEE 1159. Standards are essential for manufacturers and users
alike, to define what is reasonable in terms of disturbances that might occur and what
equipment should withstand. [9]
The following definition has been worked out by the IEC - TC77A / WG09 "Power Quality
Measurement Methods" in the course of the standard 61000-4-30 task force:
Power Quality: The characteristics of the electricity at a given point on an electrical system,
evaluated against a set of reference technical parameters. The following parameters are
relevant for the power quality corresponding the European standard EN 50160:
• Voltage level, slow voltage deviation
• Voltage dips (short, long)

• Voltage drop
• Rapid voltage deviation, flicker
• Unbalance
• Voltage distortion (harmonics, signal, voltage)
• Transient and mains frequency overvoltage
• Frequency [12]
6.3 Load Flow Calculation Method
The goal of a power flow study is to obtain the complete voltage angle and magnitude
information for each bus in a power system for specified load and generator real power and
voltage conditions. Once this information is known, real and reactive power flow on each
branch as well as generator reactive power output can be analytically determined. Due to the
nonlinear nature of this problem, numerical methods are employed to obtain a solution that is
within an acceptable tolerance.
The solution to the power flow problem begins with identifying the known and unknown
variables in the system. The known and unknown variables are dependent on the type of
bus.
• A bus without any generators connected to it is called a Load Bus.
• With one exception, a bus with at least one generator connected to it is called a
Generator Bus.
• The exception is one arbitrarily-selected bus that has a generator. This bus is
referred to as the Slack Bus. [6]
• Slack Bus at which:
P =∞
Q =∞
V =constant

Type Known variables unknown variables

1. SL, Slack V,theta Pg,Qg
2. PV, Voltage controlled bus Pg,V Qg, theta
3. PQ, Load bus Pg, Qg, Pd, Qd V, theta
Table 6-2 Classification of load flow busses [16]
V =voltage magnitude
Theta =voltage angle
Pg, Qg =MW, MVar generation
Pd, Qd =MW, MVar demand [16]
Either the bus self and mutual admittances which compose the bus admittances matrix Y bus
may be used in solving the load flow problem. We shall confine our study to methods using
admittances. Operating conditions must always be selected for each study. [18]
In the power flow problem, it is assumed that the absorbed real power Pd and reactive power
QD at each Load Bus are known. For this reason, Load Buses are also known as PQ Buses.
For Generator Buses, it is assumed that the real power generated Pg and the voltage
magnitude V are known. For the Slack Bus, it is assumed that the voltage magnitude V and
voltage angle are known. Therefore, for each Load Bus, both of the voltage magnitude and
angle are unknown and must be solved for; for each Generator Bus, the voltage angle and Q
must be solved. In a system with N buses and R generators, there are then 2(N − 1) − (R −
1) unknowns. In order to solve the 2(N − 1) − (R − 1) unknowns, there must be 2(N − 1) − (R
− 1) equations that do not introduce any new unknown variables. The possible equations to
use are power balance equations, which can be written for real and reactive power for each
bus, for the bus k is given. The real power balance equation is:
N
0 = −Pi + ∑ Vi Vk ( Gik cos θik + Bik sin θik )
k =1
Pi = net power injected at bus i

th th
Gik = real part of the element in the Ybus corresponding to the i row and k column,
Bik = imaginary part of the element in the Ybus corresponding to the ith row and kth column
θik = difference in voltage angle between the ith and kth buses.
Qi = net reactive power injected at bus i.
N = total number of buses
Vi = voltage at bus i
Vk = voltage at bus k
k = varying index
V = voltage magnitude

Gik
i k
Bik
Vi Vk
Si=Pi+jQi Sk=Pk+jQk
θik
Figure 6-5; Typical scheme of load flow characteristic
where Pi is the network power injected at bus i, Gik is the real part of the element in the Ybus
corresponding to the ith row and kth column, Bik is the imaginary part of the element in the Ybus
corresponding to the ith row and kth column and θik is the difference in voltage angle between
the ith and kth buses. The reactive power balance equation is:
N
0 = −Qi + ∑ Vi Vk ( Gik sin θik + Bik cos θik )
K =1
where Qi is the netork reactive power injected at bus i. Equations included are the real and
reactive power balance equations for each Load Bus and the real power balance equation for
each Generator Bus. Only the real power balance equation is written for a Generator Bus
because the network reactive power injected is not assumed to be known and therefore
including the reactive power balance equation would result in an additional unknown
variable. For similar reasons, there are no equations written for the Slack Bus. [6]
6.4 Power Flow Methods
The method of load flow calculation with NEPLAN® 5.3.4 program is used. Load flow can be
calculated with
• Extended Newton-Raphson
• Power iteration method
• Newton-Raphson
• DC flows

6.4.1 Newton’s Method
In numerical analysis, Newton's method (also known as the Newton–Raphson method or the
Newton–Fourier method) is perhaps the best known method for finding successively better
approximations to the zeros (or roots) of a real-valued function.
Unlike Gauss-Seidel, (GS) which updates the bus voltage one at a time, Newton Raphson,
(NR) solves a voltage correction for all the buses and updates them. Comparing NR with GS,
GS has problems when the system becomes large. One reason is the presence of negative
impedances as a result of 3-winding transformer representation. GS tends to increase in
iteration count and is slow in computer time. [16]
Most production-type power-flow programs use the power equation form with polar
coordinates, for any bus k we have:
i k I∗k .................. (1)

i k = P + jQ = V
S k k
P − jQ
Since Ik = k ∗ k
i
V k
Ik = Yk ⋅ Vk
Vk ∗−1 (Pk − jQk ) = Y k ⋅Vk
∑ i km Vi m ............................ (2)
Ik = Y
m =1
Substitution of Ik given by Equation (2) in Equation (1) yields
n
∗
Pk + jQk = V ∑ km km i m
i k ( G − jB ) V
m =1
n = unknown
ki = bus
V = Voltage vector
P = Power
Q = reactive power
θ = phase angel
Vik =is the phasor voltage to ground at node i
Ik = is the phasor current flowing into the network at node i
i ∗m may be expressed as
i k and V
The product of phasors V
i ∗m = V e
( )(V ) = V V e ( k m)
jθ
ik V
V
k e− jθm
j θ −θ
k m k m
= Vk Vm ( cos θkm + jsin θkm ) ( θkm = θk − θm )

Therefore, the expressions for Pk and Qk may be written in real form as follows:
n
Pk = Vk ∑ ( Gkm Vm cos θkm + Bkm Vm sin θkm )
m =1
n
Qk = Vk ∑ ( Gkm Vm sin θkm − Bkm Vm cos θkm )
m =1
Thus, P and Q at each bus are functions of voltage magnitude V and angle θ of all buses.
[20]
The process continues until a stopping condition is met. A common stopping condition is to
terminate if the norm of the mismatch equations are below a specified tolerance.
A rough outline of solution of the power flow problem is:
• Make an initial guess of all unknown voltage magnitudes and angles. It is common to
use a "flat start" in which all voltage angles are set to zero and all voltage
magnitudes are set to 1.0 p.u.
• Solve the power balance equations using the most recent voltage angle and
magnitude values.
• linearize the system around the most recent voltage angle and magnitude values
• solve for the change in voltage angle and magnitude
• update the voltage magnitude and angles
• Check the stopping conditions, if met then terminate. [6]
6.4.2 Gauss-Seidel Method
The Gauss-Seidel method is a technique used to solve a linear system of equations. The
method is named after the German mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss and Philipp Ludwig
von Seidel. The method is an improved version of the Jacobi method. It is defined on
matrices with non-zero diagonals, but convergence is only guaranteed if the matrix is either
diagonally dominant or symmetric and positive definite. A method Gauss-Seidel can solve
the unknown voltage. [6]
P − jQk i
Form equations Ik = k = V k Ik for the kth bus we can write
j∗
V k
Pk − jQk n
i ∗
= Ykk V ∑
ik + Y V i
ki i ............. (1)
Vk i=1
i≠ k
i k may be expressed as
from which the voltage V

i k = Pk − jQk − 1
n
V
i ∗k Y Ykk
∑Y ki
i i .......... (2)
V
V kk
i=1
i≠ k
I = Current vector
Yii = admittance matrix
U = Voltage vector
P = Power
Q = reactive power
θ = phase angel
n = total number of nodes
Vik =is the phasor voltage to ground at node i
Ik = is the phasor current flowing into the network at node i
Equation (1) is the heart of the iterative algorithm. The iterations begin with an informed
guess of the magnitude and angle of the voltages at all load buses, and of the voltage angle
at all generator buses. For load bus, P and Q are known, and Equation (2) is used to
i k by using the best available voltages for all the buses. [20]
compute the voltage V
6.5 Electrical Power Industry
The electrical power industry provides the production and delivery of electrical power
(electrical energy), often known as power, or electricity, in sufficient quantities to areas that
need electricity through a grid. Many households and businesses need access to electricity,
especially in developed nations, the demand being scarcer in developing nations. Demand
for electricity is derived from the requirement for electricity in order to operate domestic
appliances, office equipment, industrial machinery and provide sufficient energy for both
domestic and commercial lighting, heating, cooking and industrial processes. Because of this
aspect of the industry, it is viewed as a public utility as infrastructure.
The electrical power industry is commonly split up into four processes. These are electricity
generation such as a power station, electric power transmission, electricity distribution and
electricity retailing.
6.5.1 Transmission of Power
Power is the rate of flow of energy past at a given point. In alternating current circuits,
voltage and current only remain in phase if the load is purely resistive. When this happens
the power is said to be 'real power'. If instead the load is purely reactive (either capacitive or
inductive), all of the power is reflected back to the generator as the phase cycles. The load is
said to draw zero real power, instead it draws only 'reactive power'. If a load is both resistive
and reactive, it will have both real and reactive power, resulting in total amount of power
called the 'apparent power'.

The portion of power flow averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform that results in
net transfer of energy in one direction is known as real power. The portion of power flow due
to stored energy which returns to the source in each cycle is known as reactive power. [19]
Effect of Voltage on Transmission Efficiency:
Let us suppose that a power of (W) Watt is to be delivered by a 3- phase transmission line at
a line voltage of V and power factor cos φ.
W
The line current I=
3V ∗cosϕ
I W
Then A = =
σ 3 ⋅ V ⋅ σ ⋅ cos ϕ
l=length of the line conductor

σ=current density in ampere/m²
A=cross-section of conductor
ρl 3σρlV cos ϕ
Now R = =
A W
ρ= specific resistance of conductor material
Line loss = 3 x loss per conductor = 3I2R
W2 3σρlV cos ϕ 3σρlW

=3 × = ……………………………….. ... (1)
3V cos ϕ
2 2
W V cos ϕ
3σρlW ⎛ 3σρl ⎞
Line intake or input = output + losses = W + = W ⎜1+ ⎟
V cos ϕ ⎜ V cos ϕ ⎠⎟
⎝
output W ⎛ 3σρl ⎞
Efficiency of transmission = = = ⎜1− ⎟ approx……..... (2)
input ⎛ 3σρl ⎞ ⎝⎜ V cos ϕ ⎠⎟
W ⎜⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ V cos ϕ ⎟⎠
3σlV cos ϕ W
Voltage drop per line = IR = × = σρl ………………………......... (3)
W 3V cos ϕ
3Wl 3Wl
Total Volume of copper = 3lA = = …………………………….....…. (4)
3 ⋅ σ cos ϕ σV cos ϕ
* In [13] the voltage is given as E, instead that the voltage is represented with V.

• From equation (1), line losses are inversely proportional to V. It is also inversely
proportional to the power factor, cos φ.
• Transmission efficiency increases with the voltage of transmission and power factor
as seen from equation (2).
• As seen from equation (3), for a given current density, the resistance drop per line is
constant (since ρ and l have been assumed fixed in the present case). Hence,
percentage drop is decreased as (V) is increased.
• The volume of copper required for a transmission line is inversely proportional to the
voltage and the power factor as seen from equation (4)
It is clear from the above that for long distance transmission of an AC. Power, high voltage
and high power factor are essential. Economical upper limit of voltage is reached when the
saving in cost of copper or aluminum is offset by the increased cost of insulation and
increased cost of transformers and high-voltage switches. Usually, 650 volt per route km is
taken as a rough guide for 110 kV (high voltage). [13]
6.5.2 Power Factor
The power factor has an effect on the efficiency of an AC power system. The power factor is
the real power per unit of apparent power. A power factor of one is perfect, and 99% is good.
Where the waveforms are purely sinusoidal, the power factor is the cosine of the phase
angle (φ) between the current and voltage sinusoid waveforms. Equipment data sheets and
nameplates often will abbreviate power factor as "cosφ" for this reason.
The power factor equals 1 when the voltage and current are in phase, and is zero when the
current leads or lags the voltage by 90 degrees. Power factors are usually stated as "leading"
or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle, where leading indicates a negative sign. For
two systems transmitting the same amount of real power, the system with the lower power
factor will have higher circulating currents due to energy that returns to the source from
energy storage in the load. These higher currents in a practical system will produce higher
losses and reduce overall transmission efficiency. A lower power factor circuit will have a
higher apparent power and higher losses for the same amount of real power transfer.
A lagging power factor is one in which the current is lagging behind the voltage and is
characteristic of an inductive load. A leading power factor is one in which the current is
leading the voltage and is characteristic of a capacitive load.
The Lagging Power Factor: Consider an inductive load as shown in Figure (6-6). In this
circuit, both watts and VARs are delivered from the source. The corresponding phasor

diagram is shown in figure (6-6). The power factor angle in this case is negative, and
therefore the power factor is lagging.
Figure 6-6; The concept of lagging power factor [3]
The Leading Power Factor: Consider a capacitive load as shown in Figure (6-7). In this
circuit, the watts are delivered from the source. The reactive power (VARs) is delivered from
the load to the source. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in figure (6-7). The
power factor angle in this case is positive, and therefore the power factor is leading.
Figure 6-7; The concept of leading power factor [3]
Purely capacitive circuits cause reactive power with the current waveform leading the voltage
wave by 90 degrees, while purely inductive circuits cause reactive power with the current
waveform lagging the voltage waveform by 90 degrees. The result of this is that capacitive
and inductive circuit elements tend to cancel each other out. [1]
Power Factor Improvement: Many utilities prefer a power factor of the order of 0.95. Since
industrial equipment such as an induction motor operates at a much lower power factor, the
overall power factor of the industrial load is low. In order to improve the power factor,
synchronous condensers or capacitors are used. The synchronous machines, when
operated at leading power factor, absorb reactive power and are called synchronous
condensers. These machines need operator attendance and require periodical maintenance.

Power factor capacitors are static equipment without any rotating parts and require less
maintenance. Therefore, shunt capacitors are widely used in power factor correction
applications. The shunt capacitors provide kVAR at leading power factor and hence the
overall power factor is improved. [3]
6.6 Network planning
Power system planning is the recurring process of studying and determining which facilities
and procedures should be provided to satisfy and promote appropriate future demands for
electricity. The electric power system as planned should meet or balance social goals. These
include availability of electricity to all potential users at the lowest possible cost, minimum
environmental damage, high levels of safety and reliability, etc. Plans should be technically
and financially feasible. Plans also should achieve the objectives of the entity doing the
planning, including minimizing risk. [1]
6.6.1 Network Planning Methodology
A traditional network planning methodology involves four layers of planning, namely:
• Business planning
• Long-term and medium-term network planning
• Short-term network planning
• Operations and maintenance
Each of these layers incorporate plans for different time horizons, i.e. the business planning
layer determines the planning that the operator must perform to ensure that the network will
perform as required for its intended life-span. The Operations and Maintenance layer,
however, examines how the network will run on a day-to-day basis. The network planning
process begins with the acquisition of external information. This includes:
Forecasts of how the new network/service will operate; the economic information concerning
costs; and the technical details of the network’s capabilities. Because of the complexity of
network dimensioning, this is typically done using specialized software tools. Whereas
researches typically develop custom software to study a particular problem, network
operators typically make use of commercial network planning software (e.g.NEPLAN®).
It should be borne in mind that planning a new network/service involves implementing the
new system across the first four layers of the open system interconnection basic reference
model (OSI). This means that even before the network planning process begins, choices
must be made, involving protocols and transmission technologies. Once the initial decisions
have been made, the network planning process involves three main steps:

• Topological design: This stage involves determining where to place the components
and how to connect them the (topological) optimization methods that can be used in
this stage come from an area of mathematics called Graph Theory. These methods
involve determining the costs of transmission and the cost of switching, and thereby
determining the optimum connection matrix and location of switches and
concentrators.
• Network-synthesis: This stage involves determining the size of the components

used, subject to performance criteria such as the grade of service (GoS). The method
used is known as "Nonlinear Optimization", and involves determining the topology,
required GoS, cost of transmission, etc., and using this information to calculate a
routing plan, and the size of the components
• Network realization: This stage involves determining how to meet capacity

requirements, and ensure reliability within the network. The method used is known as
"Multicommodity Flow Optimization", and involves determining all information relating
to demand, costs and reliability, and then using this information to calculate an actual
physical circuit plan
These steps are interrelated and are therefore performed iteratively, and in parallel with
one another. [11]
6.6.2 Planning Criteria
Planning criteria is a practical approach to select a predetermined number of the best

network system, expansion, alternatives according to the given multiple criteria and
accounting for uncertainty factors and proposed decision. In general case the number of
optimization criteria is unlimited. They are used as a planning and design tool to protect the
interests of all network users in terms of reliability and quality of supply.
6.6.3 Contingency Criteria
Contingency criteria relate to the ability of the network to be reconfigured after a fault so that
the unfaulted portions of the network are restored.
• Urban High Voltage Distribution Feeders: High voltage distribution feeders in urban
areas shall be planned and designed so that, for a zone substation feeder circuit or
exit cable fault, the load of that feeder can be transferred to adjacent feeders by
manual network reconfiguration. Where practical, the network shall be planned and
designed so that, in the event of a failure of a zone substation transformer, all of the
load of that transformer can be transferred to other transformers within the same
zone substation and adjacent zone substations.

• Rural High Voltage Distribution Feeders: The radial nature of rural distribution
feeders normally precludes the application of contingency criteria to these feeders.
However, where reasonably achievable, interconnection between feeders shall be
provided, and reclosers and sectionalizes shall be installed to minimize the extent of
outages.
• Low Voltage Distribution Networks: Where practical, low voltage distribution networks
in urban areas are constructed as open rings to provide an alternative supply to as
many customers as possible.
6.6.4 Steady State Criteria
The steady state criteria define the adequacy of the network to supply the energy
requirements of users within the component ratings and frequency and voltage limits, taking
in to account planned and unplanned outages. The steady state criteria apply to the normal
continuous behavior of a network and also cover post disturbance behavior once the network
has settled. In planning a network it is necessary to assess the reactive power requirements
under light and heavy load to ensure that the reactive demand placed on the generators, be
it to absorb or generate reactive power, and does not exceed the capability of the generators.
Network frequency will fall if there is insufficient total generation to meet demand. Although
the reduction in frequency will cause a reduction in power demand, it is unlikely that this will
be sufficient and loads shall be disconnected until the frequency rises to an acceptable level.
In the following sub-sections, the various components of the steady state planning criteria
are defined.
• Real and Reactive Generating Limits: Limits to the VAr generation and absorption
capability of generators shall not be exceeded. Generators shall be capable of
supplying the VArs for the associated load and also those necessary to maintain the
voltage at the connection point at the level that existed prior to the connection of the
generator.
• Steady State Voltage Limits:
High Voltage
The network shall be designed to achieve a continuous network voltage at a user's

connection not exceeding the design limit of 110% of nominal voltage and not falling
below 90% of nominal voltage during normal and maintenance conditions.
• Frequency Limits: Under emergency conditions the network frequency may vary
between 47 - 52 Hz, until the underfrequency load shedding schemes operate to
reduce the load on the network.

• Thermal Rating Limits: The thermal ratings of network components shall not be
exceeded under normal or emergency operating conditions when calculated on the
following basis:
1. Transformers: Manufacturer's name plate rating.
2. Switchgear: Manufacturer's name plate rating.
3. Overhead Lines: Rating calculated in accordance with standard and rating
temperature in winter and summer and conductor design clearance temperature.
4. Cables: Normal cyclic rating, with maximum operating temperatures. [2]
6.7 Network Losses
To start planning any network, it is important to know if the network losses related to
population density and electricity use, or do they rather depend on network design. If so, is
there a large scope for improvement by changing network topology and the specification of
network components such as cables and transformers.
6.8 Network Topology
Network topology is the study of the arrangement or mapping of the elements of a network,
especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual) interconnections between nodes. (See
Figure 6-8)
Figure 6-8; Diagram of different network topologies [10]

6.8.1 Ring Network
Ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes,
forming a circular pathway for signals. (See Figure 6-9)
Figure 6-9; Diagram of ring type network topologies [10]
6.9 Load Flow Calculation
The ability of secure and sufficient electrical energy for consumers in a perfect condition,
beside power production needs to have, enough transmission and distribution capacity of the
network. With these considerations, while keeping in mind that electrical energy needs
increase with time, an expansion of the network in stages is necessary, so that neither
bottleneck in the supply, like by congestion of transmission connection or overload of
transformers, nor uneconomical investments are made. For this reason, load flow studies in
electrical network are necessary.
To classify the equipment overload and busbar voltages the following limit values together
with network operator are defined:
Substation 400/110 kV V operate = 115 kV
Substation 110/35 kV V operate = 36, 75 kV
Substation 110/20 kV V operate = 21 kV
Substation 35/10 kV V operate = 10, 5 kV
The existing single line diagram of the capital city of the sampled network is shown in Figure
(6-10)

Figure 6-10; Single line diagram of existing and planed 110 kV and 35 kV for the capital city

6.9.1 Load Flow Calculation of the Sample Network
This Master’s thesis work is only part of a complete 10 kV network. It reports an investigation
on the load flow calculation. The drawing and analysis of the network was done with the
Extended Newton-Raphson method of NEPLAN® program. The model network was a
realistic model where different problems occurred during the load flow calculation. Further
more the load flow calculation of a 10 kV network revealed several line overloads and bus-
bar voltages problem and a solution for the problems is proposed.
10 kV busbar
Figure 6-11; Existing 10 kV network
After the calculation of load flow during the existing network, it’s noticed that:
• Some voltage problems in bus bars exist
• Some lines become overloaded
See Figure (6-12). The over loaded element parameters are detailed in table (7-3) and the
busbar voltage problem are shown in table (7-4).

Figure 6-12; Load flow calculation of the existing 10 kV network

Red line = overloaded
6.9.2 Simple Representation of Load Flow Characteristic
One of the most important basics for the network planning and network operation
Figure 6-13; Load flow along a line [7]
Under the assumption of a certain load flow along a line the voltages, currents, losses, are
determined. Constringency’s existing in practical grid operations play an important role. The
method and insights can also be extended to transformers, multiple lines and radial grids.
Load flow calculation (in medium and high voltage grids) is based on the single line
representation, i.e. the representation in the positive sequence system components for
sources, lines and loads.

Known values
Task Comment
Node 1 Node 2
1 - U2, P2, Q2, (S2) Linear tasks
2 U1 U2
3 U1 I2
4 U1 ZB
5 U1 P2, Q2 Not linear tasks
Table 6-3 Load flow parameter [7]
Voltage level
Guidelines for deviation of Un low voltage (0,4 kV) +/- 3... 5%
medium voltage (10 .. 60 kV) +/- 6... 8%
lt. EN50160 high voltage ( .. 110 kV) +/- 10.. 12%
Table 6-4 Voltage level [7]
Current load: because of economic reason is valid: I ≤ 2kA < thermal current limit.
Transmission losses: high voltage overhead lines: active power loss < 3%
Transmission angle: Guidelines for the transmission angle limit of a high voltage overhead
line is: ϑgr = 24°
Voltage regulator on transformer: setting range must be kept
Evaluation criteria of load flow investigations

At no point of the transmission system the maximum allowed operating
U voltages must not be exceeded. Neither must the voltage level be below
the allowed minimum values.
The thermal rating of the conductor (ropes, bus bars, and other operating
I
apparatus) must not be exceeded by the load currents.
The active power losses and the reactive power losses should be made as
Pv
small as possible.
The limit values of the line transmission angle must not be exceeded. The
ϑ limits of transmission depend upon the distance of the power transport.
(Lines below 500 km are regarded as not critical)
Table 6-5 Evaluation criteria of load flow investigations [7]
6.10 Solutions
Load flow problems could be solved by one of the followings:
• Adding Slack:
There are four quantities of interest associated with each bus:
1. Real power, P
2. Reactive power, Q
3. Voltage magnitude, U
4. Voltage angle, θ
At every bus of the system two of these four quantities will be specified and the remaining
two will be unknowns. Each of the system buses may be classified in accordance with which
of the two quantities is specified. The following classifications are typical:

Slack bus: The slack bus for the system is a single bus for which the voltage magnitude and
angle are specified. The real and reactive powers are unknowns. The bus selected as the
slack bus must have a ‘‘slack’’ in the solution. [1]
• Adding transformer & changing the level of the voltage:
The load studies are essential in planning the future development of the system because
satisfactory operating of the system depends on knowing the effects of interconnections with
other power systems of new loads, new generating stations, and new transmission lines
before they are installed. The overload of the busbars and the high drop of voltage at the end
of the lines in the sampled network can only be solving by adding a transformer to support
the voltage drop and overload in the area. Reactive power tends to flow from higher voltages
to lower voltages. In rewiew, if we wish to elevate the voltage level of a particular bus we
should inject reactive power ito the bus from appropriate sources. As by load flow calculation
the computation of the voltages at all system buses is possible and according to the situation
of the network and the ability of supply, solutions of voltages can be found at every busbar by
changing the conductor type with another cross section. In the case of sample network as
described in the next Section 6.11 this will solve the over load line problems. [21]
6.11 Example and practical Application of Load Flow Calculation
After the load flow calculation of the sample network as described in Section 6.9.1, the
voltage at the load end tends to get lower due to the lack of reactive power. In the case of
long transmission lines, their active power available at the end of the line during peak load
conditions is small and hence according to the system connection and future need of the
network, solution should be made by changing conductor type or by inserting a new
substation. In the case of overloaded lines as mentioned in the line Nr. 10 (See figure 6-14) it
is assumed to change the conductor type with another cross section. The length of the
conductor assumed to be changed is 6.859 km. A part of the OHL as shown in table (7-2)
was solved by changing it with Aluminum conductor (50 al pex) and it is about 1.46 km. The
rest can just be solved by changing with a (95 al pex) and this is about 5.399 km. Because of
the small length 1.46 km and the future extension, it will be better to change all OHL with the
same type of (95 al pex). See Figure (6-14).

Line Nr.10
Figure 6-14; The network after changing the conductor type
6.11.1 Inserting a new Substation in a Proposed Location
Since the change of conductor cross section has not solved the whole problem as described
in Section 6.11, but solved only the overloaded lines problem. The busbar problems are still
remaining; the mentioned busbars are with red color as shown in figure (6-14). In the case of
long transmission lines, the voltages at the load end are still low. Their active power available
at the end of the line during peak load conditions is small and hence according to the system
connection and future need of the network, the next solution must be done. To solve the
busbars voltage problem it is urgently needed to install a new transformer substation with
1x40 MVA Transformer of (110/10) kV in proposed location. See Figure (6-15) and (6-16).
The new proposed transformer substation location is marked with blue color. The busbar
voltages of the network after the insertion of the proposed 1x40 MVA transformer are shown
in table (7-2).

This location is proposed because of the following reasons:
• One of the important factors in the design of the solution is the determination of the
substation location. Special consideration needs to be given to the location to achieve
the optimal compromise between the 110 kV line entries to the site and the load
centers.
• The city population in this region will increase.
• Substation design considerations present and future location of the load centers.
• Availability of access for the incoming transmission or subtransmission lines and the
distribution and communication systems circuits within the main substation.
• Alternative uses of the considered area.
• Location of existing transmission and distribution lines.
• Facilities for the transport of heavy equipment to the site.
• Environmental impacts of the site related to its appearance, noise, or electrical

interference or its impact on other facilities.
• Conditions of the ground, its facility of drainage, and its load bearing capability.
• Cost of excavations and earthwork.
• Necessary space for present use and future extensions.
• Governmental or municipal restrictions at the site.
• Security requirements, including any heightened risk of vandalism, theft, or sabotage
• Total cost, including the provision of distribution circuits to the plant and the required
control and communication facilities.
• Economical purpose. [4]
The proposed new substation location is shown in Figure (6-15).

Proposed location of the

1x40 MVA Transformer
Figure 6-15; Existing 110-35 kV network

110 kV busbar
40 MVA 110/10 kV
Proposed Transformer
10 kV busbar
Figure 6-16; Inserting a new transformer

7 Results
7.1 Line Parameter
In the following table are shown the parameters of the 10 kV lines of the sample network.
The parameters are for a maximum load in winter, after the calculation of load flow. The lines
of the network are numbered from 1-21 from left to Wright as shown in the figure (6-14). The
table shows the value of the current and the percentage load in each line. By comparing the
data in table of the sample system network with respect to the system network as shown in
figure (6-11), it is easy to notice the relation between the length of the line and the measured
current. It is also easy to distinguish which lines are heavily loaded.
Line No. I (A) Load (%)

1 134,672 42,09
2 79,906 31,34
3 218,794 63,35
4 219,093 68,47
5 248,163 77,55
6 159,082 49,71
7 149,54 46,73
8 69,103 21,59
9 228,495 71,4
10 227,674 71,15
11 69,428 21,7
12 128,844 40,26
13 183,216 57,26
14 243,928 70,23
15 247,341 77,29
16 132,243 41,33
17 243,255 76,02
18 0,759 0,24
19 140,823 44,01
20 89,127 21,22
21 0 0
Table 7-1 Table of parameter for 21 lines
7.2 Changing OHL Cross Section
Table of the OHL conductor changed with the 50 al pex conductor.
Name Length (km) Existing type Change to

L-0889 0,32 AlC 3x25/10 50 al pex
L-1429 0,31 AlC 3x35/10 50 al pex
L-1630 0,25 AlC 3x25/10 50 al pex
L-1634 0,48 AlC 3x25/10 50 al pex
L-1650 0,1 AlC 3x25/10 50 al pex
Total length 1,46 km
Table 7-2 Table of the OHL solved by changing to 50 al pex conductor

7.3 Overloaded elements
Branches Length Ir max. Overload

Name Type I (A)
No. (Km) (A) (%)
3 L-0889 AlC3x25/10 0,32 125 129,519 104
5 L-1043 AlC3x35/10 0,02 145 199,495 137,58
5 L-1047 AlC3x35/10 0,05 145 179,496 123,79
5 L-1065 AlC3x35/10 0,02 145 179,497 123,79
5 L-1073 AlC3x35/10 0,05 145 179,585 123,85
9 L-1358 IPO1370/10 0,25 200 228,712 114,36
9 L-1347 IPO1370/10 0,29 200 228,712 114,36
9 L-1351 AlC3x50/10 0,099 170 228,77 134,57
9 L-1362 AlC3x50/10 0,24 170 198,774 116,93
10 L-1378 AlC3x50/10 0,1 170 198,823 116,95
10 L-1398 AlC3x25/10 0,15 125 198,869 159,1
10 L-1406 AlC3x25/10 0,02 125 198,869 159,1
10 L-1413 AlC3x25/10 0,6 125 198,869 159,1
10 L-1425 AlC3x35/10 0,025 145 198,996 137,24
10 L-1429 AlC3x35/10 0,31 145 169,002 116,55
10 L-1469 AlC3x50/10 0,3 170 228,232 132,25
10 L-1465 AlC3x50/10 0,64 170 228,406 134,36
10 L-1480 AlC3x35/10 0,3 145 228,409 157,52
10 L-1496 AlC3x35/10 0,09 145 228,411 157,52
10 L-1504 AlC3x35/10 0,045 145 228,525 157,6
10 L-1508 AlC3x35/10 0,09 145 226,526 156,23
10 L-1516 AlC3x35/10 0,25 145 218,532 150,71
10 L-1536 AlC3x35/10 0,14 145 208,543 143,82
10 L-1540 AlC3x25/10 0,22 125 203,546 162,84
10 L-1548 AlC3x25/10 0,03 125 198,55 158,84
10 L-1558 AlC3x25/10 0,1 125 198,55 158,84
10 L-1562 AlC3x25/10 0,54 125 193,553 154,84
10 L-1574 AlC3x25/10 0,07 125 188,575 150,86
10 L-1596 AlC3x25/10 0,1 125 178,581 142,86
10 L-1630 AlC3x25/10 0,25 125 168,676 134,94
10 L-1634 AlC3x25/10 0,48 125 153,695 122,96
10 L-1650 AlC3x25/10 0,1 125 137,572 110,06
10 L-1642 AlC3x25/10 0,13 125 142,57 114,06
14 L-2312 IPO1370/10 0,22 200 224,491 112,25
14 L-2328 IPO1370/10 0,22 200 224,579 112,29
Table 7-3 Table of overloaded elements

7.4 Voltage Drop at Busbars
Branches No. Name Voltage Voltage drop (%)

10 B-1561 U=9,365 kV u=93,65%
10 B-1573 U=9,337 kV u=93,37%
10 B-1569 U=9,365 kV u=93,65%
10 B-1577 U=9,365 kV u=93,65%
10 B-1581 U=9,364 kV u=93,64%
10 B-1595 U=9,298 kV u=92,98%
10 B-1629 U=9,205 kV u=92,05%
10 B-1603 U=9,296 kV u=92,96%
10 B-1633 U=9,044 kV u=90,44%
10 B-1641 U=9,004 kV u=90,04%
10 B-1649 U=8,974 kV u=89,74%
10 B-1659 U=8,973 kV u=89,73%
10 B-1671 U=8,972 kV u=89,72%
10 B-1683 U=8,972 kV u=89,72%
10 B-1675 U=8,970 kV u=89,70%
10 B-1687 U=8,965 kV u=89,65%
10 B-1697 U=8,965 kV u=89,65%
10 B-1705 U=8,965 kV u=89,65%
10 B-1691 U=8,969 kV u=89,69%
10 B-1711 U=8,969 kV u=89,69%
10 B-1663 U=8,892 kV u=88,92%
10 B-1717 U=8,889 kV u=88,89%
10 B-1655 U=9,004 kV u=90,04%
10 B-1743 U=9,004 kV u=90,04%
10 B-1637 U=9,204 kV u=92,04%
10 B-1787 U=9,196 kV u=91,96%
10 B-1791 U=9,196 kV u=91,96%
10 B-1645 U=9,036 kV u=90,36%
10 B-1751 U=9,036 kV u=90,36%
10 B-1755 U=9,036 kV u=90,36%
10 B-1721 U=8,787 kV u=87,87%
10 B-1725 U=8,764 kV u=87,64%
10 B-1733 U=8,760 kV u=87,60%
10 B-1737 U=8,763 kV u=87,63%
10 B-1870 U=8,760 kV u=87,60%
10 B-1874 U=8,729 kV u=87,29%
10 B-1878 U=8,717 kV u=87,17%
10 B-1884 U=8,712 kV u=87,12%
10 B-1892 U=8,709 kV u=87,09%
10 B-1896 U=8,707 kV u=87,07%
10 B-1900 U=8,707 kV u=87,07%
10 B-1908 U=8,707 kV u=87,07%
10 B-1904 U=8,706 kV u=87,06%
10 B-1914 U=8,698 kV u=86,98%
10 B-1922 U=8,698 kV u=86,98%
10 B-1926 U=8,698 kV u=86,98%
10 B-1932 U=8,687 kV u=86,87%
10 B-1946 U=8,661 kV u=86,61%
10 B-1950 U=8,660 kV u=86,60%
10 B-1954 U=8,659 kV u=86,59%
10 B-1960 U=8,655 kV u=86,55%

10 B-1970 U=8,571 kV u=85,71%

10 B-1978 U=8,548 kV u=85,48%
10 B-1986 U=8,523 kV u=85,23%
10 B-1982 U=8,548 kV u=85,48%
10 B-1998 U=8,547 kV u=85,47%
10 B-2004 U=8,522 kV u=85,22%
10 B-2008 U=8,495 kV u=84,95%
10 B-2018 U=8,487 kV u=84,87%
10 B-2014 U=8,494 kV u=84,94%
10 B-2026 U=8,476 kV u=84,76%
10 B-2053 U=8,476 kV u=84,76%
10 B-2065 U=8,476 kV u=84,76%
10 B-2022 U=8,406 kV u=84,06%
10 B-1701 U=8,401 kV u=84,01%
10 B-2039 U=8,339 kV u=83,39%
10 B-2071 U=8,337 kV u=83,37%
10 B-2089 U=8,337 kV u=83,37%
10 B-2085 U=8,337 kV u=83,37%
10 B-2077 U=8,335 kV u=83,35%
10 B-2081 U=8,334 kV u=83,34%
10 B-2105 U=8,332 kV u=83,32%
10 B-2109 U=8,331 kV u=83,31%
10 B-2113 U=8,330 kV u=83,30%
10 B-2117 U=8,328 kV u=83,28%
10 B-1609 U=9,333 kV u=93,33%
10 B-1599 U=9,333 kV u=93,33%
10 B-1964 U=8,655 kV u=86,55%
10 B-1942 U=8,673 kV u=86,73%
10 B-1769 U=9,030 kV u=90,30%
10 B-1781 U=9,030 kV u=90,30%
10 B-1792 U=9,196 kV u=91,96%
10 B-1793 U=9,195 kV u=91,95%
10 B-1747 U=9,036 kV u=90,36%
10 B-1936 U=8,687 kV u=86,87%
Table 7-4 Table of voltage drop at busbars

7.5 Busbar Voltage after Inserting the New Substation
Branches No. Name Voltage Voltage drop (%)

10 B-1561 U=9,940 kV u=99,40%
10 B-1573 U=9,927 kV u=99,27%
10 B-1569 U=9,940 kV u=99,40 %
10 B-1577 U=9,940 kV u=99,40 %
10 B-1581 U=9,939 kV u=99,39 %
10 B-1595 U=9,910 kV u=99,10%
10 B-1629 U=9,872 kV u=98,72%
10 B-1603 U=9,908 kV u=99,08 %
10 B-1633 U=9,817 kV u=98,17 %
10 B-1641 U=9,005 kV u=90,05%
10 B-1649 U=9,796 kV u=97,96 %
10 B-1659 U=9,795 kV u=97,95 %
10 B-1671 U=9,795 kV u=97,95 %
10 B-1683 U=9,795 kV u=97,95 %
10 B-1675 U=9,793 kV u=97,93 %
10 B-1687 U=9,788 kV u=97,88 %
10 B-1697 U=9,788 kV u=97,88 %
10 B-1705 U=9,788 kV u=97,88 %
10 B-1691 U=9,792 kV u=97,92 %
10 B-1711 U=9,791 kV u=97,91 %
10 B-1663 U=9,784 kV u=97,84 %
10 B-1717 U=9,784 kV u=97,84 %
10 B-1655 U=9,8 05 kV u=98,05%
10 B-1743 U=9,8 05 kV u=98,05%
10 B-1637 U=9,8 71 kV u=98,71 %
10 B-1787 U=9,8 63 kV u=98,63 %
10 B-1791 U=9,8 63 kV u=98,63 %
10 B-1645 U=9,8 09 kV u=98,09 %
10 B-1751 U=9,8 08 kV u=98,08 %
10 B-1755 U=9,8 08 kV u=98,08 %
10 B-1721 U=9,768 kV u=97,68 %
10 B-1725 U=9,765 kV u=97,65 %
10 B-1733 U=9,765 kV u=97,65 %
10 B-1737 U=9,764 kV u=97,64 %
10 B-1870 U=9,765 kV u=97,65 %
10 B-1874 U=9,762 kV u=97,62 %
10 B-1878 U=9,762 kV u=97,62 %
10 B-1884 U=9,762 kV u=97,62 %
10 B-1892 U=9,762 kV u=97,62 %
10 B-1896 U=9,762 kV u=97,62 %
10 B-1900 U=9,762 kV u=97,62 %
10 B-1908 U=9,761 kV u=97,61 %
10 B-1904 U=9,762 kV u=97,62 %
10 B-1914 U=10,528 kV u=105,28 %
10 B-1922 U=10,528 kV u=105,28 %
10 B-1926 U=10,528 kV u=105,28 %
10 B-1932 U=10,518 kV u=105,18 %
10 B-1946 U=10,491 kV u=104,91 %
10 B-1950 U=10,490 kV u=104,90 %
10 B-1954 U=10,489 kV u=104,89 %
10 B-1960 U=10,485 kV u=104,85 %

10 B-1970 U=10,401 kV u=104,01 %

10 B-1978 U=10,379 kV u=103,79 %
10 B-1986 U=10,365 kV u=103,65 %
10 B-1982 U=10,378 kV u=103,78 %
10 B-1998 U=10,378 kV u=103,78 %
10 B-2004 U=10,353 kV u=103,53 %
10 B-2008 U=10,362 kV u=103,62 %
10 B-2018 U=10,318 kV u=103,18 %
10 B-2014 U=10,325 kV u=103,25 %
10 B-2026 U=10,307 kV u=103,07 %
10 B-2053 U=10,307 kV u=103,07 %
10 B-2065 U=10,306 kV u=103,06 %
10 B-2022 U=10,237 kV u=102,37 %
10 B-1701 U=10,232 kV u=102,32 %
10 B-2039 U=10,171 kV u=101,71 %
10 B-2071 U=10,169 kV u=101,69 %
10 B-2089 U=10,169 kV u=101,69 %
10 B-2085 U=10,169 kV u=101,69 %
10 B-2077 U=10,167 kV u=101,67 %
10 B-2081 U=10,166 kV u=101,66 %
10 B-2105 U=10,164 kV u=101,64 %
10 B-2109 U=10,162 kV u=101,62 %
10 B-2113 U=10,162 kV u=101,62 %
10 B-2117 U=10,160 kV u=101,60 %
10 B-1609 U=9,923 kV u=99,23%
10 B-1599 U=9,923 kV u=99,23%
10 B-1964 U=10,485 kV u=104,85 %
10 B-1942 U=10,503 kV u=105,03 %
10 B-1769 U=9,803 kV u=98,03 %
10 B-1781 U=9,803 kV u=98,03 %
10 B-1792 U=9,863 kV u=98,63 %
10 B-1793 U=9,862 kV u=98,62 %
10 B-1747 U=9,804 kV u=98,04 %
10 B-1936 U=10,517 kV u=105,17 %
Table 7-5 Table of bus bar voltage after inserting the new substation

8 Discussion
A load flow calculation study is necessary to verify that the electrical system has the
adequate capacity to supply the connected load. In addition, this study will provide
information regarding the real and reactive power flow, bus voltages (voltage drop), and
power factor in each feeder of the electrical system.
The load flow calculation was carried out based on the current data of the network. In the
calculation the future development of the network was included, according to previous
studies the, load flow forecast for the year 2015 as well as the year 2020 the project reveals
a progressive congestion in the medium voltage network, massive overloaded lines and in
some areas some voltages problems. It shows that the yearly consumption increase of the
sample network in the city is about 4, 1%. It is possible with the same program to evaluate all
the calculations used by changing the scaling factors. [14]
The network sample analysis contains a small part of cables and hence it doesn’t give a lot
of details of cable data’s in this thesis.
After the insertion of the new Transformer substation the voltage problem at the bus bars are
solved, but higher voltage values to the near end of substation busbars appear which can be
solved by changing the tap levels of the transformer.
Conductor size also influences cable impedance and hence the voltage drops along a feeder
due to the load current being taken. It is therefore necessary to check that the drop of voltage
along the cable route does not exceed the design criteria for the network or the operating
voltage range of the equipment being fed. This review needs to take into account both the
continuous and noncontinuous loads and any emergency overload that the cable will be
required to carry. Voltage drop is a secondary factor and usually only occurs in very large
installations with long cable runs. Manufacturers’ data sheets also often include voltage drop
tables that can be used for a quick parametric check. [4]

9 Bibliography
[1] Leonard Lee Grigsby: „Electric Power Engineering Handbook“, CRC Press Taylor &
Francis Group LLC, Boca Rotan, 2007, ISBN-10 0-8493-9288-8
[2] Name2: „Network Planning Criteria Revision“ Revision 2.0, Titel der Zeitschrift,
Band/Ausgabe, April 2003, Seite
[3] Ramasamy Natarajan: „Power System Capacitors “, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group
LLC, Boca Rotan, 2005, ISBN-10: 1-57444-710-6
[4] Shoaib Khan: „ Industrial power systems “, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group LLC, Boca
Rotan, 2008, ISBN-13: 978-0-8247-2443-6
[5] D.F, Warne: „ Newnes Electrical Power Engineer's Handbook “, Elsevier, Oxford, 2005
ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-6268-0
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_flow_study
[7] Dr.Lothar Fickert: „Electrical Energy System 2“, Networks, Load Flow, TU Graz, Austria
Graz Sept.2005
[8] Olle I. Elgerd: „ Basic electric power engineering“, Addison-Wesley, California, 1977,
ISBN: 0-201-01717-2
[9] ALSTOM: „ Network Protection & Automation Guide“, 92300 Levallois-Perret, France,
2002, ISBN: 2-9518589-0-6
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology
[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_planning_and_design
[12] www.ifea.tugraz.at/ power quality/parameter of power quality
[13] B.L.THERAJA: „ Electrical Technology “, Nirja construction & Development CO. (P) LTD,
London, 1985
[14] Lothar Fickert, Beti Trajanoska: „ Das ESM Netz im Jahr 2015, Wissenschaftlich-
technische Netzstudie betr.Lastfluss-und Kurzschluss-Analyse für die Netzausbau
planung der 110-, 35-und 20-kV-Netze“, Institut für Elektrische Anlagen, Graz, 2007
[15] Europe Standard: Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution
Systems, EN 50160 for Medium-voltage-supply, September 2005

[16] http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/4223/pflow/bch07.html
[17] www.Iraq.com/electrical power /republic of Iraq/ministry of industry/kurdistan regional
governorate.com
[18] William D. Stevenson, JR.: „ ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM ANALYSES“, McGraw-
HILL, Oxford, 1975, ISBN: 0-07-061285-4
[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ac_power
[20] Neal J. Balu, Mark G. Lauby: „ Power System Stability and Control“, McGraw-
HILL, 1993, ISBN: 0-07-035958-X


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Load flow calculation and Network planning

for medium voltage networks

Institute of Electrical Power Systems

Supervisor: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert

Author: Amina Mohiden

Head of Institute: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert

A - 8010 Graz, Inffeldgasse 18-I

Graz / July - 2008

I would like to dedicate my thesis to:

• All those who help me to write this thesis.

Titel: Lastfluss Berechnung und Netzplanung für ein Mittelspannungsnetz

Die Lastflussanalyse ergibt eine fortschreitende Überlastung des 10-kV-Netzes, die zu

Schlüsselwörter: Mittelspannungsnetz, Netzplanung, Lastflussanalyse, Lastfluss Berechnung

2 List of Tables .................................................................................... 8

3 List of Figures .................................................................................. 9

4.2 Method .................................................................................................................... 10

4.3 Results .................................................................................................................... 10

6.1.1 Analysed Sample Network ............................................................................... 13

6.1.2 Description ....................................................................................................... 15

6.1.3 Load-Flow Explanation..................................................................................... 16

6.1.4 Single Line Diagram......................................................................................... 16

6.2 Power Quality .......................................................................................................... 19

6.3 Load Flow Calculation Method ................................................................................ 20

6.4 Power Flow Methods............................................................................................... 22

6.4.1 Newton’s Method ............................................................................................. 23

6.4.2 Gauss-Seidel Method....................................................................................... 24

6.5 Electrical Power Industry......................................................................................... 25

6.5.1 Transmission of Power..................................................................................... 25

6.5.2 Power Factor.................................................................................................... 27

6.6 Network planning..................................................................................................... 29

6.6.2 Planning Criteria............................................................................................... 30

6.6.3 Contingency Criteria......................................................................................... 30

6.6.4 Steady State Criteria ........................................................................................ 31

6.7 Network Losses....................................................................................................... 32

6.8 Network Topology ................................................................................................... 32

6.8.1 Ring Network.................................................................................................... 33

6.9 Load Flow Calculation ............................................................................................. 33

6.9.1 Load Flow Calculation of the Sample Network ................................................ 35

6.9.2 Simple Representation of Load Flow Characteristic ........................................ 36

6.10 Solutions .............................................................................................................. 37

6.11 Example and practical Application of Load Flow Calculation .............................. 38

6.11.1 Inserting a new Substation in a Proposed Location ......................................... 39

7.2 Changing OHL Cross Section ................................................................................. 43

7.3 Overloaded elements .............................................................................................. 44

7.4 Voltage Drop at Busbars ......................................................................................... 45

7.5 Busbar Voltage after Inserting the New Substation................................................. 47

Pv active power losses

ϑgr transmission angle of a high voltage overhead line

V1, V2 voltage at the beginning / end of the conductor

I1, I2 current at the beginning / end of the conductor

P1, P2 effective power at the beginning / end of the conductor

Q1, Q2 reactive power at the beginning / end of the conductor

S1, S2 apparent power at the beginning / end of the conductor

SAOD System Average Outage Duration time

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

p.u. per unit

OHL Overhead line

NEPLAN® fully integrated Power System Analysis Software for Electrical

flicker Random or repetitive variations in the RMS voltage between 90 and