Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning

seen how the Manager’s request to Bill (“We need

"to share"[1]) is the act of conveying
intended meanings from one entity or group to to buy more printer toner cartridges”) can go awry.

another through the use of mutually Now let’s look at how the same Message can travel
understood signs and semiotic rules. successfully from Sender to Receiver.

Oral communication is the process of verbally Manager (speaking on the phone): “Good morning,
transmitting information and ideas from one
Bill!”
individual or group to another. Oral
communication can be either formal or informal.
(By using the employee’s name, the manager is
Examples of informal oral communication include:
establishing a clear, personal link to the Receiver.)
 Face-to-face conversations
Manager: “Your division’s numbers are looking
 Telephone conversations
 Discussions that take place at business great.”
meetings
(The Manager’s recognition of Bill’s role in a winning
More formal types of oral communication include:
team further personalizes and emotionalizes the

 Presentations at business meetings conversation.)

 Classroom lectures
Manager: “Our next step is to order more printer
 Commencement speeches given at a
graduation ceremony toner cartridges. Could you place an order for 1,000
printer toner cartridges with Jones Computer
12.3 Different Types of Communication
Supplies? Our budget for this purchase is $30,000,
Communication can be categorized into three basic
and the cartridges need to be here by Wednesday
types: (1) verbal communication, in which you
afternoon.”
listen to a person to understand their meaning; (2)
(The Manager breaks down the task into several steps.
written communication, in which you read their
Each step consists of a specific task, time frame,
meaning; and (3) nonverbal communication, in
quantity, or goal.)
which you observe a person and infer meaning.
Bill: “Sure thing! I’ll call Jones Computer Supplies
Each has its own advantages, disadvantages, and
and order 1,000 more printer toner cartridges, not
even pitfalls.
exceeding a total of $30,000, to be here by
Verbal Communication
Wednesday afternoon.”
Verbal communications in business take place over
(Bill, who is good at active listening, repeats what he has
the phone or in person. The medium of the
heard. This is the Feedback portion of the
Message is oral. Let’s return to our printer cartridge
communication, and verbal communication has the
example. This time, the Message is being conveyed
advantage of offering opportunities for immediate
from the Sender (the Manager) to the Receiver (an
feedback. Feedback helps Bill to recognize any confusion
employee named Bill) by telephone. We’ve already
he may have had hearing the manager’s Message. addition, be aware of your communication style
Feedback also helps the manager to tell whether she has and practice flexibility; it is under stressful
communicated the Message correctly.) situations that communication styles can become
Storytelling the most rigid.
Storytelling has been shown to be an effective form Written Communication
of verbal communication; it serves an important In contrast to verbal communications, written
organizational function by helping to construct business communications are printed messages.
common meanings for individuals within the Examples of written communications include
organization. Stories can help clarify key values memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training
and help demonstrate how things are done within manuals, and operating policies. They may be
an organization, and story frequency, strength, and printed on paper, handwritten, or appear on the
tone are related to higher organizational screen. Normally, a verbal communication takes
commitment. [1] The quality of the stories place in real time. Written communication, by
entrepreneurs tell is related to their ability to secure contrast, can be constructed over a longer period of
capital for their firms. [2] Stories can serve to time. Written communication is often
reinforce and perpetuate an organization’s culture, asynchronous (occurring at different times). That is,
part of the organizing P-O-L-C function. the Sender can write a Message that the Receiver
Crucial Conversations can read at any time, unlike a conversation that is
While the process may be the same, high-stakes carried on in real time. A written communication
communications require more planning, reflection, can also be read by many people (such as all
and skill than normal day-to-day interactions at employees in a department or all customers). It’s a
work. Examples of high-stakes communication “one-to-many” communication, as opposed to a
events include asking for a raise or presenting a one-to-one verbal conversation. There are
business plan to a venture capitalist. In addition to exceptions, of course: a voicemail is an oral
these events, there are also many times in our Message that is asynchronous. Conference calls and
professional lives when we have crucial speeches are oral one-to-many communications,
conversations—discussions where not only the and e-mails may have only one recipient or many.
stakes are high but also where opinions vary and Most jobs involve some degree of writing.
emotions run strong. [3] One of the most consistent According to the National Commission on Writing,
recommendations from communications experts is 67% of salaried employees in large American
to work toward using “and” instead of “but” as companies and professional state employees have
you communicate under these circumstances. In some writing responsibility. Half of responding
companies reported that they take writing into which candidates would be the most successful
consideration when hiring professional employees, socially on the job. [6] For this reason, it is important
and 91% always take writing into account when to consider how we appear in business as well as
hiring (for any position, not just professional-level what we say. The muscles of our faces convey our
ones). [4] emotions. We can send a silent message without
Luckily, it is possible to learn to write clearly. Here saying a word. A change in facial expression can
are some tips on writing well. Thomas Jefferson change our emotional state. Before an interview, for
summed up the rules of writing well with this idea example, if we focus on feeling confident, our face
“Don’t use two words when one will do.” One of will convey that confidence to an interviewer.
the oldest myths in business is that writing more Adopting a smile (even if we’re feeling stressed)
will make us sound more important; in fact, the can reduce the body’s stress levels.
opposite is true. Leaders who can communicate To be effective communicators, we need to align
simply and clearly project a stronger image than our body language, appearance, and tone with the
those who write a lot but say nothing. words we’re trying to convey. Research shows that
when individuals are lying, they are more likely to
Nonverbal Communication
blink more frequently, shift their weight, and
What you say is a vital part of any communication.
shrug. [7]
But what you don’t say can be even more important.
Another element of nonverbal communication is
Research also shows that 55% of in-person
tone. A different tone can change the perceived
communication comes from nonverbal cues like
meaning of a message. Table 12.2 "Don’t Use That
facial expressions, body stance, and tone of voice.
Tone with Me!" demonstrates how clearly this can
According to one study, only 7% of a Receiver’s
be true, whether in verbal or written
comprehension of a Message is based on the
communication. If we simply read these words
Sender’s actual words; 38% is based on
without the added emphasis, we would be left to
paralanguage (the tone, pace, and volume of
wonder, but the emphasis shows us how the tone
speech), and 55% is based on nonverbal cues (body
conveys a great deal of information. Now you can
language). [5]
see how changing one’s tone of voice or writing can
Research shows that nonverbal cues can also affect
incite or defuse a misunderstanding.
whether you get a job offer. Judges examining
Table 12.2 Don’t Use That Tone with Me!
videotapes of actual applicants were able to assess
the social skills of job candidates with the sound Placement of the
emphasis What it means
turned off. They watched the rate of gesturing, time
spent talking, and formality of dress to determine I did not tell John you Someone else told John
 Placement of the hands. His words say, “Thank you for considering
emphasis What it means
Bank of the West Coast. We appreciate this
were late. you were late.
opportunity and would love to explore ways that
I did not tell John you This did not happen.
we can work together to help your business grow,”
were late.
but he mumbles, and his voice conveys no
I did not tell John you I may have implied it.
were late. enthusiasm or warmth.

I did not tell John you But maybe I told Sharon Which bank would you choose?
were late. and José.

I did not tell I was talking about The speaker’s body language must match his or her
John you were late. someone else. words. If a Sender’s words and body language
I did not tell John I told him you still are late. don’t match—if a Sender smiles while telling a sad
you were late.
tale, for example—the mismatch between verbal
I did not tell John you I told him you were
and nonverbal cues can cause a Receiver to actively
were late. attending another meeting.
dislike the Sender.
Changing your tone can dramatically change your
Here are a few examples of nonverbal cues that can
meaning.
support or detract from a Sender’s Message.
Source: Based on ideas in Kiely, M. (1993, October).
Body Language
When “no” means “yes.” Marketing, 7–9.
A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity,
For an example of the importance of nonverbal
directness, and warmth convey sincerity. And
communication, imagine that you’re a customer
sincerity is key to effective communication. A firm
interested in opening a new bank account. At one
handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great
bank, the bank officer is dressed neatly. She looks
way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake
you in the eye when she speaks. Her tone is
conveys a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing one’s
friendly. Her words are easy to understand, yet she
lip conveys uncertainty. A direct smile conveys
sounds professional. “Thank you for considering
confidence.
Bank of the East Coast. We appreciate this
Eye Contact
opportunity and would love to explore ways that
In business, the style and duration of eye contact
we can work together to help your business grow,”
considered appropriate vary greatly across
she says with a friendly smile.
cultures. In the United States, looking someone in
At the second bank, the bank officer’s tie is stained.
the eye (for about a second) is considered a sign of
He looks over your head and down at his desk as
trustworthiness.
he speaks. He shifts in his seat and fidgets with his
Facial Expressions according to business etiquette writer Nazir Daud,
The human face can produce thousands of different “it is considered impolite for a woman to shake a
expressions. These expressions have been decoded man’s hand.” [9] Americans, as we have noted, place
by experts as corresponding to hundreds of great value in a firm handshake. But handshaking
different emotional states. [8] Our faces convey basic as a competitive sport (“the bone-crusher”) can
information to the outside world. Happiness is come off as needlessly aggressive, at home and
associated with an upturned mouth and slightly abroad.
closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide- Space
eyed stare. Flitting (“shifty”) eyes and pursed lips Anthropologist Edward T. Hall coined the
convey a lack of trustworthiness. The effect of facial term proxemics to denote the different kinds of
expressions in conversation is instantaneous. Our distance that occur between people. These
brains may register them as “a feeling” about distances vary between cultures. The figure below
someone’s character. outlines the basic proxemics of everyday life and
Posture their meaning: [10]
The position of our body relative to a chair or
another person is another powerful silent Elements of communication

messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, 1.Sender: Sender is an individual, group, or

professionalism—or lack thereof. Head up, back organization who initiates the communication. This
source is initially responsible for the success of the
straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character. message. A process by which the sender formulates
In interview situations, experts advise mirroring an an idea to communicate is selected first. The first
step the sender is faced with involves the encoding
interviewer’s tendency to lean in and settle back in process. In order to convey meaning, the sender
her seat. The subtle repetition of the other person’s must begin encoding, which means translating
information into a message in the form of symbols
posture conveys that we are listening and signs that represent ideas or concepts, which is
responding. then communicated. This process can be influenced
by external factors, or it can come about internally
Touch by thinking about a particular subject. For Ex:
Ex. A politician giving a speech.
The meaning of a simple touch differs between
individuals, genders, and cultures. In Mexico, A parent lecturing a child.
when doing business, men may find themselves
Customer of a restaurant writing a complaint letter
being grasped on the arm by another man. To pull
to the management of the restaurant.
away is seen as rude. In Indonesia, to touch anyone
on the head or touch anything with one’s foot is 2. Message: A message can be an idea, concept,
emotion, feeling that a person wants to share with
considered highly offensive. In the Far East, another person. A message can be verbal or non-
verbal form of communication. It is based on the 5. Decoding: Decoding is the process where the
source or idea, but the message is crafted to meet message is interpreted by the receiver . The receiver
the needs of the receiver. The purpose to send a begins to interpret the message through words,
message is to evoke meaning to the other person. A signs, symbols sent by the sender translating the
message can be intentional or non- message to its set of experiences in order to make
intentional. Messages can be encoded into a variety the message meaningful. Successful
of formats oral, written or visual. communication takes place when the receiver
Eg: Speech is a channel, signs, gestures,symbols correctly interprets the sender’s message.
are different ways in which a message can be Eg: A student searches the definition of
transmitted. a word unknown to her in the
dictionary, interprets the meaning and gains
3. Channel: It’s the medium through which information.
communication is transmitted from one person to
the reliever. Most channels are either oral or 6. Feedback: Feedback is an integral part of
written. Common channels include the telephone communication process that allows the speaker to
and a variety of written forms such as memos, monitor the process and to evaluate the success of
letters, and reports. The effectiveness of the various the message communicated. This step conveys to
channels fluctuates depending on the the sender that the message is understood by the
characteristics of the communication. In case receiver. After receiving a message, the receiver
of immediate feedback Oral Communication is responds through a channel and signals that
convenient. In a situation where the message must response to the sender. For Ex: The signal may take
be delivered to more than a small group of people, the form of a spoken comment, a written message,
written channels are often more effective. Although a smile, rolling of eyes, a sigh or some other action.
in many cases, both oral and written channels No response is also a form of feedback. Without
should be used because one supplements the feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the
other. For Eg: A president delivering a Speech may receiver has interpreted the message
speak face to face with an audience, via the correctly. For Eg: Employee surveys, company
broadcast media or via print. news letters, e-mails.
For Ex : An audience receives the politician’s 7. Noise- There are certain barriers present in the
speech. communication process. These factors may have an
impact on the communication process. Noise is one
The child who is the recipient of the parents lecture of the most common barriers, that influence the
feedback in this process. Noise essentially is
anything that distorts a message by interfering with
4. Receiver: Receiver is the individual or
the communication process. Noise can take many
individuals to whom the message is directed to.
forms it can be external or internal factors. Noise as
The extent to which a receiver comprehends the
a barrier may originate from the source or the
message will depend on a number of factors, which
receiver, from the channel used in sending the
include the following: knowledge of the individual
message, or outside the source and receiver’s
regarding the message, their receptivity to the
control.
message. All interpretations by the receiver are
Eg: Internal factor– Involves mental forces within a
influenced by their experiences, attitudes,
receiver or sender that might affect his or her
knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture.
ability to either encode or decode a message
Ex. An audience receives the politician’s speech.
correctly. Eg: Daydreaming, fatigue, exhaustion.
Eg: External factors: Anything around the person
Student receiving a lecture from the teacher in a that disturbs the communication process. Eg:
classroom. Sights, sounds, smell.
 Models of communication refers to the conceptual how effectively does the received meaning affect
model used to explain the behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the
human communication process. The first major transmission model by stating: It assumes
model for communication came in 1949 by Claude communicators are isolated individuals. No
Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell allowance for differing purposes. No allowance
Laboratories. Following the basic concept, for differing interpretations. No allowance for
communication is the process of sending and unequal power relations. No allowance for
receiving messages or situational contexts.
transferring information from one part (sender) to  David Berlo. In 1960, David Berlo expanded on
another (receiver). Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of
communication and created the SMCR Model of
 Shannon and Weaver. The original model was Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-
designed to mirror the functioning of radio and Receiver Model of communication separated the
telephone technologies. Their initial model model into clear parts and has been expanded
consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, upon by other scholars.
and receiver. The sender was the part of  Schramm. Communication is usually described
a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was along a few major dimensions: Message (what
the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part type of things are communicated), source / emisor
of the phone where one could hear the other / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which
person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that form), channel (through which medium),
often there is static that interferes with one destination / receiver / target /decoder (to whom),
listening to a telephone conversation, which they and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also
deemed noise. The noise could also mean the indicated that we should also examine the impact
absence of signal. In a simple model, often that a message has (both desired and undesired)
referred to as the transmission model or standard on the target of the message. Between parties,
view of communication, information or content (e.g. communication includes acts that confer
a message in natural language) is sent in some knowledge and experiences, give advice and
form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ commands, and ask questions. These acts may
sender/ encoder to a destination/ take many forms, in one of the various manners of
receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication. The form depends on the abilities
communication views communication as a means of the group communicating. Together,
of sending and receiving information. The communication content and form
strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, make messages that are sent towards a
and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude destination. The target can be oneself,
Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this another person or being, another entity (such as a
model based on the following elements: corporation or group of beings). Communication
An information source, which produces a can be seen as processes of information
message. A transmitter, which encodes the transmission governed by three levels
message into signals. A channel, to which signals of semiotic rules: Syntactic (formal properties of
are adapted for transmission. A receiver, which signs and symbols), Pragmatic (concerned with
'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the the relations between signs/expressions and their
signal. A destination, where the message users) and Semantic (study of relationships
arrives. Shannon and Weaver argued that there between signs and symbols and what they
were three levels of problems for communication represent). Therefore, communication is social
within this theory. The technical problem: how interaction where at least two interacting agents
accurately can the message be transmitted? share a common set of signs and a common set
The semantic problem: how precisely is the of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in
meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: some sense ignores autocommunication,
 including intrapersonal famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and
communication via diaries or self-talk, both looking at the ways they built themselves out of
secondary phenomena that followed the primary media with very different properties stone and
acquisition of communicative competences within papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space
social interactions. Binding'. it made possible the transmission of
 Barnlund. In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund written orders across space, empires and enables
(2008) proposed a transactional model of the waging of distant military campaigns and
communication. The basic premise of the colonial administration. The other is stone and
transactional model of communication is that 'Time Binding', through the construction of
individuals are simultaneously engaging in the temples and the pyramids can sustain their
sending and receiving of messages. In a slightly authority generation to generation, through this
more complex form a sender and a receiver are media they can change and shape communication
linked reciprocally. This second attitude of in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
communication, referred to as the constitutive  Psychology of communication. Bernard Luskin,
model or constructionist view, focuses on how an UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted
individual communicates as the determining instruction and began to connect media and
factor of the way the message will be interpreted. psychology into what is now the field of media
Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage psychology. In 1998, the American Association of
in which information travels from one individual Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task
to another and this information becomes separate Force report on psychology and new technologies
from the communication itself. A particular combined media and communication as pictures,
instance of communication is called a speech act. graphics and sound increasingly dominate
The sender's personal filters and the receiver's modern communication.
personal filters may vary depending upon  Constructionist Model. There is an additional
different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; working definition of communication to consider
which may alter the intended meaning of message that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as
contents. In the presence of "communication far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have
noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s
case), reception and decoding of content may be attempt to define human communication through
faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve to this century and revolutionized into the
the desired effect. One problem with this encode- constructionist model. Constructionists believe
transmit-receive-decode model is that the that the process of communication is in itself the
processes of encoding and decoding imply that only messages that exist. The packaging can not
the sender and receiver each possess something be separated from the social and historical context
that functions as a codebook, and that these two from which it arose, therefore the substance to
code books are, at the very least, similar if not look at in communication theory is style for
identical. Although something like code books is Richard Lanham and the performance of self for
implied by the model, they are nowhere Erving Goffman. Lanham chose to view
represented in the model, which creates many communication as the rival to the over
conceptual difficulties. Theories encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued
of coregulation describe communication as a to further the transmission model). CBS model
creative and dynamic continuous process, rather argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the
than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian only purpose to prose discourse, therefore
media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter
people use different types of media to too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as
communicate and which one they choose to use animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis
will offer different possibilities for the shape and leads us to the essential questions about prose
durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric
and style are fundamentally important; they are for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a
not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. question to clarify the message (verbal). Message;
The process which we construct and deconstruct the verbal and nonverbal components of language
meaning deserves analysis. Erving Goffman sees that is sent to the receiver by the sender which
the performance of self as the most important conveys an idea.
frame to understand communication. Goffman  Linear Model. It is a one way model to
wrote, “What does seem to be required of the communicate with others. It consists of the sender
individual is that he learn enough pieces of encoding a message and channeling it to the
expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the
or less, any part that he is likely to be given” linear model assumes that there is a clear cut
(Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the beginning and end to communication. It also
significance of expression. The truth in both cases displays no feedback from the receiver. For
is the articulation of the message and the package example; a letter, email, text message, lecture.
as one. The construction of the message from  Interactive Model. It is two linear models stacked
social and historical context is the seed as is the on top of each other. The sender channels a
pre-existing message is for the transmission message to the receiver and the receiver then
model. Therefore any look into communication becomes the sender and channels a message to the
theory should include the possibilities drafted by original sender. This model has added feedback,
such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham indicates that communication is not a one way but
and Erving Goffman that style and performance is a two way process. It also has “field of
the whole process. Communication stands so experience” which includes our cultural
deeply rooted in human behaviors and the background, ethnicity geographic location, extend
structures of society that scholars have difficulty of travel, and general personal experiences
thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral accumulated over the course of your lifetime.
events. Because communication theory remains a Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not
relatively young field of inquiry and integrates simultaneous. For example – instant messaging.
itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the
psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot original sender has to wait for the IM from the
yet expect a consensus conceptualization of original receiver to react. Or a question/answer
communication across disciplines. session where you just ask a question then you get
Communication Model Terms as provided by an answer.
Rothwell (11-15): Noise; interference with effective  Transactional Model. It assumes that people are
transmission and reception of a message. Sender; connected through communication; they engage
the initiator and encoder of a message. Receiver; in transaction. Firstly, it recognizes that each of us
the one that receives the message (the listener) is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a
and the decoder of a message. Decode; translates receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that
the senders spoken idea/message into something communication affects all parties involved. So
the receiver understands by using their communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is how
knowledge of language from personal most conversation are like. The transactional
experience. Encode; puts the idea into spoken model also contains ellipses that symbolize the
language while putting their own meaning into communication environment (how you interpret
the word/message. Channel; the medium through the data that you are given). Where the ellipses
which the message travels such as through oral meet is the most effect communication area
communication (radio, television, phone, in because both communicators share the same
person) or written communication (letters, email, meaning of the message. For example –
text messages) Feedback; the receivers verbal and talking/listening to friends. While your friend is
nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod talking you are constantly giving them feedback
for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow on what you think through your facial expression
 verbal feedback without necessarily stopping  Communication noise. In any communication
your friend from talking. model, noise is interference with the decoding of
 Communication cycle. The first major model for messages sent over a channel by an encoder.
communication came in 1949 by Claude Shannon There are many examples of noise: Environmental
and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. The Noise: Noise that physically disrupts
original model was designed to mirror the communication, such as standing next to loud
functioning of radio and telephone technologies. speakers at a party, or the noise from a
Their initial model consisted of three primary construction site next to a classroom making it
parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender difficult to hear the professor.
was the part of a telephone a person spoke into,
the channel was the telephone itself, and the 1. Physiological-Impairment
receiver was the part of the phone where one Noise: Physical maladies that prevent effective
could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver communication, such as actual deafness or
also recognized that often there is static that blindness preventing messages from being received
interferes with one listening to a telephone as they were intended.
conversation, which they deemed noise. In a 2. Semantic Noise: Different
simple model, often referred to as the interpretations of the meanings of certain words.
transmission model or standard view of For example, the word "weed" can be interpreted as
communication, information or content (e.g. a an undesirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism
message in natural language) is sent in some form for marijuana.
(as spoken language) from an emisor/ 3. Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in
sender/ encoder to a destination/ grammar can disrupt communication, such as
receiver/ decoder. This common conception of abrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence.
communication simply views communication as a 4. Organizational Noise: Poorly
means of sending and receiving information. The structured communication can prevent the receiver
strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, from accurate interpretation. For example, unclear
and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude and badly stated directions can make the receiver
Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this even more lost.
model based on the following elements: An 5. Cultural Noise: Stereotypical
information source, which produces a message. A assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as
transmitter, which encodes the message into unintentionally offending a non-Christian person
signals. A channel, to which signals are adapted by wishing them a "Merry Christmas".
for transmission. A receiver, which 'decodes' 6. Psychological Noise: Certain
(reconstructs) the message from the signal. A attitudes can also make communication difficult.
destination, where the message arrives. Shannon For instance, great anger or sadness may cause
and Weaver argued that there were three levels of someone to lose focus on the present moment.
problems for communication within this theory. Disorders such as Autism may also severely
The technical problem: how accurately can the hamper effective communication.
message be transmitted? The semantic problem:
how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? The
effectiveness problem: how effectively does the
received meaning affect behavior? Daniel
Chandler critiques the transmission model by
stating: It assumes communicators are isolated
individuals. No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations. No
allowance for unequal power relations. No
allowance for situational contexts.