T
THE REAL
L NUMBER
R SYSTEM
M

A numbber system is
i a set of nuumbers thatt obeys one or more op
perations. Th
he real num
mber
system is compriseed of rationaal and irrational numbeers.

mbol  , aree numbers which

Rationaal numbers, representedd by the sym w can be
b expressedd as a
a
fractionn in the form
m , b  0.
b

Irrationnal numbers are represeented by thee symbol  and are nu

umbers that cannot be
expresssed as fractioons.

Subsetss of Rational Numberrs

1) Natural num mbers denoteed by  = {1,

mbers or coounting num { 2, 3, 4, …}
…
2) Whole num mbers denoteed by W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
…
noted by  = {…, -2, -1,
3) Integers den - 0, 1, 2, …}.
…

Note: 11)   W      
2)   

BINAR
RY OPERA
ATIONS

An operration is a process
p that is performeed in a speccific sequencce and obeyys specific rules.
r

A binarry operationn is one which takes two elements and combin nes them intto one. Thatt is, a
binary ooperation * on a non-emmpty set A is a function * such thaat A  A  A .

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Operattions of Add
dition, Mulltiplication
n and Closu
ure

Let x, y   . Thenn x  y   (eg. 2 + 3 = 5) and x  y   (2 x 3 = 6).

The set of real num

mbers is clossed under addition
a andd multiplicattion since thhe result is always
a
a uniquue real numbber.

Activityy:

State which of the following operations

o iss closed. Juustify your answers.
a

1) Division off integers

2) Multiplicattion of integgers
3) Addition off irrational nnumbers

FIELD
D AXIOMS

An axioom is a stateement that is assumed tot be true att all times. The
T field axxioms definee how
the operrations of addition andd multiplicattion interactt with the seet of real nuumbers.

Commu
utativity: The
T order doesd not maatter when adding or multiplyin
ng real num
mbers.
a *b  b * a

x, y  R :
x y yx
and
x y  y x

Associaativity: Thee order in which

w elem
ments are paaired does not
n matter for additioon and
mu n. a * (b * c )  ( a * b) * c
ultiplication

x, y , z  R :
( x  y)  z  x  ( y  z)
and
( x  y)  z  x  ( y  z)

Distributivity: Givven two op perations * and  , * distributes

d over  if
a * (b  c )  ( a * b)  ( a * c ) .

Mu butive over the additio

ultiplication is distrib on of real numbers.
n

x, y, z  R :
x( y  z )  ( xy  xz
x )

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Identitties: Theree exists an element
e e , such that an
a operatioon on a has the result a.
e*a  a *e  a

he additive identity is 0 and the multiplicati

Th m ive identity
y is 1.

x  ,
1)  0   : x  0  0  x  x
2)  1   : x  1  1 x  x

Inversse: An elemment has an n inverse if and only iff an operatiion between the elemeent and
the inverse gives the
t identityy. If a is thee inverse off b and b is the inverse of a
then a * b  b * a  e

Each reeal numberr, except 0::

1) has a unique additivee inverse which is opp

posite in siggn that is th
he
nverse of x is
additive in i (- x).

2) has a unique multipliicative inveerse which is the recip

procal that is
1
multiplicattive inversee of x is   .
x

x  ,
1)   x   : x  ( x)  ( x)  x  0
1 1 1
2)    with x  0 : x        x  1
x  x  x

Activityy :

1) Is subtraction commuttative or associative? Explain

E yourr answer.
2) Is division commutativve or associiative? Justiify your ansswer
3) Which of thhe followingg operations is distribuutive over thhe other
(a) Addition
A disttribute over multiplicattion
(b) Multiplicatio
M on distributee over divisiion

Ansswer all off the questiions pertainning to eacch binary operation

o shown bellow.

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1.. Operationn is definned on the set
s { m, a, t,, h } as show
wn in the
table below:
b

a. Is this operation commutativee?

b. Name the identityy element, or explain why
w none exiists.
c. For eacch element having an innverse, nam
me the elemeent and
its inversee.
d. True or
o false:
2. O
Operation is defined on the set { a, b, c, d }as shown in
n the table
below w:

a. Is this operration commmutative?

b. Name the identity
i elem
ment, or expplain why none
n exists.
c. For each ellement haviing an inverrse, name thhe element and
a its
invverse.
d. True or fallse: d (c b) = (d c ) b

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3. O
Operation is defined on the set { 1, 2, 3, 4 } as shown inn the table
beloww:

a. Is this opeeration comm mutative?

b. Name the identity eleement, or exxplain why nonen exists.
c. For each element
e havving an inveerse, name thhe element and its
innverse.
d. True or faalse: (1 2)) 3 = 1 (2 3)

4. Given: What is the value off ?

Choose:

-2
2
14
cannott be determiined

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MATHEMATICAL
L PROOF

A prooff is a sequennce of statem

ments, usuaally obtainedd from deduuctive reasooning, leadinng to
the estaablishment of
o the truth of a final sttatement.

There are
a several different
d meethods of maathematicall proof.

1) Direct Proof: is used to

t prove thaat an assump
mption is truee in all casees by using
definitions,, theorems and
a axioms that are established to be true.

Example 1: Prove thaat the sum of two odd in

ntegers is even
e

x, y  ; 2 x  1 and 2 y  1 are odd in

ntegers.

 (2 x  1)  (2 y  1)
The sum o odd integeers  2 x  2 y  2
m of the two
 2( x  y  1)

Which is even sincce it is divissible by 2.

Example 2: Prove thaat if a  b th

hen a  c  b  c.

Given that
t a  b  a b  0

a bc c  0
a c bc  0
a  c  (b  c)  0
ac bc

Activityy: 1) Prove
P that the
t sum of two even in
ntegers is also
a even.

2) Prove
P that the
t sum of an even intteger and an
a odd inteeger is alwaays odd.

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2) Proof by exxhaustion: is used to prove

p statem
ments that have
h a finite number off cases.
The value for
f each casse is found and
a shown tto be true.

Example 1: Prove thaat if n is an integer, theen n2 is posiitive for 2  n  2 and n  0

When n = - 2, (2)) 2  4
When n = -1;(1) 2  1
When n  1;12  1
When n  2; 22  4

Activityy: 1) Prove
P that if nteger then n3 is an intteger for 3  n  3, n  0 .
i n is an in

3) Proof by Contradictio
C on: is an inndirect prooff that is used to prove that
t a statem
ment
assumed to be false is true.

Step 1: Asssume the staatement to be

b false

Step 2: Usee definitionss, theorems and axiomss to show th

hat the assum
mption madde above
is a contraddiction.

Step 3: Connclude that the

t originall statement must
m be truee.

Example: Prove
P that 3 is an irrrational nu
umber.

Step 1: Assume thaat 3 is ratiional.

Step 2: Show that the

t above sttatement is a contradicction.

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a
3 here a, b  , a  0, b  0 with a an
, wh nd b having no
b
common factors.

a a2
3 3 2
b b
a  3b
2 2

Since a2 is a multiple of
o 3 then a must
m be a multiple
m of 3.

Let a = 3c

a 2  3b 2  (3c) 2  3b 2
 9c 2  3b 2
 b 2  3c 2

Then, b is a multiple of 3.

Therefore, a and b aree both multipples of 3 whhich contraddicts

the statemeent above thhat “a and b have no co ommon facctors”

Step 3: Hence 3 is irrational.

Activityy: 1) Prove
P that 5 is irratiional

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4) Proof by Counter-exa
C ample: is used to show
w that a stateement is false by findinng an
example whhich invaliddates it.

Note: A sin
ngle counter example can
c be usedd to disprove an assum
mption. How
wever,
an examplee CANNOT T be used too prove an assumption.
a .

Example: 1)
1 Are all prrime numbers are oddd?

The num mber 2 is ann even numbber and it iss also a prim
me number.
Therefoore, there exxists at least one even prime
p numbber which m
makes
the stattement “all prime
p numbers are oddd” false.

2) If n is diivisible by 5,
5 then n+5 is divisiblee by 10.

Let n = 10 which iss divisible by

b 5.

n + 5 = 10 +5 = 15, which is not divisiblle by 10.

Therefoore, the stateement is fallse.

Activity: 1) Prove th
hat the stattement “thee differencee between two
t irration
nal
numbers iss always ann irrationall number” is false.

2) Show thhat “if n is the

t root of a squared number, th
hen n+1 is
positive” iss false.

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5) Proof by Mathematic
M cal Inductioon: is used to prove thaat a statemeent is true foor all
natural num
mbers. The principle
p off mathematical inductioon is compriised of 5 steeps.

Step 1: Deffine the stattement to bee proven as P(n).

Step 2: Verrify that whhen n = 1, th

he statementt is true.

Step 3: Asssume that thhe statemennt holds truee for any arbbitrary valuee of n = k

Step 4: Shoow that if thhe statementt is true for n = k, then it must be true
t for n = k + 1
by using the assumption
a m
made in Steep 3.

Step 5: Connclude that since P(n) is

i true whenn n = 1 and if P(k) is trrue then P(kk+1) is
tru a positive integers n   .
ue then P(n) is true for all

Mathematiccal inductioon can be ussed to provee a variety of

o different statements.
s

(a) Divisibility Tests are

a used to show
s the relation ‘ is a multiple of’
o or ‘is divvisible
by’

Examplle: Prove thhat 6n – 1 is divisible byy 5 for all naatural numbbers n.

ment 6n – 1 iss divisible by

Step 1: Let P(n) bee the statem b 5.

Step 2: Show true for n = 1,

When n = 1, 1 P(1) = 61 – 1 = 6 – 1 = 5 which is divisible by 5

therefore trrue for n = 1

Step3: A
Assume true for n = k,

k P(k) = 6k – 1 = 5z wh
When n = k, here z is an integer.

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Step 4: Prove true for n = k + 1,

When n = k + 1, 6 k 1  1  6  6k   1

from abovee 6 k  1  5 z  6 k  5 z  1

P (k  1)  6 k 1  1  6  6k   1  6  5 z  1  1
Therefore,
 30 z  6  1  30 z  5  5(6
5 z  1)

which is divvisible by 5.
5

Step 5: Since P(n) is true when n = 1 and d if P(k) is trrue then P(kk+1) is
fo all positivve integers n   .
true then P((n) is true for

(b) Sum off a Series

n
n
Examplee: Prove by induction
i thaat
r 1
r 6
( n  1)(2n  1)
2

n
n
ment  r 2  ( n  1)(2n  1) for all positive values of
Let Pn bbe the statem
r 1 6
n.

1 1
When n = 1, P1 = 1 2

6
(1  1)(2(1)  1)  ( 2)(3)  1
6

 P1 is true.
t

k
k
Assumee true for n = k , Pk = r
r 1
2

6
( k  1)(2k  1)

k 1
Then Pk+1
k = r
r 1
2
 Pk  (k  1) th term

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k
(k  1)((2k  1)  (k  1) 2
6
k
(k  1)((2k  1)  (k  1)(k  1)
6
k 
(k  1) (2k  1)  (k  1) 
6 
1 
= ( k  1) ( 2k 2  k )  ( k  1) 
 6 
1

(k  1) 2k 2  k  6k  6
6

1
(k  1)((2k 2  7 k  6)
6
1
(k  1)((k  2)(2k  3)
6

Which is the formulaa for Pk+1 wiith n = 1.

Since P(n)
P is true when
w n = 1 and if P(k) is true thenn P(k+1) is true
t then
P(n) is true
t for all positive
p inteegers n   .

Example 2 : Show thatt 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n -1) = n2 for all

a n.

Show itt is true for n=1

1 = 12 is Truue

Assumee it is true for

fo n = k

. + (2k - 1)) = k2 is Truue

1 + 3 + 5 + ...

Now, prove it is truue for "k+1"

1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k-1) + (22(k+1)-1) = (k+1)2 ... ?

We knoow that 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k-1) = k2 (the assum

mption abovve), so
we can do a replaccement for all
a but the laast term:

k2 + (2
2(k+1)-1) = (k+1)2

Now exxpand all terrms:

k2 + 2k + 2 - 1 = k2 + 2k+1

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And sim
mplify:

k2 + 2kk + 1 = k2 + 2k + 1

They are the

t same! So
S it is true..

So:

1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2(k+1)-1) = (k+1)2 is True

Since P(n)
P is true when
w n = 1 and if P(k) is true thenn P(k+1) is true
t then
P(n) is true
t for all positive
p inteegers n   .

(c) Inequallities

Examplle: Show that n2 > 2n + 3 for n > 3

P(3) : n2 = 32 = 9 and 2n
2 + 3 = 2(33) + 3 = 9
2
n = 2n + 3, i.e., P((3) is true.

P(k) : Assuume true for n = k, k2 > 2k + 3

Prove truee for n = k + 1,

(k + 1)2 = k2 + 2k + 1
> (2k + 3) + 2k + 1 by Inductivve hypothesis
> 2k + 2k + 1 + 3
> 4k + 1 + 3 since k > 3
> 2k + 2 + 3
> 2(k + 1) + 3

( + 1)2 > 2((k + 1) + 3

Therefore, P(k + 1) : (k

Since P(n) is true whenn n = 1 and if P(k) is trrue then P(kk+1) is

fo all positivve integers n   .
true then P((n) is true for

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