APPLICATION OF POTENTIOMETER

(1) To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell

K Rh
e, r

J B
A
G
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R K

(i) Initially in secondary circuit key K' remains open and balancing length (l1) is obtained. Since cell E is in
open circuit so it’s emf balances on length l1 i.e. E = xl1 …. (i)
(ii) Now key K is closed so cell E comes in closed circuit. If the process of balancing repeated again then
potential difference V balances on length l2 i.e. V = xl2 …. (ii)
E 
(iii) By using formula internal resistance r    1 . R'
 V 

l l 
r   1 2  . R'

 l2 

(2) Comparison of emf’s of two cell : Let l1 and l2 be the balancing lengths with the cells E1 and E2
E1 l1
respectively then E1 = xl1 and E2 = xl2  
E2 l 2

e, r K Rh

J
A B
G
E1 1

E2
2

Let E1 > E2 and both are connected in series. If balancing length is l1 when cell assist each other and it is l2
when they oppose each other as shown then :
E1 E2 E1 E2
+ – + – + – – +

( E1  E 2 )  xl 1 ( E1  E 2 )  xl 2
E1  E2 l1 E1 l1  l 2
  or 
E1  E2 l 2 E2 l1  l 2

(3) Comparison of resistances : Let the balancing length for resistance R1 (when XY is connected) is l1 and
let balancing length for resistance R1 + R2 (when YZ is connected) is l2. K Rh

J
A B
G
X Y Z

R1 R2
i

K1
 R2 l 2  l1
Then iR1 = xl1 and i(R1 + R2) = xl2  
R1 l1

(4) To determine thermo emf

+ – K Rh

R A
A HRB
CURRENT ELECTRICITY/BOARD+JEE/CONCEPT BOOSTER/QUEST-Brain Board/JEE MAIN & ADVANCED/NEET PHYSICS classes by AVIK SIR

B
G
+ –
G
E0 1 2 3

Cold ice Hot sand

(i) The value of thermo-emf in a thermocouple for ordinary temperature difference is very low (10–6 volt).
For this the potential gradient x must be also very low (10–4 V/m). Hence a high resistance (R) is connected in
series with the potentiometer wire in order to reduce current.
E0
(ii) The potential difference across R must be equal to the emf of standard cell i.e. iR = E0  i
R

(iii) The small thermo emf produced in the thermocouple e = xl

iR iRl
(iv) x  i   e where L = length of potentiometer wire,  = resistance per unit length, l =
L L
balancing length for e
(5) Calibration of ammeter: Checking the correctness of ammeter readings with the help of potentiometer
is called calibration of ammeter.
(i) In the process of calibration of an ammeter the current flowing in a circuit is measured by an ammeter
and the same current is also measured with the help of potentiometer. By comparing both the values, the errors
in the ammeter readings are determined.

e K1
+ –
+
A B
E1
+ –
1
2 G
1 3
A
+ –
+ K2
–

(ii) For the calibration of an ammeter, 1  standard resistance coil is specifically used in the secondary
circuit of the potentiometer, because the potential difference across 1  is equal to the current flowing through
it i.e. V = i.
E0
(iii) If the balancing length for the emf E0 is l0 then E0 = xl0 x  (Process of standardization)
l0

(iv) Let i' current flows through 1 resistance giving potential difference as V '  i' (1)  xl 1 where l1 is the
E0
balancing length. So error can be found as i  i  i'  i  xl1  i   l1
l0
 (6) Calibration of voltmeter
(i) Practical voltmeters are not ideal, because these do not have infinite resistance. The error of such
practical voltmeter can be found by comparing the voltmeter reading with calculated value of p.d. by
potentiometer.
(ii) If l0 is balancing length for E0 the emf of standard cell by connecting 1 and 2 of bi-directional key, then
x = E0/l0.
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(iii) The balancing length l1 for unknown potential difference V is given by (by closing 2 and 3)
V '  xl 1  ( E 0 / l 0 )l1 .
e K1 Rh
+ –
+
A B
E0 1 C
+ –
2
+ – G
V 3
RB

+ K2
–
Rh
If the voltmeter reading is V then the error will be (V – V) which may be +ve, – ve or zero.
SOME STANDARD RESULTS FOR EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
R1 R2

R1R2 (R3  R4 )  (R1  R2 )R3 R4  R5 (R1  R2 ) (R3  R4 )

A B RAB 
R5 R5 (R1  R2  R3  R4 )  (R1  R3 )(R2  R4 )

R3 R4
R1 R2

2R1R2  R3 (R1  R2 )
A B RAB 
R3 2R3  R1  R2

R2 R1
R1 R1 R1 R1
A

R3 R3 R3 R3  RAB 
1
2
1
2

(R1  R2 )  (R1  R2 )2  4 R3 (R1  R2 ) 
1/ 2

B
R2 R2 R2 R2

R1 R1 R1 R1
A 1   R 
RAB  R1 1  1  4 2  
2   R1  
R2 R2 R2 


If a skeleton cube is made with 12 equal resistance each having resistance R then the net resistance across
5
The longest diagonal (EC or AG)  R
H G 6
3
E The diagonal of face (e.g. AC, ED, ....)  R
F 4
D 7
C A side (e.g. AB, BC...)  R
12
A B
 1
If equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series and parallel be Rs and Rp respectively then R1  Rs  Rs2  4 Rs Rp 
2  

and R2  1  Rs  Rs2  4 Rs Rp 

.
2
1
For a given conductor JA = i = constant so that J i.e., J1 A1 = J2 A2 ; this is called equation of continuity
A
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The drift velocity of electrons is small because of the frequent collisions suffered by electrons
The small value of drift velocity produces a large amount of electric current,
due to the presence of extremely large number of free electrons in a conductor
i
J1 J2
i
A1 A2

The propagation of current is almost at the speed of light and involves electromagnetic process. It is due to this
reason that the electric bulb glows immediately when switch is on.
It is a common misconception that “current in the circuit will be maximum when power consumed by the load
is maximum.”
Actually current is maximum (= E/r) when R = min = 0 with while power consumed by the load E2R/(R + r)2
is maximum (= E2/4r) when R = r and
In series grouping of identical cells. If one cell is wrongly connected then it will cancel out the effect of two
cells e.g. If in the combination of n identical cells (each having emf E and internal resistance r) if x cell are
wrongly connected then equivalent emf Eeq  (n  2x) E and equivalent internal resistance req  nr .

Current Density (J )
Current density at any point inside a conductor is defined as a vector having magnitude equal to current per
unit area surrounding that point. Remember area is normal to the direction of charge flow (or current passes)
through that point.
di
(1) Current density at point P is given by J  n
dA

dA
 
i P i

dA cos

(2) If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the current, but makes an angle  with the direction of current
then
di
J  di  JdA cos  J .dA  i   J  dA
dA cos
i
(3) If current density J is uniform for a normal cross-section A then J
A

(4) Current density J is a vector quantity. It's direction is same as that of E . It's S.I. unit is amp/m2 and
dimension [L–2A].
i
(5) In case of uniform flow of charge through a cross-section normal to it as i  nqvA  J  nqv .
A
 E
(6) Current density relates with electric field as J  E  ; where  = conductivity and  = resistivity or

specific resistance of substance.

Drift Velocity
Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons inside a metal by the application of
an electric field which is responsible for current through it. Drift velocity is very small it is of the order of 10–4
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m/s as compared to thermal speed (~ – 105 m / s) of electrons at room temperature.

l
A
vd
E

+ –
V

If suppose for a conductor

n = Number of electron per unit volume of the conductor
A = Area of cross-section
V = potential difference across the conductor
E = electric field inside the conductor
 1
i = current, J = current density,  = specific resistance,  = conductivity     then current relates with
  
drift velocity as i  neAv d we can also write
i J E E V
vd      .
neA ne ne ne  l n e
(1) The direction of drift velocity for electron in a metal is opposite to that of applied electric field (i.e.

current density J ).
vd  E i.e., greater the electric field, larger will be the drift velocity.

(2) When a steady current flows through a conductor of non-uniform cross-section drift velocity varies
 1
inversely with area of cross-section  vd  
 A

A1 < A2 + – + V –
V
i

i so Less – d More – d
A1 A2 Same – vd Some – vd

(3) If diameter (d) of a conductor is doubled, then drift velocity of electrons inside it will not change.

(1) Relaxation time () : The time interval between two successive collisions of electrons with the positive
mean free path 
ions in the metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time    . With rise in temperature
r.m.s. velocity of electrons vrms
vrms increases consequently  decreases.
vd m2
(2) Mobility : Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electron i.e.  . It’s unit is .
E volt  sec