UNIT 1 REAL NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS

Structure \

Introduction
Objectives
Basic Properties of R
Absolute Value
Intervals on the Real Line
Functions
1.5.1 Definition and Examples
1.5.2 Inverse Functions
1.5.3 Graphs o f Inverse Functions
New Functions from Old
1.6.1 Operations on Functions
1.6.2 Composite of Functions
Types of Functions
1.7.1 Even and Odd Functions
1.7.2 Monotone Functions
1.7.3 Periodic Functions
summary
Solutions and Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the first unit of the course on Calculus. We thought it would be a good idea to acquaint
you with some basic results about the real number system and functions, before you actually
start your study of Calculus. Perhaps, you are already familiar with these results. But, a quick
look through the pages will help you in refieshing your memory, and you will be ready to
tackle the course.
In the next three sections of this unit, we shall present some results about the real number
system. You will find a number of examples of various types of functions in Sections 1.5 to 1.7.
You should also study the graphs of these functions carefully, in order to be able to vistlalise
given functions. In fact, try to draw a graph whenever you encounter a new function. We shall ,
systematically study the tracing of c w e s in Block 2 Unit 4.
-
Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to :
"3
recall the basic properties of real numbers
derive other properties with the help of the basic ones
ichtify various types of bounded and unbounded intervals
0 define a function and examine whether a given function is one-onelonto
investigate whether a given function has an inverse or not
a deiine the scalar multiple, absolute value, sum, difference, product, quotien't of the given
functions and
determine wl$&er a given function is even odd, monotonic or periodic.

1.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF R

In the next three sections, we are going to tell you about the set R of real numbers, which is all-
pervading in mathematics. The real number system is the foundation on which a large part of
mathematics, including calculus, rests. Thus,before we actually start leaming calculus, it' is
necessary to understand the structure of the real number system.
You are already familiar with the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
of real numbers, and also withGkqualities.Here we shall quickly recall some of their
properties. We start with the operation of addition:
Elements of Differential A1 R is closed under addition.
Calculus
If x and y are real numbers, then x + y is a unique real number.
A2 Addition is associative,
x+(y+z)=(x+y)+zholdsforallx,y,zinR.
A3 Zero exists.
There is a real number 0 such that
x+O-O+x=xforallxinR.
A4 Negatives exist.
For each real number x, there exists a real number y (ccalled a negative or an additive
inverse of x, and denoted by -x) such that x + y = y + x = 0.
A5 Addition is commutaPlve.
x+y=y+xholdsforallx,yinR
Similar to these properties of addition, we can also list some properties of the operation of
multiplication:
Ml R is closed under multiplication.
If x and y are real numbers, then x.y is a unique real number.
M2 Multiplication is associative.
x.(y.z) = (x.y).z holds for all x, y, z in R
M3 Unit element exists.
There exists a real number 1 such that
x.1= l.x=xforeveryxinR.
hZ4 Inverses exist.
For each real number x other than 0, there exists a real number y (called a multiplicative

-
inverse of x and denoted by x-I, or by l/x) such that
x.y y.x = 1
MS Multiplication is commutative.
x.y = y.x holds for all x, y in R.
The next property involves addition as well as multiplication.
D Multiplication is distributive over addition.
You may have come across a x.(y t- z) = x.y + x.z holds for all, x, y, z in R
"field", in the course on Remark 1: The fact that the above eleven properlies are satisfied is often expressed by saying
Llnear Algebra
that the real numbers form afield with respect to the usual addition and multiplication
operations.
Remark 1 (a): Usually the operator '.' is dropped in expressions, e.g., x.y may be denoted as
xy.
In addition to the above mentioned properties, we can also define an order relation on R with
the help of which we can compare any two real numbers. We write x > y to mean that x is
greater than y. The order relation '>' has the following properties:
0 1 Law of Trichotomyholds.
For any two real numbers a, b, one and only one of the following holds:
a>b,a=b,b>a.
02 '>' is transitive.
I f a r b a n d b > c , t h e n a > c , v a , b , c ~R
03 Addition is monotone.
Ifa,b,cinRaresuchthata>b,thena+c>b+c.
04 Multiplication is monotone in the following sense.
If a, b, c in Rare such that a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc.
Caution: a > b and c < 0 3 ac < bc.
Remark 2: Any field together with a relation > satisfying 01 to 04 is called an ordered field.
Thus R with the usual > is an example of an ordered field.
Notations: We write x < y (and read x is less than y) to mean y > x. We write x I y (and read x is
less than or equal to y) to mean either x < y or x = y. We write x 2 y (and read x is greater than
or equal to y) if either x > y or x = y.
number x is said to be positive or negative according as x > 0 or x < 0. If x 2 0, we say that x is
non-negative.
 Now, you know that given any number x E R, we can always find a number y E R such that Real Numbers and
Functions
y l x. (In fact, there are infinitely many such real numbers y). Let us see what happens when
we take any sub-set of R instead of a single real number x. Do you think that, given a set
S G R, it is possible to find u E R such that u l x for all x E S ? Discuss the special case when
S is empty.
Before we try to answer this question, let us look at a definition.
Definition 1: Let S be a subset of R. An element u in lk is said to be an upper bound of S if
u 1 x holds for every x in S. We say that S is bounded above, if there is an upper bound of S.
Now we can reword our earlier questions as follows : Is it possible to find an upper bound for a
given set ?

Now, each x E Z- is negative. Or, in other words, x < 0 for all x E Z. It is easily seen that, in this
case, we are able to find an upper bound, namely zero, for our set Z-
On the other hand, if we consider the set of natural numbers, N = {I, 2,3 .......I,
obviously we
will not be able to find an upper bound. Thus N is not bounded above.
You will, of course, realise that ifu is an upper bound for a set S then u + 1, u + 2, u + 3, .....,
(in fact, u + r, where r is any positive number) are all upper bounds of S. For example, we have
seen that 0 is an upper bound for Z-. Check that 1,2,3,4,8, ..... are all upper bounds of Z-.
From among all the upper bounds of a set S, which is bounded above, we can choose an upper
bound u such that u is less than or equal to every upper bound of S. It is easily seen that, if
such a u exists, then it is unique. We call this u the least upper bound or the supremum of S.
For example, consider the set

Now 2,3,3.5,4,4 + n are all upper bounds for this set.

But you will see that 2 is less than any other upper bound.
Hence 2 is the supremum or the least upper bound of T.
You will agree that -1 is the 1.u.b. (least upper bound) of Z-.
Note that for both the sets T and Z-, the 1.u.b. belongs to the set. This may not be true in
general. Consider the set of all negative real numbers R- = {x :x < 0).The 1.u.b. of this set is 0.
But 0 c R-.
Working on similar lines we can also define a lower bound for a given set S to be a real number
v such that v I x for all x E S. We shall say that a set is bounded below, if we can find a lower
r- bound for it. Further, from among all the lower bounds of a set S, which is bounded below, we
can choose a lower bound v such that v is greater than or equal to every lower bound of S. It
is easily seen that, if such a v exists, then it is unique. We call this v the greatest lower bound
or the infimum of S.
As in the case of l.u.b., remember that the g.1.b. of a set may or may not belong to the set.
We shall say that a set S c R is bounded if it has both an upper bound and a lower bound.
Based on this discussion you will be able to solve the following exercise.
E E 1) Give examples to illustrate the following :
a) A set of real numbers having a lower bound,
b) A set of real numbers without any lower bound,
I
c) A set of real numbers whose g.1.b. does not belong to it,
Elements of Differentiai
Calculus

d) A bounded set of real numbers.

Now we are ready to state an important property of R.
C The order is complete
Every nm-empty subset S of R that is bounded above, has a supremum. (We shall use this
property in Unit 10).
Many more properties are either restatements or consequences of these sixteen properties.
Here is a list of some of them.
1 Zero is unique, i.e.,
Ifx+0'=xforallxinR,then0'=0.
2 Additive inverse is unique, i.e.,
For each x in R, there is a unique y in R such that x + y = y + x = 0.
3 Addition is cancellative, i.e.,
Ifx+y=x+z,theny=z.
4 Unity is unique, i.e.,
Ifx.l'=xforallxinR,then1'=1.
5 Multiplicative inverse is unique, i.e.,
For each non-zero real number x, there is a unique y in R such that xy = yx = 1.
6 Multiplicationis cancellative, i.e,
Ifxy=xzandx#O,theny=z.
Definitian 2: If x and y are any two real numbers, the result of subtraction of y from x is
denoted by x - y and is defined as x + (-y). Similarly, the division x + y (also denoted by xly) is
defined as xy-', provided y # 0.
Now we are ready to list a few more properties. You are already aware of these. But let us
quickly recall them.
-(x+y)=(-x)+(-y)forallx,yinR.
If xy = 0, then either x = 0 or y = 0.
(x-')-I = x for all x t 0 in R.
If x and y are non zero numbers such that x-' = y-I, then x = y.
Ifa<bandc>O,thenac<bc.
a is positive if and only if -a is negative.
Ifa<bandc<d,thena+c<b+d.
If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc.
a2 is non-negative for all a in R.
If a and b are positive, then
i) a 2 = b 2 w a = b .
(The symbol w is read as 'if and only i f )
ii) a2> b2 w a > b
iii) a2 < b2 w a < b
Ifb>0,thena2<b2w-b<a<b.
You are also familiar with the following subsets of R:
1) The set N of natural numbers. Note that it is the smallest subset o f R possessing the
following properties:
i) 1€N
 ii) k ~ N + k + lE N Real Numbers and
Functions
2) The set Z of integers. It is the smallest subset of R possessing the following properties:
i) Z 3 N
ii) I f x , y ~ Z , t h e n x - ~ E Z .
3) The set Q of rational nhmbers. We observe that it is the smallest subset of R possessing
the following properties:
3 Q3Z
ii) If x, y E Q and y # 0, then xy-' E Q.
You must have also studied the following properties of these sets.
1) k E N if and only if k is a positive integer, that is, k E Z and k > 0.
2) The operations of addition and multiplication on N satisfy Al, A2, A5, MI, M2, M3, M5
and D. They do not, however, satisfy A3, A4 and M4.
3) The operations on Q satisfy A1 to AS, MI to M5 and 01 to 04. Therefore Q is an ordered
field. But C is not satisfied, that is, Q is not order-complete.
We list here some more properties of these sets which you will find useful in our study of
calculus:
4) Archimedean Property: Ha and b are any real numbers and ifb > 0, then there is a
positive integer n such that nb > a.
5 ) If a is any real number, there is a positive integer n such that n > a (Archimedean property
applied to a and 1).
6) A real number s is the supremum of a set S c R if and only if the following conditions
are satisfied.
E (epsilon) is a Greek letter used
3 sLxforallxinS. to denote small real numbers.
ii) For each E > 0, there is a y in S such that y > s - E.
For example, consider the set A = {x E R : 8 5 x c 10). 10 is the supremum of this set.
Now, if we are given any E, say, E = 0.01, we should be able to find some y E A such that
y > 10 - 0.01 = 9.99. As you can see, y = 9.999 serves our purpose.
Now 10.01 is also an upper bound for A. But 10.01 is not the supremum of A. For
E =0.001,
we cannot findany y E A such that y > 10.01 -0.001 = 10.009.
7) Every nonempty set of real numbers that is bounded below, has an infmum.
The exercise below can now be done easily.
E E2) a) Show that the set of positive real numbers is bounded below. What is its infimum?
I b) Write the characterisation of the infimum of a subset of R, which corresponds to 6)
above. Give an example.

1.3 ABSOLUTE VALUE

In this section we shall define the absolute value of a real number. You will realise the
importance of this simple concept as you study the later units.
Elements o f Differential Definition 3 :If x is a real number, its absolute value, denoted by I x I (read as modulus of x, or
Calculus mod x), is defined by the following rules:

x, ifx 2 0
1x1 =
-x, ifx c 0
For example, we get
151=5,)-5(=5,
( 1.7(=1.7,(-2(=2,(0(=0
i It is obvious that 1 x 1 is defined for all x E R. The following theorem gives some of the
, important properties of I x 1.
'
;
Theorem 1: If x and y be any real numbers, then
a) (xl=max(-x,x)
b) Ixl=l-xl
c) (x(*=x2=(-xI2
d) Ix+yl5lxl+l~l (the triangle inequality)
e) I ~ + Y I ~ ( I ~ I - I Y I ~
Proof:
a) By the law of trichotomy (01) applied to the real numbers x and 0, exactly one of the
following holds:
i) x>O,ii)x=O,oriii)x~O.
Let us consider these one by one.
i) Ifx>O,then(x(=xandx>-,x,sothat

ii) -
max {-x, x) = x and hence I x 1 =max { -x, x }
If x 0, then x = 0 =-x, and thexefore,
mas {-x,x) =O.Also~x(=O,sothat~x~=max {-x,x).
iii) Ifx<O,then(x(=-x,and-x>x,sothat
max {-x,x) =-x.Thus,again, (x(=max{-x,x).
From this it follows that x j IxI
b) 1-x(=rnax {-(-x),-x) =max {x,-x) =max {-x,x) =(XI.
c) Ifx20,then)x)=x,sothat)x)~=~~.
~fx<O,then(xI=-x,~othat(x)~=(-x)~=x~.
Thetefore, for all x G R, I x l2 = x2.
Also 1 -x l2 = 1 x 12, because I - x 1 = 1 x 1 by (b). Thus, we have 1 x l2 = x2
d) U e shall consider two different cases according as

I X + Y l = x + ~ ~ l x lI. + l ~
Letx+y<O.Then-(x+y)>O, thatis,
(-x) + (-y) > 0 and we can use the result of (i)
for-xand-y.Now ( x + yI = I-(x+y) I by(b).
Thus(x+y(=((-x)+(-y)(S(-XI+(-y(,by(i).
=Ixl+ly I. by (b).
Therefore,wegetIx+y 1 5 ( x I + J y1.
Thuswefindthatforallx,y E R ( x + y( < ( x ( + (1.y
e) By writing x = ( x - y ) + y and applying the triangle inequality to the numbers x - y and y,
we have
I~I=I(~-Y)+YI~I~-YI+IY~~
sothat(x(-(y(<(x-y(. ...(1)
Since (I) holds for all x and y in R,
therefore, by interchanging x and y in (1) we have
 Real Numbers and
l ~ l - l x I ~ l ~ - x l = l - ( x - ~=Ix-yl.
)l Functions
Sothat-(1x1-)y))S)x- y ) . ...(2)
From (1) and (2) we find that ( x / - 1 y ( and its negative - ( ( x 1 - I y 1) are both less than or at the
mostequa1to)x-y ).Therefore,max(1x1-1 y 1,-(1x1-I y 1)) I ( x - y l .
But the left hand side of the above inequality is simply ( ( x ( - 1 y ( 1. Therefore, we have
11x1-lYll~lx-Yl

Now you should be able to prove some easy consequences of this theorem. The following
exercise will also give you some practice in manipulating absolute values. This practice will
come in handy when you study Unit 2.
E E 3) Prove the following :
a) x = O e ( x l = c
i

b) IxYl=ixl.lYl
c) 1l/x~=l/\x~, ifxz0

- d)
e)
lx-Yl~Ixl+lYl
Ix+Y+z)~lxI+lYl+lzl
f) IxYzl=lxl.IYl.lzl

e) and f ) can be ex{ended to any number of reals. Now if a E R and 6 > 0, then
Ix-a)<6*x-a<6,and-(x-a)<6.
x - a < 6 , thismeans t h a t x < a + 6
-(x-a)<6,thismeansthata-6<x.
Thus,wegetthat/x-a(<6*a-6 < x < a + 6 .
This means that the difference between x and a is not more than 6.
In the next section, we shall see how the set { x : ( x - a / < 6) can be represented
! geometrically.
Elements or Dilferential
Calculus 1.4 INTERVALS ON THE REAL LINE
Before we define an interval let us see what is meant by a number line. The real numbers in the
set R can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the points on a straight line L. In other
words, we shall associate a unique point on L to each real number and vice versa.
Consider a straight line L [see Fig. 1 (a)]. Mark a point 0 on it. The point 0 divides the straight
line into two parts. We shall use the part to the lefr of 0 for representing negative real numbers
and the part to the right of 0 for representing positive real numbers. We choose a point A on L
which is to the right of 0. We shall represent the number 0 by 0 and 1 by A. OA can now
serve as a unit. To each positive real number x we can associate exactly one point P lying to
the right of 0 on L, so that OP = 1 x 1 units ( = x units). A negative real number y will be
represented by a point Q lying to the left of 0 on the straight line L, so that OQ = 1 y 1 = y
-

units ( -: y is negative). We thus find that to each real number we can associate a point on the
line. Also, each point S on the line reprsents a unique real number z, such that ( z ( = OS.
Distance is always non- Further, z is positive if S is to the right of 0, and z is negative if S is to the left of 0.
negative.
This representation of real numbers by points on a straight line is often very useful. Because
of this one-to-one correspondence between real numbers and thg points of a straight line, we
often call a real number "a point of R . Similarly L is called a "number line". Note that the
absolute value or the modulus of any number x is nothing but its distance from the point 0 on
the number line. In the same way, 1 x - y 1 denotes the distance between the two numbers x and
y [seeFig. I (b)].

Figure I : (a) Number line b) Distance between x and y is I x - y (

*
Now let us consider the set of the real numbers which lie between two given real numbers a
and b, where a I b. Actually, there will be four different sets satisfying this loose condition.
These are :
i) ]a,b[= { x : a < x < b )
ii) [a,b]={x:a<x~b)

iii) ] a , b ] = { x : a < x < b )

iv) [ a , b [ = { x : a 5 x < b )

The representation of each of these sets is given alongside. Each of these sets is called an
interval, and a and b are called the end points of the interval. The interval ]a, b[, in which the
end points are not included, is called an open interval. Note that in this case we have drawn a
hollow circle around a and b to indicate that they are not included in the graph. The set [a, b],
contains both its end points and is called a closed interval. In the representation of this closed
interval, we have put thick black dots at a and b to indicate that they are included in the set.
The sets [a, b[ and ]a, b] are called half-open (or half-closed) intervals or semi-open (or semi-
closed) intervals, as they contain only one end point. This fact is also indicated in their
geometrical representation.
+
If a = b, ]a, a[ = ]a, a] = [a, a[ = and [a, a] = a.
Each of these intervals is bounded above by b and bounded below by a.
Can we represent the set I = {x : ( x - a ( < 6 ) on the number line? Yes, we can. We know that
1 x - a 1 can be thought of as the distance between x and a. This means I is the set of all
numbers x, whose distance from a is less than 6. Thus,
 is the open interval ]a - 6, a + 6[. Similarly, I, = {x : 1 x - a 1 2 6) is the closed interval Real Numbers and
Functions
[a - 6, a + 61. Sometimes we also come across sets like I, = {x : 0 < ( x - a I < 6). This means if
x E 12, then the distance between x and a is less than 6, but is not zero. We can also say that
the distance between x and a is less than 6, but x # a. Thus,
I, =]a-6, a + & [ \ {a) -
... ..... .
. - :T--.

la, -
Apart from the four types of intervals listed above, there are a few more types. These are:
[ = {x : a < x) (open right ray) . -r.
a
*
[a, =[ = {x : a 2 x} (closed right ray) - - -
a
+
] a , b[= {x : x < b) (open left ray) j -4 -- - -

I-, b] = {x : x b} (closed left ray)

b
I--,= [ = R (open interval)
4 *
As you can see easily, none of these sets are bounded. For instance, ]a, -[ is bounded below,
but is not bounded above, 1- -, b] is bounded above, but is not bounded below. Note that
and - = does not denote a real number, it merely indicates that an interval extends without
-
limits.
We note further that if S is any interval (bounded or unbounded) and if c and d are two
elements of S, then all numbers lying between c and d are also elements of S.
E E4) State whether the following are true or false.
a) 06[1,81, b) - 1 ]-=,2[
~
C) 1 ~ [ 1 , 2 1 d) 5e15,-[
E E 5) Represent the intervals in E 4) geometrically.

1.5 FUNCTIONS
Now let us move over ro present some basic facts about functions
which will help you refresh your knowledge. We shall look at various examples of functions
and shall also define inverse functions. Let us start with the definition of a function.

1.5.1 Definition and Examples

Definition 4: If X and Y are two sets, a function f from X to Y, is a rule or a correspondence
which connects every member of X to a unique member of Y. We write f: X -+ Y (read as "f is a
function from X to Y) X is called the domain and Y is called the co-domain off. We shall denote
I by f(x) that unique element of Y which is associated to x E X.

I
The following examples will help you in understanding this definition better.
Example 1: f : N -+ R, defined by f(x) = -x. is a function since the rule f(x) = -x associates a
1 unique member (-x) of R to every member x of N. The domain here is N and the co-domain is R.
/ Example 2: The rule f(x) = xi2 does not define a function from N -+ Z as odd natural numbers
like 1,3,5 ...... from N cannot be connected to any member of Z. .
Elements o f Differential Example 3: Every natural number can be written as a product of some prime numbers. Consider
Calculus
the rule f ( ~=) a prime factor of x, which connects elements of N. Here since 6 = 2 x 3, f(6) has
two values : f(6) = 2 and q6) = 3. This rule does not associate a unique number with 6 and
hence does not give a function from N to N.
Thus, you see, to describe a function completely we have to specify the following three
things:
a) the domain
b) the co-domain, and
c) the wle which associates a unique member of the co-domain to each member of the
domain.
The rule which defines a function need not always be in the form of a formula. But it should
clearly specify (perhaps by actual listing) the correspondence between X and Y.
If fi X -+Y, then y = f(x) is called the image of x under for the f-image of x. The set of f-images
of all members of X, i.e., {f(x) : x E X) is called the range off and is denoted by f(X). It is easy
to see that f(X) c Y.
Remark 3 a) Throughout this course we shall consider functions for each of which whose
domain and co-domain are both subsets of R. Such functions are often called real functions or
real-valued functions of a real variable. We shall, however, simply use the word 'function' to
mean a real function.
b) The variable x used in describing a function is often called a dummy variable because it can
be replaced by any other letter. Thus, for example, the rule f(x) = -x, x E N can as well be written
in the form f(t) = -t, t E N or as f(u) = -u, u E N. The variable x (or t or u) is also called an
independent variable, and f(x) is dependent on this independent variable.
Graph of a function: A convenient and useful method for studying a function is to study it
through its graph. To draw the graph of a function f : X +Y, we choose a system of coordinate
axes in the plane. For each x E X, the orderedpair (x, f(x)) determines a point in the plane (see
Fig. 2). The set of all the points obtained by considering all possible values of x (remember that
the domain o f f is X) is the graph of the function f. The role that the graph of a function plays
in the study of the function will become clear as we proceed further. In the meantime let us
consider same more examples of functions and their graphs.

Fig. 2

1) A constant function: The simplest example of a hnction is a constant function. A const'.t:

4 w
1 function sends all the elements of the domain to just one element of the co-domain.
'I

0; For example, let f: R +R be defined by f(x) = 1.

X
Alternatively, we may write
f:x+ 1 ...V X E R
Fig. 3 The graph o f f is as shown in Fig. 3.
It is the line y = 1.
 In general, the graph of a constant function f : x + c is straight line which is parallel to the x- Real N u m b e r a n d
Functior~h
axis at a distance of 1 c ( units from it.
2) The identity function: Another simple but important example of a funct~onis a function YA
which sends every element of the domain to itself.
,f

"
Let X be any non-empty set, and let f be the function on X defined by setting f(x) = x V x E X. /
I /

I This function is known as the identity function on X and is denoted by ix.

The graph of i, the identity function on R, is shown in Fig. 4. It is the line y = x.
.-

/
,/'
0 /

3) Absolute value Function: Another interesting function is the absolute value funct~on(or b
modulus function) w h ~ c hcan be defined by using the concept of the absolute value of a real
number as: Fig. 4

x, i f x 2 O
f(x) = I X I =
- x, if x c 0
6
The graph of this function is shown in Fig. 5. It consists of two rays, both starting at the orig~n b f
andmaking angles 7d4 and 3x/4, respectively, with the positive direct~onof the x-axls.
E E 6) Given below are the graphs of four functions depending on the notion of absolute value.
r The functions are x +-I x 1, x + ( x j + 1, x -+ / x + I 1, x + ( x- 1 1, thoughnot necessarily in
this order. (The domain in each case is R). Can you identify them?

Fig. 5

4) The Exponential Vunction: If a is a positive real number other than I , we call define a
C
function f as:

-
1
f R 4 R
f (x) 2 (a>O,a+l)
This function is known as the exponential function. A special case of this flmction, where
-
a c , is often found useful. Fig. 6 shows the graph of the function f : R i R such tilai
f(x) - e x . This function is also called the natural expo~lrntialfunction. Its range is the set -2 -1 )
'
-
-
1 2
X

3
R'of positive real numbers. Fig. 6

-
5) The Natural Logarithmic Function: This futictia~:is defined on thc set R ofpositive real
numbers, with f:R'+4 R such that f(sj iil (xj. The range of this function is R . Its grnp!, i:
shown in Fig. 7. YA
= 117s
6) The Greatest Integer Function: Take a real number x. Either it is an integer, say n (so that
x = 11) or it is not an intzger. If if is not nil integer, we can find I by the Archimedea~iproperty of
- .~
1
it!, !
b
real numbers, i ~ nin~cgern. such that n < x <. n t I . Therefore. for each real number x \ve t;~!l (I L 2 :i 4 3
find an integer n: such that n I x c: n + 1. Further. for a given real number x; we can f ~ n donly
one such integer n. We say that n is the greatest integer not exceeding x, and denotc it by [x].
-
For example. [?I 3 and 13.51 - 3. (-3.51 = 4.Let 11s consider the function defined on R by 5:ig. 7
Yetrmg f ( x ) -- [XI.
 I
Elements o f Differential This function is called the greatest integer function. The graph of the function is as shown in
Calculus
Fig. 8. (It resembles the steps on an infinite staircase).
Notice that the graph consists of infinitely many line segments of unit length, all parallel to the
x-axis.

7) Other Functions The following are some important classes of functions.

a) Polynomial Functions fTx)= a,x" + a,xW'+ -------------- + a, where ao ,a,, --------------,a. are
given real numbers (constants) and n is a positive integer.
b) Rational Functions f(x) = g (x)/k(x), where g (x) and k (x) are polynomial functions of
degree n and m. This is defined for all real x, for which k (x) #O.
c) Trigorlometric or Circular Functions flx) =sin x, f(x) = cos x, f(x) =tan x, f(x) = cos x,
f(x) = sec x, f(x) = cosec x.
(ex + e-' ) (ex - )'-'
Fig. 8 d) Hyperbolic Funcions f(x) = coshx = ,flx)=sinhx= .We shall
2 2
study these in detail in Unit 5.

1.5.2 Inverse Functions

In this sub-section we shall see what is meant by the inverse of a function. But before talking
about the inverse, let us look at some special categories of functions. These special types of
functions will then lead us to the definition of the mverse of a function.
One-one and Onto Functions
Consider the function h : x x x2, defined on the set R. Here h(2) = h (-2) = 4. Thus 2 and -2 are
distinct members of the domain R, but their h-images are the same. (Can you find some more
numbers whose h-images are equal?) This may be expressed by saying that 3x, y such that
?r t y but h(x) = h(y).

Now, consider txe fuilction g: x x 2x + 3

Here you will be able to see that if x, and x2 are two distinct real numbers, then g(x,) and g ( x l )
are also distinct.
For,x,#x, 3 2xI#2x, 3 2x1+3#2x,+3 g(x,)#g(x,)
We have considered two functions here. While one of them, namely g, sends distinct members
of the domain to distinct members of the co-domain, the other, namely h, does not always do
so. We give a special name to functions like g above.
Definition 5: A function E x x Y is said to be a one-one function (a (1 - 1) function or an
injective function) if the images of distinct members of X are distinct members of Y.
Thus the function g above is one-one. whereas h is not one-one.
Remark 4: -he condition "the images of distinct members of X are distinct members of Y" in
the above dt.inition can be replaced by either of the follow~ngequivalent conditions:

a) For evely pair of members x, y of X, x + y a f(x) t f(y)

b) For every pair of members x, y of X, flx) = fly) 3 x = y.
We have observed earlier that for a func:ion EX x Y.
f(X) c Y. This opens two possibilities:
i) f (X) = Y, or ii) f (X) $ Y, that is, f(X) is a proper subset of Y
The function h :x + x2 tf x E R falls in the second category. Since the square of any real
number is always non-negative, h (R) = R' u { O } , the set of non-negative real numbers. Thus
h (R),@ R.
On the other hand, the function g : x -+ 2x + 3 belongs to the first category. Given any y E R
(co-domain) ifwe take x = (li2)y - 312, we find that g(x) = y. This shows that every member of
the co-domain is a g-image of some member of the domain and thus. is in the range g(R). From
this we get that g(R) = R. The following definition characterises this property of the function.
Definition 6 A function f: X x Y is said to be an onto function (or a surjective function) if
every member oEY is the image of some member of X. Iff is a fu~ctionfrom X onto Y. we often
Y (or f :X + -+ Y).
write: f : x 2,
Thus, h is not an onto function, whereas g is an onto function. Functions which are both one-
one and onto are of special importance in mathematics. Let us see what makes them special.
 Consider a function f: X -+ Y which is both one-one and onto. Since f is an onto function, each Real Numbers and
Functions
y E Y is the image of some x E X. Also, since f is one-one, y cannot be the image of w o
distinct members of X. Thus, we find that to each y E Y there corresponds a unique x E X such
that f(x) = y. Consequently, f sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the members of X
and Y. It is this one-to-one correspondence between members of X and Y which makes a one-
one and onto function so special, as we shall soon see.
Consider the function f : N -+ E defined f(x) = 2x, where E is the set of even natural numbers.
We can see that f is one-one as well as onto. In fact, to each y E E there exists y/2 E N, such
that f(y/2) = y. The correspondence y -+ yi2 defines a function, say g, from E to N such that
g (Y)= ~ 1 2 .
The function g so defined is called an inverse off. Since, to each y E E there corresponds, a
unique x E N such that f(x) = y, only one such function g can be defined corresponding to a
given function f. For this reason g is called the inverse off.
As you will notice, the function g is also one-one and onto and therefore it will also have an
inverse.You must have already guessed that the inverse of g is the function f.
From this discussion we have the following :
Iff is one-one and onro function from X to Y, then there exists a unique function g : Y i X
'"
such that for each y E Y, g(y) = x w y = f(Xj. The function g so defined is called the inverse of
f. Further, if g is the inverse off, then f is the inv'erse of g, and the two function f and g are said
to be the inverses of each other. The inverse of a function f is usually denoted by fI .
To find the inverse of a given function f, we proceed as follows:
Solve the equation f(x) = y for x. The resulting expressioil for x (in terms of y) defines the
Inverse function.
xJ x"
Thus, iff (x) = - + 2, we solve - + 2 = y for x.
5 5
1 1

This gives us x = {5(y - 2)) . Hence f-' is the function defined by f (y) = {5(y - 2))

1.5.3 Graphs of Inverse Functions

- -
There is an interesting relation between the graphs of a pair of inverse functions because of
which, if the graph of one of them is known, the graph of the other can be obtained easily.
Let f: X -+ Y be a one-one and onto function, and let g : Y +X be the inverse off. A point
,
-
(p, q) lies on the graph o f f c q. = f(p) p = g (q) (q, p) lies on the graph of g. Now the
points (p, q) and (q, p) are reflections of each other with respect to (w.r.t.) the line y x.
Therefore, we can say that the graphs o f f and g are reflections of each other w.r.t. the line
y=x.
r Therefore, it follow that, if the graph of one of the functions f and g is given, that of the other
can be obtained by reflecting it w.r.t. the line y = x. As an illustration, the graphs of the
fi~nctionsy = x3 and y = xl" are given in Fig. 9.
90you agret that these two functions are inverses of each other? If the sheet of paper on
which the graphs have bezn drawn is folded along the line y = x, the two graphs will exactly
coincide.

Fig. 9
Elements o f Differential
Calculus
E E 7) Compare the graphs of In x and ex given in Figs. 6 and 7 and verify that they are inverses
of each other.
If a given function is not one-one on its domain, we can choose a subset of the domain on
which it is one-one, and then define its inverse function. For example, consider the function
f : x + sin x.
Since we know that sin (x + 2n) = sin x, obviously this hnction is not one-one on R. But if we
++
restrict it Fo the interval [-nf2, n/2], we find that it is one-one. Thus, g f ( x ) =sin x x E [n/2,
n/2], then we can define
fI (x) = sit-' (x) = y if sin y = x.
'
Sin~ilarly,we can define cos-' and tan- functions as inverse of cosine and tangent functions if
we restrict the co-domain to [0, n] and]-x/2, x/2[, respectively.
E E 8) Which of the following functions are one-one?
a) f:R+Rdefinedbyf(x)=lx/
b) f : R + R defined by f (x) = 3x - 1.
c) f : R + R defined by f (x) = x2
d) f : R + R defined by f (x) = 1
E E9) Which of the follow~ngfunctions are onto?
a) f:R+Rdefinedbyf(x)-3x+7
b) f:R"+Rdefinedbyf(x)= Jj;
c) f:R+Rdefinedbyf(x)=x2+1
d) f : X 4 R defined by f (x) = l/x
where X stands for the set of non-zero real numbers.

E E 10) Show that the function f : X +X such that f (x) - x + l

--,where X is the set of all real
x - 1
numbers except 1, is one-one and onto. Find its inverse.

E E 11)Give ofieexample of each of the follou-~ng:

a) a one-ot:c f ~ n c t i o nuhlch 1s not unto.
h) onto funct~onwhich is not one-one.
c) a fi~nctiontvhlch 1s ne~therone-one nor onto
 Real Numbers and
Functions

1.6 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD

In this section we shall see how we can construct new functions from some given functions.
This can be done operating upon the given f u n c t i o ~ sin a variety of ways. We give a few such
ways here.

1.6.1 Operations on Functions

Scalar Multiple of a Function
Consider the function f : x + 3x2 + 1 tf x E R. The functiong : x + 2 (3x2+ 1) +j
x E R is such
that g (x) = 2f (x) tf x E R. We say that g = 2f, and that g is a scalar multiple o f f by 2. In the
above example there is nothing special about the number 2. We could have taken any real
number to construct a new function from f. Also, there is nothing special about the particular
function that we have considered. We could as well have taken any other function. This
suggests the following definition: Let f be a function with domain D and let k be any real
number. The scalar nlultiple o f f by k is a function with domain D. It is denoted by kf and is
defined by setting (kf) (x) = kf(x).
Two special cases of the above definition are important.
1) Given any function f, if k = 0, the function kf turns out to be the zero function. That is,
0.f = 0.
ii) -
If k -1, the function kf is called the negative o f f and is denoted simply by -f instead
of the clumsy If. -

Ahsolute Value Function (or modulus function) of a given function

Let f be a. fi~nctioilwith domain D. The absolute value function o f f , denoted by I f I and r e d as
111od f is defined by setting.
( fi ) (x) =: i f!X) I,for all x c D.
Since fix) I = f(x); if f(x) 2 0, f and I f I have the same graph for those value of x for which
f(x) 2 0.
Now let us consider those values of x for which f (x) < 0.
Here I f (x) / = - f (x). Therefore, the graphs o f f and ( f ( are reflections of each other w.r.t. the
x-axis for those values of x for which f (x) < 0.

Fig. 10
Elements of Differential
As an example, consider the graph in Fig. 10 (a). The portion of the graph below the x-axis (that
Calculus
is, the portion for which f(x) < 0) has been shown by a dotted line,
To draw the graph of / f I we retain the undotted portion in Fig. 10 (a) as it is, and replace the
dotted portion by its reflection w.r.t. the x-axis (see Fig. lob).
Sum, difference,Product and Quotient of two functions
If we are given two functions with a common domain, we can form-several new functions by
applying the four fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
on them.

i) Define a functions s on D by setting

s(x) = f(x)+ g(x).
The hnction s is called the sum of the functions f and g, and is denoted by f + g. Thus,
(f+ g) (x) = f(x)+ g(x)
ii) Define a function d on D by setting
d(x) = f(x)- g(x).
The function d is the function obtained by subtracting g from f, and is denoted by f-g.
Thus, for all x E D
(f - g) (x) = fix) - g(x).
iii) Define a function p on D by setting
P(x) =f(x)g(x).
The function p, called the product of the functions f and g, is denoted by fg. Thus, for all
XE D

iv) Define a function q on D by setting q(x) = fix)/g(x), provided g(x) # 0 for x E D. The
function q is called the quotient o f f by g and is denoted by flg. ThCus,

(f/g) (x) = f(x)lg(x) (g(x) # 0 for any x E Dl.

Remark 5: In case g(x) = 0 for some x E D. We can consider the set, say D, of all those
values of x for which g(x) a 0, and define flg on D by setting (flg) (x) = f(x)/g(x) tf x E D.

Example 4: Consider the functions f : x + x' and g : x + x3.Then the functions f + g, f - g, fg

are defined as
(f+gj(x)=x'+x3,
(f-g) (x) = x2-x3.
(fg) ( 4 = xS
Now, g(x) = 0 e;4 x3= 0 @ x = 0. Therefore. in order to define the function flg, we shall consider
only non-zero values of x. If x # 0, f(x)/g(x) = x2/x3= 1 1 ~Therefore
. flg is the function.
Bg : x + llx, whenever x # 0.
All the operations defined on functions till now, were similar to the corresponding operations
on real numbers. In the next subsection we are going to introduce an operation which has no
parallel in R. Composite functions play a very important role in calculus. You will realise this as
you read this course further.

1.6.2 Composite of Functions

We shall now describe a method of combining two functions which is somewhat different from
the ones studied so far. Uptill now we have considered functions with the same domain. We
shall now consider a pair of functions such that the co-domain of one is the domain of the
other.
Let f : X -+ Y and g : Y + Z be two functions. We define a function h : X +Z by setting
h(x) = e(qx)).
To obtain h(x), we first take the f-image, f(x), of an element x of X. This f(x) E Y. which is the
domain of g. We then take the g image of f(x), that is, g(f(x)), which is an element of Z. This
scheme has been shown in Fig. 11.
 Real Numbers and
Functions

Fig. I I

The function h, defined above, is called the composite o f f and g and is written as gof. Note the
order. We first find thesf-image and then its g-image. Try to distinguish it form fog, which will be
defined only when Z is a subset of X. Also, in that case, fog is a function from y to y.
Example 5: Consider the functions f :x + x2 v x E Rand g :x + 8x + 1 v x E R. g f 1s ' a

function from R to itself, defined by (goo(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2)= 8x2+ 1 Q x E R. fogis a func ~ I O I I
from R to itself defined by (fog)(x) = qg(x)) = q8x + 1) = (8x + I)*.Thus gofand fogare both
defined, but are different from each other.
The concept of composite function is used not only to combine functions, but also to look
upon a give11function as made up of two simpler functions. For example, consider the
function.
h:x+sin(3x+7)
We can think of it as the composite (gooof the functions f :x + 3x + 7 v x E Rand
g : u + s i n u v u ~R.
Now let us try to find the composites fog and g f of the functions:
f : x + 2 x + 3 ~X E R , a n d g : x + ( l / 2 ) ~ - 3 / 2 v x ~R
Note that f and g are inverses of each other. Now gof(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3)

Similarly,fog(x) * f(g(x)) = qx/2 - 312) = 2(x/2 - 312) + 3 = x. Thus, we see that gof(x) = x and
f~g(x)= x for all x E R. Or, in other words, each of gof and fogis the identity function on R.
,
What we have observed here is true for any two functions f and g which are inverses of each
other. Thus, iff :X +Y and g :Y + X are inverses of each other, then gofand fogare identity
functions. Since the domain of gof is X and that of fogis Y, we can write this as :
gof = ix,fog= iy.
This fact is often used to test whether two given functions are inverses of each other.

1.7 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

In this section we shall talk about various types of functions, namely, even, odd, increasing,
decreasing and periodic functions. In each case we shall also try to explain the concept
through graphs.

1.7.1 Even and Odd Functions

We shall first introduce two inlportant classes of functions: even functions and odd functions.
Consider the functions f defined on R by setting /

f(x)=x2 ~ x E R . \\,
I
1
/
You will notice-thatq-x)= (-x)~= xZ= qx) xE R , ,
I , I

This is an example ofan even functi0.n.Let7$take a look at the graph. (Fig. 12) of-this function.
~ \.-L,,
.... . .~.
0
~-F
X
/'
~ .

We find that the graph (a parabola) is symmetrical about the y-axis. 1f we fold the paper along
the y-axis, we shall see that the parts of the graph on both sides of the y-axis completely r
coincide with each other. Such functions are called even functions. Thus, a function f, defined
Fig. 12 '
on R is even, if, for each x E R, f (-x) = f(x).
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. We also note that if the 23
Flrments o f 1)ifierential
Calculus
graph of a function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, the function must be an even
f~~nction.Thus, if we are required to'draw the graph of an even function, we can use this
property,to our advantage. We only need to draw that part of the graph which lies to the right
of the y-axis and then just take its reflection w.r.t. the y-axis to obtain the part of the graph
which lies to the left of the y-axis.
YA E E 12) Given below are two examples of even functions, alongwith their graphs. Try to
convince yourself, by calculations as well as by looking at the graphs, that both the functions
't, 9
, are, indeed, even functions. A
\ /'
Y

- ''V
-- .-.-
0
- -
b
X
a) The absolute value function on R

f:x+lx/
The graph o f f is shown alongside. 2'

(a)
b) The function g defined on the set
of nw-zero real numbers by * /
1 ?\,
-.. b
setting g(x) = 1/x2,x # 0. -3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3 x
The graph of g is shown alongside.
(b)

Now let us consider the function f defined by setting f(x) = x3 x E R. We observe that
-
f(-x) (-x) = (-x)~= -x3 = -f(x) v x E R. If we consider another function g glven by g(x) = sin x
we shall be able to note agaln that g(-x) = sin (-x) = -sinx = -g(x).
The functions f and g above are similar in one respect: the image of -x is the negative of the
image of x. Such functions are called odd functions. Thus, a function f defined on R is said to
be an odd function if f(-x) =-f(x) v x E R.
If (x, Qx)) is a point on the graph of an odd function f, then (-x, -f(x)) is also a point on it. This
can be exptessed by saying that the graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the
origin. In other words, if you turn the graph of an odd function through 180" about the origin
you will find that you get the original graph again. Conversely, if the graph of a function is
symmetric with respect to the origin, the function must be an odd function. The above facts
are often usefui while handling odd functions.
E E 13) We ate giving below two functions alongwith their graphs. By calculations as well as by
looking at the graphs, find out for each whether it is even or odd. YA
YA 4
.* a) The identity function on R:
3

-/- b) The fuhction g defined on

the set of non-zero real

/
-; numbers by setting
g(x) = Ilx, x # 0
u'
 While many of the functions that you will come across in this course will turn out to be either Real Numbers and
Functions
even or odd, there will be many more which will be neither even nor odd. Consider, for example,
the function
f:x+(x+1)2
ere f(-x) = (-x + 1)2= x2- 2x + 1. ISf(x) = f(-X) v x E R?
The answer is 'no'. Therefore, f is not an even function. Is f(x) = -f(-x) v x E R? Again, the _
answer is 'no'. Therefore f is not an odd function. The same conclusion coyld have been
drawn by considering the graph o f f which is given m Fig. 13.
You will observe that the graph is symmetric neither with respect to the y-axis, nor with respect
to the origin.
Now there should be no difficulty in solving the exercise below.
E E 14) Which of the following functions are even, which are odd, and which are neither even
nor odd?

a) x + x 2 + 1, v X E R
b) x-+~)-l, V X E R 0, ~f x is rational
L c) x+cosx, ~ X RE 1, if x is irrational
d) x-+xlx(, v XE R

1.7.2 Monotone Functions

In this sub-section we shall consider two types of functions:
i) Increasing and ii) Decreasing / I
Any function which conforms to any one of these types is called a monotone function. Does
the of a company increase with production'! Does the volume of gas decrease with
increase in pressure? Problems like these require the use of increasing or decreasing
functions. Now let us see what we mean by an increasing function. Conslder the hnction g
and h defined by Fig. 14

-x, ifxlO
g (x) = x3 and h (x) = 1, if x > 0
Note that whenever x, > x,, we get x~~> xI3,that is, g(x,) > g(x,). .
Y4 .
In other words, as x increases. g(x) also increases. This fact can also be seen from the graph of
g shown in Fig. 14.
Let us find out how h(x) behaves as x increases. In this case we see that if x, > x,, then
h(x,) 2 h(x,). (You can verify this by choosing any values for x, and x,). Equivalently, we can
say that h (x) increases (or does not decrease) as x increases. The same can be seen from the
graph of h in Fig. 15.
- &a
Functions like g and h above are called increasing or non-decreasing functions. Thus, a
I
function f defined on a domain D is said to be increasing (or non-decreasing) if, for every
I
palr of elements x, x2E D, x2> x I a f(x2)2 f(xl). Further, we say that f is strictly increasing if Fig. IS
x, > x, 3 f(q) > f(x,) (strict inequality).
Clearly, the function g : x + x3 discussed above, is a strictly increasing function; while his not
a strictly increasing function.
We shall now study another concept which is, in some sense, complementary to that of an
I increasing function.
t
Elements o f Differential Consider the function f, defined on R by setting.
Calculus

The graph off, is as shown in Fig. 16.

YA From the graph we can easily see that as x increases f, does not increase.
Thatis,x2>x,*f, ( x 2 ) l f , (x,)orf, ( x J 2 f, (x,)
4 Now consider the function f2 :x + -x3 (x E R)
\-I
The graph of f, is shown in Fig. 17.
Since x, > x, 3 X: > xI33 -q3< -xI3 3 f2(x2)< f2(x,), we find that as x increases, f2(x)
decreases. Functions like f, an; f2 are called decreasing or non-increasing functions. The
above two examples suggest the follwing definition:
A fbnchon f defined on a domain D is said to be decreasing (or non-mcreasing) if for every
Graph of f,
Fig. 16
pair of elements x,, x,, x, > x, 3 f(x2)5 f(x,).Further, f is said to be strictly decreasing if
3>XI 3 f(xz)<
We have seen that, of the two decreasing functions f, and f2, f2 is strlctly decreasmg, while f,
\ AY is not strictly decreasing. A function f defined on a domain D is said to be a monotone function
4
I if it is either increasing or decreasing on D.
34 All the four functions (g, h, f,, f,) discussed above are monotone functions. The phrases
i2 'monotorlically increasing' and 'monotonically decreasing' are often used for 'increasing'
and 'decreasing', respectively.
1 While many functions are monotone, there are many others which are not monotone
-\.- . -- - T * Consider, for example, the function.
-2 -1 0-1 2 f:x+x2(xeR).

II t
You have seen the graph o f f in Fig. 12. This function is neither increasing nor decreasing.
1 ' If we find that a given function is not monotone, we can still determine some subsets of the
\ domain on which the function is increasing or decreasing. For example, the function
\ f(x) = x2 is strictly decreasing in ] --, 01 and is strictly increasing in [0, m [.
I I

E E 15) Given below are the graphs of some funchons. Classify them as non-decreasing.
strlctly decieasing, neither increasing nor decreasing:
Graph of f,
Fig. 17 ~4 yA YA
I
k
w '\

o/
-- * \
o\ b
/" X ,/' X X
\
4

+ a \A

1.7.3 Periodic Functions

In this section we are going to tell you about yet another important class of functions, known
as periodic functions.
Periodic functions occur very frequently in application of mathematics to various branches of
science. Many phenomena in nature such as propagation of water waves, sound waves, light
waves, electromagnetic waves etc. are periodic and we need periodic functions to descrlbe
them. Similarly, weather conditions and prices can also be described in terms of periodic
functions.
Look at the following patterns :
 4 r,, ,)\,, d 0 /" I' " Real Numbers and
Functions
o j - e T . e ~ . ~ . ~ l
e . e . i . i . l l l

<<=-<<I<z?.<:<<<-< (:-<< < <-s<<:

%

e e . ~ i e e - e i e o . . ) e . ~ . . . . e .

ee.....e.e.....*.......

V~\<.Y >x
l--d # A J - ., -:~;<)x><>,yld
:K;

Fig. 18

You must have come across patterns similar to the ones shown in Fig. 18 on the borders of
sarees, wall papers etc. In each of these patterns a design keeps on repeating itself. A similar
situation occurs in the graphs of periodic functions. Look at the graphs in Fig. 19.

Fig. 19

In each of the figures shown above the graph consists of a certain pattern repeated infir!itely
many times. Both these graphs represent periodic functions. To understand the situation, let
us examine these graphs closely.
Consider the graph in Fig. 19(a). The portion of the graph lying between x = -1 and x = 1 is the
graph of the function x + I x 1 on the domain - 1 Ix 5 1.
This portion is being repeated both to the left as well as to the right. by translating (pushing)
the graph through two units along the x-axis. That is to say, if x is any point of [-1, I], then the
+
ordinates at x, x f2, x k 4, x 6, .....are all equal. The graph therefore represents the function f
defined by

The graph in Fig. 19(b) is fie graph of the sine function, x + sin x, y x E R. You wili notice
that the portion of the graph between 0 and 2n is repeated both to the right and to hi:Icfc. You
know already that sin (x + 2nj =sin x, y x E R. We now give a precise meaning to the tcrnl "a
periodic function".
A function f defined on a domain D is said to be a periodic function if there exists a positlvc
read number p such that f(x +p) = f(xj for all x E D. The number p is said to be a pcricd off.
The smallest positive ineger p with the property described above is callcd the period off.
As you know, tan (x + nn) = tan x y n E N. This means that nn, n E N are all periods of the
tangent function. The smallest of nn, that is n, is the period of the tangent function. See if you
can do this exercise.
 Elements of Differential
Calculus
E E 16) a) What is the period each of the functions given in Fig. 19(a) and (b)?
~ b) Can you give one other period of each of these functions?

As another example of a periodic function, consider the function f defined on R by setting

f(x)=x - [XI
Let us reaall that [x] stands for the greatest integer not exceeding x.
The graph of this function is as shown in Fig. 20.
From the graph (as also by calculation) we can easily see that
f(x + n) = f(x) Q x E R. and for each positive integer n.

Fig. 20

The given function is therefore periodic, the numbers 1,2,3,4 being all periods. The smallest
of these, namely 1, is the period.
Thus the given function is periodic and has the period 1.
Remark 6 Monotonicity and periodicity are two properties of functions which cannot coexist.
A monotoile function can never be periodic, and a periodic function can never be monotone.
In general, it may not be easy to decide whether a given function is periodic or not. But
sometimes it can be done in a straight forward manner. Suppose we want to find whether the
function f : x + x2 Q x E R is periodic or not. We start by assuming that it is periodic with
period p:

Then we must have p > 0 and f(x + p) = f(x) Q x

Considering x # -p/2, we find that 2x + p # 0. Thus, p = 0. This is a contradiction.

Therefore, there does not exist may positive number p such that f(x + p) = f(x), Q x E R and,
consequently, f is not periodic.
E E 17) Examine whether the following functions are periodic or not. Write the periods of the
periodic functions.
a) x + cos x b)x+x+2
c) ,x+sin2x d) x +tan 3x
e) x +cos (2x + 5) f)x+sinx+sin2x
 Elements o f Differential
Calculus
E E 19) Is the sum of two periodic functions also periodic? Give reasons for you answer.

I We end with summarising what we have discussed in this units.

1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we have
1 briefly revised the basic properties of real numbers,
2. defined the absolute value of a real number x as

X =
/ xif x 2 0
I-x if x < 0
3 discussed various types of intervals in R
Open: ]a,b[ = { X ER : a < x < b )
closed: -[a,b] = { X ER : a l x l b )
semi-open: ]a,b] ={XER:a<x<b)
or [a,b[ = { x e R : a l x c b ) ,
where a, b E R,
4 defined a function and discussed various types of functions along with their graphs:
one-one, onto, even, odd, monotone, periodic.
5 defined composite of functions and discussed the existence of the inverse of a function.

1.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

a
E 1) a) The set { 1,2,3, .......) has a lower bound, e.g., 0.
b) The set { ............., -3, -2, -1,0, 1,2, .............} does not have a lower bound.
,
c) Theg.l.bofthesetS={l,'/,, '1 ................ '1,. ........)isO,andO@S.
d) {x : x E R and 1 5 x I 2) is a bounded set as it is bounded above by 2 and below by 1.
E 2) a) A real number p is positive if p > 0.Hence 0 is a lower bound for the set P of positive
real numbers. Thus the set P is bounded below. Its infimum is 0.
b) A real number r is the infimum of a set S c R if and only if the following conditions
are satisfied:
i) r l x f o r a l l x ~S.
ii) For each e > 0 there is y E S such that y < r + E .
The set P in a) above has infimum 0, since
i) O<pforallp~Pand
ii) For each & > 0 there is d 2 E P such that d 2 < 0 + E = E
E3) a) Ix(=rnax{x,-x).Hencex=O+lxl=Oand
(x\=O*max. { x , - x ) = O ~ x = O .
b) There are three cases 1) x 2 0, y 2 0
2) x and y have opposite signs
e)x<O,ycO.
We take 2). Suppose x > 0, y < 0, then,
~ x ) = m a{x,-x)=x,I
r y/=max{y,-y}=-y.
 1
xy<O*/xyI=-xy=xx(-y)=(xJ)yl. Renl Numbers nncl
Functions
1) and 3) can be proved similarly.
c) Ifx>O,Ix)=xand/l / x ( = l / x = l / ( x )
Ifx<O,(xJ=-xandl l/x)=-l/x= 1/Ix)
d)Ix-y/=lx+(-Y)I~/~I+I-YI=I~I+IYI
e)Ix+y+zI=((x+y)+z(1(x+y)+)zJS1~I+Jy(+(~J
f)lx~zl=lxyllzl=lxlI~llzl
E4) a) False b) True c) True d) False
E5) a) ----- b) 4 C--
1 8 2

E 8) b) is one-one
E9) a) is onto

Hence f is one-one.

Y+l
I f y e X,putx= p . Then x E X and y = f(x). Hence, f is onto.
Y-1

Ell) a) f:R++R:f(x)= J;;

E12) a) f(x) = I x I f(-x) = ( -x 1 = ( x I = qx). Hence, f is even.

b) g(x) = 1/x29 g(-x) = 1 / ( - ~ )=~g(x). Hence, g is even.
Q E13) a) f(x) = x 3 f(-x) = - x =-f(x). Hence, f is odd.
b) g(x) =.1/X 3 g (- x) = -l/x =-g(x). Hence, g is odd.
E14) a), c and e) are even
d) is odd
b) is neither even nor odd.
E15) a) neither increasing, nor decreasing
b) non-decreasing c) strictly decreasing
E l 9 The period of the function in Fig. 19 a) is 2. Other periods are 4,6,8, ...........
The period of the function in Fig. 19 b) is 2x. Other periods are 4x, 6x, ...........
E17) a) Periodic with period 2x
Since cos (x + 2x) = cos x for all x.
b) not periodic
c) Periodic with period x.
d) Periodic with period x/3.
e) Periodic with period x.
f) Periodic with period 2x.
b
El8) a) and b) are periodic, c) is not.
E19) NO.For example, x - [x] and 1 sin x I are periodic, but their sum is not.