Perinatal  Psychiatry    
Paper  B   Syllabic  content  7.2  
 
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 1. Mental illness and pregnancy
Pregnancy  is  associated  with  risk  of  spontaneous  major  malformation  (2-­‐‑3%  of  all  pregnancies)  and  drugs  
account  for  only  5  of  every  100  malformations  that  occur.    

Pregnancy  is  not  a  protective  factor  for  psychosis  and  depression.  In  fact,  pregnancy  is  associated  with  
increased  risk  of  suicide  and  mental  health  problems.  This  may  be  due  to  hormonal,  social,  personal  
changes  and  emotional  stress.  Treatment  of  mental  health  problems  should  be  a  priority  but  should  be  
based  on  an  individual  risk-­‐‑benefit  assessment.  

• A  significant  increase  in  new  psychiatric  episodes  in  first  3  months  of  the  postpartum  period.  80%  
are  mood  disorder  (  mainly  depression)  
• Depression  during  pregnancy  –  7  to  15%  risk  (around  10%).  This  may  be  higher  in  developing  
nations.  The  rate  of  depression  in  a  woman  outside  the  perinatal  period  is  only  7%.  The  relapse  rate  
of  depression  in  those  who  had  a  past  history  is  around  50%  when  they  are  pregnant.  The  high  
prevalence  of  antenatal  depression  may  be  partly  due  to  relapse/recurrences  and  partly  due  to  
freshly  increased  the  incidence  of  depression.  (O'ʹKeane  &  Marsh  2007)    
• Postpartum  depression:  10%  risk,  begins  before  delivery,  higher  risk  in  patients  with  previous  
depressive  illness  (irrespective  of  being  postpartum  or  not)  &  risk  highest  with  bipolar  illness.  
• The  risk  of  postpartum  psychosis  is  0.1-­‐‑0.25%  in  general  population,  50%  in  bipolar  disorder  and  
50-­‐‑90%  in  a  patient  with  a  history  of  postpartum  psychosis.    
• Puerperal  psychosis  can  take  the  form  of  mania,  schizophreniform  /  acute  polymorphic  psychosis,  
or  with  confusion  and  disorientation.    
• The  incidence  of  puerperal  psychosis  is  about  one  per  1000  births.    
• It  is  strongly  linked  with  the  bipolar  disorder.    
• Childbirth,  together  with  abortion  and  menstruation  are  triggers  of  bipolar  episodes    
• The  recurrence  rate  is  about  one  in  four  pregnancies  
• Disorders  of  the  mother-­‐‑infant  relationship  are  prominent  in  10–25%  of  women  
• There  is  a  20-­‐‑fold  increase  in  relative  risk  of  psychosis  in  one’s  lifetime  during  the  first  postpartum  
month.  Women  with  the  schizoaffective  disorder  are  also  susceptible.    
• The  risk  of  relapse  of  bipolar  illness  is  increased  up  to  eight-­‐‑fold  in  the  first  month  postpartum.  
Most  relapses  are  depressive.  
Risks  of  untreated  psychiatric  illness:  

For  the  mother:  Increased  risk  of  suicide,  alcohol  &  substance  misuse,  poor  compliance  with  perinatal  
appointments,  unhealthy  lifestyle  (poor  diet,  Lack  of  exercise,  increased  smoking),  poor  judgement,  
impulsive  acts  &  impaired  self-­‐‑care.  

For  the  foetus:  Low  birth  weight  &  small  head  circumference  (due  to  antenatal  depression  &  anxiety),  
preterm  birth  (due  to  antenatal  depression).If  untreated  depression  continues  in  the  postnatal  period,  it  
leads  to  attachment,  behavioural  &  cognition  difficulties.  Substance  misuse  in  pregnancy  leads  to  
increased  intrauterine  deaths,  congenital,  cardiovascular  &  musculoskeletal  anomalies,  &  foetal  alcohol  
syndrome.  The  harm  due  to  postpartum  psychosis  can  range  from  neglect  to  infanticide.  
©  SPMM  Course   2  
 2. Pharmacological treatment in pregnancy
A. General principles of psychiatric treatment in pregnancy
Risks  of  pharmacological  treatments  in  pregnancy  include  -­‐‑  Neonatal  toxicity,  prematurity  and  stillbirth,  
and  morphological  and  behavioural  teratology.  Major  malformations  occur  in  the  first  trimester  and  
neonatal  toxicity  in  the  3rd  trimester.  Teratogenic  effects  are  both  dose  and  time  dependent,  with  organs  at  
the  greatest  risk  during  their  period  of  fastest  development.  Week  6  to  week  10  is  the  most  vulnerable  
period.  

• Treatment  must  be  based  on  individual  risk-­‐‑benefit  analysis  

• Monotherapy,  lowest  dose,  regular  psychiatric  and  obstetric  review  &  review  of  medications  
are  recommended  
• Involve  midwives,  obstetricians  and  health  visitors.  Refer  to  specialist  perinatal  services  if  
necessary.  
• If  possible,  avoid  all  drugs  in  the  1st  trimester.  
• Ensure  adequate  foetal  screening  during  pregnancy  
• Adjust  doses  as  pregnancy  advances;  blood  volume  expands  by  30%  in  the  3rd  trimester.  Hence,  
dose  increase  is  frequently  required  in  the  3rd  trimester.  
• Observe  for  neonatal  withdrawal  symptoms  after  birth  
 
¬ Treatment  of  schizophrenia  in  pregnancy:  

• Risk  associated  with  untreated  schizophrenia  is  high  

• Consensus-­‐‑  use  antipsychotic  at  every  stage  of  pregnancy.  Patients  with  a  history  of  psychosis,  
who  are  maintained  on  antipsychotic,  particularly  if  they  have  frequent  relapses,  are  best  
maintained  on  antipsychotic  during  and  after  pregnancy.  
• Most  experience  is  with  chlorpromazine,  trifluoperazine,  haloperidol,  olanzapine  and  
clozapine.  
• Olanzapine  is  widely  used  by  perinatal  services  in  the  UK.  
 
¬ Treatment  of  depression  in  pregnancy:  

• Explore  the  possibility  of  delaying  the  treatment  until  second  or  third  trimesters  
• Alternative  treatment  possibilities  e.g.  CBT  should  be  explored  
• Patient  with  a  high  risk  of  relapse  and  on  an  antidepressant  should  be  maintained  on  an  
antidepressant  during  and  after  pregnancy.  
• If  a  patient  develops  a  moderate  or  severe  depressive  illness  during  pregnancy,  they  should  be  
treated  with  antidepressant  medication  if  psychological  management  has  failed  or  is  not  
available  
• Nortriptyline,  amitriptyline,  impramine  and  fluoxetine  are  recommended  antidepressants.  
Avoid  paroxetine  
 

©  SPMM  Course   3  
¬ Treatment  of  bipolar  affective  disorder  in  pregnancy:  

• Most  of  the  patients  who  become  pregnant  while  on  medication  and  patient  with  severe  illness  
&  with    high  risk  of  relapse  should    be  maintained  on  medication  
• “Maintenance  strategies  should  involve  dosage  reduction  and  regular  review  of  side  
effects”(  Kohen,  2004)  
• “Discontinuation  of  mood  stabilisers  in  pregnancy  should  take  place  only  when  absolutely  
necessary  and  be  followed  by  frequent  monitoring”(  Kohen,  2004)    
• “For  women  who  have  had  a  long  period  without  relapse,  the  possibilities  of  withdrawing  
treatment  before  conception  and  for  at  least  the  first  trimester  should  be  considered”.  
(Maudsley.2007)  
• Avoid  valproate  and  combination  of  mood  stabilisers  
•  If  Valproate  or  carbamazepine  is  prescribed;  Prophylactic  folic  acid  (5  mg  daily,  from  at  least  a  
month  before  conception)  should  be  used.  
• Prophylactic  Vitamin  K  should  be  given  mother  &  neonate  after  delivery  when  Valproate  or  
carbamazepine  is  used.  
 

B. Specific effects of various drugs

¬ Tricyclic  Antidepressant:  They  do  not  cause  any  significant  malformation  in  all  three  trimesters.  But  
preferably  use  nortriptyline  &  desipramine  as  they  have  less  hypotensive  and  anticholinergic  side  
effects.  However,  high  dosages  use  (similar  to  fluoxetine)  in  the  third  trimester  can  lead  reversible  
withdrawal  symptoms  (irritability,  eating  &  sleeping  difficulties  and  convulsions)  
¬ SSRI:  No  increase  in  major  malformation  (exception-­‐‑  paroxetine);  the  neonatal  withdrawal  is  
reversible  complications.  However  there  is  13.3%  increase  in  spontaneous  abortion  (also  with  
mirtazapine  &  bupropion),  decreased  gestational  age  (mean  1  week)  and  low  birth  weight  (mean  175  
gms).  

• Paroxetine,  particularly  high  dose  first-­‐‑trimester  exposure,  is  clearly  linked  to  cardiac  
malformation  –  VSD  and  ASD.  Third-­‐‑trimester  use  can  give  rise  to  neonatal  complication  
due  to  abrupt  withdrawals.  
• Fluoxetine  has  the  most  evidence  and  seems  safer  than  paroxetine.  
• Least  placental  exposure  is  with  sertraline.  
• Exposure  to  SSRI,  when  taken  in  late  pregnancy,  may  increase  risk  for  persistent  pulmonary  
hypertension  of  the  newborn  although  the  absolute  risk  is  small  
• Note:  risk  of  neonatal  withdrawal  symptoms  is  high  with  paroxetine  and  venlafaxine  due  to  
short  half-­‐‑life  
¬ MAOIs:    Evidence  safety  of  MAOIs  is  very  limited.  Therefore  switching  to  a  safer  antidepressant  is  
advised.  They  should  be  avoided  due  to  the  risk  of  hypertensive  crisis  and  suspected  increase  risk  of  
congenital  malformation.  
¬ Other  antidepressants:  Limited  data  on  moclobemide,  venlafaxine,  reboxetine,  Bupropion  and  
mirtazapine  suggests  the  absence  of  teratogenicity.  

©  SPMM  Course   4  
¬ Lithium:    1  in  10  chance  of  having  a  malformation  if  lithium  is  continued  through  the  first  trimester.  
The  UK  National  Teratology  Information  Service  have  concluded  that  lithium  increases  the  risk  of  all  
types  of  malformation  of  approximately  three-­‐‑fold  and  with  a  weighting  towards  cardiac  
malformations  of  around  eight-­‐‑fold  (Williams  &  Oke,  2000)  
• Ebstein’s  anomaly-­‐‑Relative  risk  compared  to  general  population-­‐‑10-­‐‑20times  higher,  but  the  
absolute  risk  is  low  at  1:1000.  The  (absolute  spontaneous  risk  of  Ebstein’s  is  1  in  20,000.  
Cohen  et  al.,  JAMA  1994;271:146-­‐‑150)  (9.5  is  the  closest  answer  to  the  question  that  appeared  
in  March  2008)  
• Maximum  risk  is  at  2-­‐‑6  weeks  after  conception  when  many  pregnancies  are  still  
undiscovered.  
• Foetal  toxicity-­‐‑Hypotonia,  lethargy,  poor  reflexes,  respiratory  difficulties  &  Cardiac  
arrhythmias.  (  Note-­‐‑  these  are  reversible  and  do  not  cause  later  complication)  
• Important-­‐‑  Risk  to  mother  and  child  of  lithium  withdrawal  might  have  been  underestimated  
and  risk  to  the  foetus  of  lithium  exposure  might  have  been  overestimated.  
• The  risk  of  relapse  is  up  to  70%  within  6  months,  faster  the  discontinuation-­‐‑  higher  the  risk  
of  relapse.  
• The  risk  of  relapse  on  discontinuation  during  pregnancy  is  same  for  pregnant  and  non-­‐‑
pregnant  women.  But  among  women  with  bipolar  disorder  who  elect  to  discontinue  lithium  
therapy  in  the  puerperium,  the  estimated  risk  of  relapse  is  threefold  higher  than  for  
nonpregnant,  nonpuerperal  women.  
¬ Carbamazepine:  0.5  -­‐‑1%  risk  of  spina  bifida,  craniofacial  anomalies,  growth  retardation  and  decreased  
the  average  head  circumference.  In  a  series  of  carbamazepine  exposed  pregnancies,  craniofacial  defects  
(11  percent),  fingernail  hypoplasia  (26  percent),  and  developmental  delay  (20  percent)  were  recorded.  
There  is  some  similarity  between  the  teratogenic  effects  of  carbamazepine  and  foetal  hydantoin  
syndrome  (phenytoin  exposure)  probably  related  to  the  common  arene  oxide  pathway  through  which  
both  drugs  are  metabolised.    Hence  the  epoxide  intermediate  rather  than  carbamazepine  itself  may  be  
the  principal  teratogenic  agent.  
¬ Sodium  Valproate:  Most  teratogenic.  The  risk  for  any  birth  defect  quoted  7.2%  in  Maudsley  &  NICE.  
UK  epilepsy  &  pregnancy  registry  gives  comparable  value;  North  American  registry  quotes  10%  risk.  
The  risk  is  dose  related  and  mostly  seen  in  17  to  30  days  post  conception;  risk  increases  with  family  
history  of  neural  defects  
• Causes  foetal  distress,  growth  retardation,  hepatotoxicity  and  congenital  anomalies.  
• Congenital  anomalies-­‐‑  risk  of  neural  tube  defect  (  1-­‐‑2  %),  risk  of  spina  bifida  (  10  fold  
increase),digital  and  limb  defects,  heart  defects  (  VSD,  Pulmonary  stenosis  etc.  4  fold  
increase),  urogenital  malformations,  low  birth  weight  and  psychomotor  slowness  
• Causes  neurological  dysfunction  and  hyperexcitability,  the  severity  of  dysfunction  
correlates  with  valproate'ʹs  concentration  in  the  infant  
• An  increasingly  recognised  risk  in  exposed  children  is  mental  retardation  –  low  IQ  due  to  
Valproate  exposure  seems  to  be  the  most  common  result  of  the  mother  being  treated  with  
Valproate  when  pregnant.  Among  children  whose  mothers  took  valproate  monotherapy  

©  SPMM  Course   5  
 during  pregnancy,  42%  had  a  verbal  IQ  score  of  less  than  80  (22%,  <70  Adab  et  al.,  2004).  
Interestingly  in  epilepsy  literature,  it  is  also  recorded  that  having  5  or  more  seizures  during  
pregnancy  can  significantly  affect  the  verbal  IQ  of  the  newborn.  So  the  confounding  effect  of  
seizures  is  not  known.  They  also  reported  that  30%  of  children  exposed  to  valproate  needed  
special  educational  support  in  school,  compared  with  3-­‐‑6%  of  those  exposed  to  monotherapy  
with  other  antiepileptic  drugs  (Breen  &  Davenport,  2006)  
¬ Lamotrigine  may  be  associated  with  cleft  palate.  Lamotrigine  monotherapy  is  associated  with  a  3.2%  
frequency  of  malformations.  
¬ Conventional  antipsychotics:  The  exact  risk  of  significant  harm  caused  by  antipsychotics  is  
unknown.It  is  generally  agreed  that  conventional  antipsychotic  are  associated  with  low  teratogenic  
risks  and  are  comparatively  safe  to  use  in  pregnancy.  The  most  notable  study  was  California  child  
health  development  project  which  studied  19,000  births.  But  low-­‐‑potency  conventional  antipsychotics  
are  associated  with  the  transient  perinatal  syndrome,  floppy  infants  &  withdrawal  symptoms  
(Irritability,  hypertonicity,  hypotonicity  &  underdeveloped  reflexes).  Low  potency  used  during  the  
first  trimester  has  been  associated  with  a  small  but  statistically  significant  increased  relative  risk  of  
congenital  malformation  (2-­‐‑2.4%).  First-­‐‑trimester  haloperidol  exposure  has  been  associated  with  limb  
deformities  however  other  studies  did  not  conform  this  association  (Yaeger  et  al.,  2006)  
¬ Atypical  antipsychotics:  Case  reports  suggest  that  clozapine,  olanzapine,  risperidone  and  quetiapine,  
in  pregnancy,  do  not  have  serious  effects  on  the  newborn.  There  are  concerns  about  the  use  of  
clozapine  due  to  lack  of  foetal  white  cell  measurement,  lack  of  understanding  of  the  risk  of  
agranulocytosis  and  hypotension.  Still  birth  &  neonatal  seizure  have  been  reported  with  clozapine.  
Gestational  diabetes  can  occur  with  clozapine  &  olanzapine.  Note-­‐‑  Data  on  aripiprazole  is  limited.  No  
case  reports  on  use  of  other  SGAs  in  pregnancy  
¬ Anticholinergic  drugs:  Teratogenicity  has  been  reported  with  anticholinergic  medications  (in  a  
combination  with  antipsychotic)  use  in  pregnancy.  They  should  be  avoided  and  if  needed,  the  lowest  
possible  dose  should  be  used.  
¬ Benzodiazepines:  First  trimester-­‐‑0.6%  risk  of  oral  cleft  &  CNS  and  urinary  tract  malformation.  Other  
adverse  effects-­‐‑Neonatal  toxicity  (withdrawal  symptoms),  respiratory  depression,  muscular  hypotonia  
(floppy  baby  syndrome).  Benzodiazepines  are  best  avoided  in  pregnancy.  Zopiclone  does  not  show  
any  animal  teratogenicity.  Human  data  are  lacking.  Note:  -­‐‑  Promethazine  is  widely  used  as  sedative  in  
pregnancy  but  data  is  limited        

©  SPMM  Course   6  
 Lithium  treatment  programme  in  pregnant  mothers  (Adapted  from  Kohen,2004)

• In  women  on  maintenance  treatment,  serum  lithium  level  should  be  monitored  every  4  weeks  through  
out  the  pregnancy
• Lithium  dosage  should  be  adjusted  to  match  the  lower  end  of  the  therapeutic  range
• Lithium  should  not  be  discontinued  abruptly;  prior  to  delivery  the  dosage  should  be  gradually  tapered  
to  60-­‐‑70%  of  the  original  maintenance  level
• Lower  doses  and  frequent  blood  monitoring  should  be  norm  in  pregnant  women  starting  lithium  in  the  
first  trimester  of  pregnancy
• Lithium  commenced  in  second  and  third  trimester  of  pregnancy  or  perinatal  period  can  help  reduce  the  
risk  of  puerperal  psychosis
• No  decision  is  risk  free
• guidelines  should  vary  with  the  severity  of  the  illness
• Should  undergo  level  2  ultrasound  and  echocardiography  of  the  foetus  at  6  &  18  week’s  gestation  to  
screen  Ebstein'ʹs  anomaly.(Maudsley.2007)
• Increased  dose  of  lithium  is  required  during  3rd  trimester  as  total  body  water  increases,  but  the  
requirement  returns  abruptly  to  pre-­‐‑pregnancy  level  immediately  after  delivery.
 
 

ECT  in  pregnancy:  Relatively  few  side  effects  and  fewer  risks  than  untreated  mood  episodes  or  
pharmacotherapy.    Occasional  reports  of  congenital  malformations;  but  does  not  implicate  ECT  as  a  causal  
factor.  Complications  of  ECT  during  pregnancy  are  uncommon  and  transient    

• Effect  of  anaesthetic  agents:  Barbiturates  and  atropine  can  reduce  beat-­‐‑to-­‐‑beat  variability  in  
the  foetal  heart  rate,  and  atropine  can  cause  foetal  tachycardia.    
• Uterine  smooth  muscle  does  not  routinely  contract  during  a  seizure  so  premature  labour  is  
almost  unheard  of.      
• Seizure  threshold  is  decreased  by  oestrogen  and  increased  by  progesterone.    
• During  pregnancy,  prolonged  gastric  emptying  time  increases  the  risk  of  gastric  
regurgitation  and  aspiration  pneumonitis  (Yonkers  et  al.  2004)  
 

©  SPMM  Course   7  
 3. Pharmacological treatment and breastfeeding
¬ Systematic  research  and  controlled  studies  on  the  effect  of  psychotropics  on  nursing  mother  and  baby  
are  lacking  and    recommendation  are  based  on  small  case  series  and  single  case  reports.  Long  term  
adverse  effects  of  psychotropic  medication  is  not  available.    
¬ All  psychotropic  are  excreted  in  breast  milk.  The  risk-­‐‑benefit  ratio  should  be  considered  on  individual  
basis.  Treatment  of  maternal  illness  should  take  priority  wherever  needed.  Monotherapy    with  lowest  
possible  dose  should  be  used.  Medication  should  be  taken  after  breast-­‐‑feeding  and  should  be  avoided  
during  peak  drug  level  in  milk  
 

A. General pharmacokinetics of psychotropics in breast milk

Factors  playing  a  role  in  development  of  adverse  effect  in  breast  fed  infants  are  the  prescribed  dose;  level  
of  drug  the  mother'ʹs  blood  plasma;  the  level  in  the  breast  milk;  and  the  level  in  the  infant'ʹs  serum.  The  
factors  determining  the  amount  of  drug  excreted  in  the  milk  include  a  medication’s  diffusion  capacity  
across  the  membranes,  its  molecular  weight  and  lipid  solubility.  

•  “The  arbitrary  concentration  in  the  infant'ʹs  plasma    of  10%  of  the  established  therapeutic  maternal  
dose  is  used  as  the  upper  threshold  where  the  risks  of  a  particular  drug  side  effects  are  low  and  
treatment  is  accepted  as  safe”  
• A  breast  milk/  mother'ʹs  plasma  ratio  greater  than  1  suggests  a  high  likelihood  the  infant  will  be  
exposed  to  the  drugs  
• Pre-­‐‑term  immature  infants  should  not  be  exposed  to  psychotropic  medication  as  they  are  more  
sensitive  and  may  have  an  immature  liver  function.  
• Infants  older  than  10  weeks  are  at  lower  risk  of  adverse  effects  if  there  is  no  evidence  of  
accumulation  in  the  infant.  
• The  infant'ʹs  cardiac,  renal,  and  hepatic  function  should  be  checked  before  breast-­‐‑feeding.  
• If  breastfed,  infants  progress,  milestones  and  adverse  effect  (drowsiness,  hypotonia,  rigidity,  
tremor  and  withdrawal  symptoms)  should  be  monitored.  
• Colostrum  will  have  greater  concentration  of  protein-­‐‑bound  drugs  and  hind  milk  will  have  greater  
concentration  of  lipid  soluble  drugs    compared  to  foremilk  
• Factors  to  be  considered  in  risk/benefit  analysis:    Severity  and  frequency  of  mental  illness,  
benefits  of  breastfeeding,  impact  of  untreated  maternal  illness  on  infant  and  mother,  level  of  family  
support,  compliance  with  treatment,  patient'ʹs    and  family'ʹs  ability  recognise  early  warning  signs,  
physical  health  and  maturity  of  the  infant,  support  from  statutory  and  voluntary  organising  
• Recommendation  (Adapted  from  Maudsley  guidelines,  2007)  

Antidepressant-­‐‑  paroxetine  or  sertraline  

Antipsychotic  -­‐‑Sulpride  or  olanzapine  
Mood  stabiliser-­‐‑  avoid  if  possible,  Valproate  if  essential  
Sedatives-­‐‑  lorazepam  for  anxiety;  zolpidem  for  sleep  
 

©  SPMM  Course   8  
 B. Specific effects of various drugs
Antidepressants:  These  are  secreted  in  breast  milk  in  very  small  quantities.  Infant  serum  levels  are  low.  

• SSRI  (Fluoxetine,  sertraline,  paroxetine  and  citalopram)  and  tricyclic  antidepressant  (  except  
Doxepin  )    are  probably  safe.    
• Preferred  Tricyclic  antidepressants-­‐‑Amitriptyline  and  imipramine.  
• Amitriptyline,  imipramine,  clomipramine  and  nortriptyline  did  not  show  any  adverse  effects  in  
infants.  Maternal  plasma  and  breast  milk  concentration  of  tricyclic  antidepressant  is  same.  N-­‐‑
desmethyldoxepine,  longer  acting  metabolite  of  doxepin,  may  accumulate  in  infants  and  cause  
severe  drowsiness  and  respiratory  depression.Plasma  levels  of  clomipramine  in  breast  fed  infant  
were  high  following  delivery.    
• Data  is  limited  for  trazodone  and  should  be  used  with  caution.  
• Fluoxetine  and  its  active  metabolite  norfluoxetine  were  detected  in  plasma  and  breast  milk  but  not  
in  infant'ʹs  plasma.  Single  case  reports  have  indicated  adverse  effects  such  irritability,  cyanosis,  
somnolence  and  unresponsiveness  with  higher  doses.  It  does  not  effect  the  development;  does  not  
cause  cognitive  dysfunction  or  neurological  abnormality.  
• Sertraline  is  the  first  line  of  treatment  in  the  USA.  The  samples  for  sertraline  studies  are  large.  
• Paroxetine  has  a  lower  milk/plasma  ratio  than  fluoxetine  and  sertraline.  
• No  studies  of  MAOI'ʹs  
Median  Time  to  maximum  concentration  in  the  milk  after  maternal  
or  bupropion  use  in  
ingestion    
breastfeeding  are  
Moclobemide-­‐‑  3  hours  
available.  MAOI'ʹs  
Olanzapine-­‐‑  5  hours  
should  be  stopped  in  
Sertraline-­‐‑7-­‐‑10  hours,  Peak  level  have  not  been  reported  for  
mothers  planning  to  
paroxetine  or  fluoxetine  
breast-­‐‑feed.  
 

Conventional  Antipsychotics:    High-­‐‑potency  antipsychotic  are  recommended  during  breast-­‐‑feeding  due  

less  sedation  and  less  autonomic  effect.    Haloperidol,  chlorpromazine,  or  perphenazine  have  been  studied  
and  they  are  safe  during  breastfeeding.  Delayed  development  has  been  reported  in  3  infants  who  were    

exposed  to  a  combination  of  haloperidol  and  chlorpromazine  (Maudsley  guidelines,2007).  

Atypical   antipsychotics:   Limited   data   suggests   sulpride;   olanzapine   and   risperidone   are   safe   in  
breastfeeding.   However,   the   decision   to   continue   needs   to   be   done   on   individual   risk/benefits   analysis.  
There   are   no   published   data   on   Aripiprazole,   Amisulpride,   Sertindole   and   Ziprasidone.   Clozapine   is  
contraindicated   during   breastfeeding   as   it   accumulates   in   breast   milk   and   foetal   serum.   A   Higher  
concentration   of   clozapine   is   due   to   a   higher   concentration   of   albumin   in   the   foetal   blood.   Reported  
adverse  effects  -­‐‑   Agranulocytosis  (  but  recovered  spontaneously  after  discontinuation),  decreased  sucking  
reflex,  drowsiness  seizure,  irritability  and  cardiovascular  instability.  

©  SPMM  Course   9  
Lithium:  Lithium  is  contraindicated  during  breastfeeding  (  Kohen,2005).However,  “the  use  of  lithium  
during  breastfeeding  varies  between  absolute  contraindication  to  mother'ʹs  informed  choice”  (Maudsley  
Guidelines,  2007).Lithium  serum  concentration  and  CBC  should  be  monitored  for  infants  exposed  to  
lithium.  

• 40-­‐‑  50%  of  maternal  serum  level  is  excreted  in  breast  milk.  
• Infant  serum  level  can  rise  up  to  200%  of  maternal  serum  concentration  (range  5%-­‐‑200%)  
• Serum  level  of  lithium  can  be  raised  due  to  diminished  renal  clearance  in  neonates  
• Toxicity  has  been  reported  -­‐‑cyanosis,  lethargy,  Hypotonia,  heart  murmur  (  these  symptoms  
resolved  after  stopping  the  breastfeeding)  
 

Sodium  Valproate:    Infant  serum  levels  range  from  being  undetectable  to  40%.    Adverse  effects  reported-­‐‑  
Thrombocytopenia  and  anaemia  (  resolved  after  stopping  breastfeeding)  

Carbamazepine:  Infant  serum  range-­‐‑  5-­‐‑65%.    Adverse  effects  reported-­‐‑Cholestatic  hepatitis,  transient  
hepatitic  dysfunction  (Hyperbilirubinaemia,  High  concentration  of  gamma-­‐‑glutamyl-­‐‑transferase),  seizure-­‐‑
like  activity,  irritability,  high-­‐‑pitched  crying,  hyperexcitability  and  poor  feeding  

Lamotrigine:  Infant  serum  range-­‐‑  30%  of  maternal  concentration.    No  adverse  effects  noted  

Benzodiazepines  should  not  be  started  during  breastfeeding  and  should  be  encouraged  to  stop  before  
becoming  pregnant.  A  long-­‐‑acting  benzodiazepine  can  produce  lethargy,  poor  suckling  and  weight  loss.  
Persistent  apnoea  has  been  reported  with  Clonazepam.    Infant  serum  range-­‐‑  Diazepam:  undetectable-­‐‑15%,  
Lorazepam,  clonazepam  and  temazepam:  small  amount.  A  low  dose  of  short-­‐‑acting  benzodiazepine  
(Temazepam,  oxazepam)  are  mostly  safe.  Diazepam  and  alprazolam  should  be  avoided.  

Buspirone,  zaleplon  and  zopiclone  are  excreted  in  breast  milk  and  should  be  avoided.  Zopiclone:  Infant  
serum  range  -­‐‑  up  to  50%  of  the  maternal  plasma  level.  Zolpidem  is  safe  during    breastfeeding  

©  SPMM  Course   10  
 Notes  prepared  using  excerpts  from  
! Adab  et  al.  Journal  of  Neurology,  Neurosurgery,  and  Psychiatry  2004;  75:1575–83).    
! Breen,  D  &  Davenport,  J.  Teratogenicity  of  antiepileptic  drugs.  BMJ  2006;  333:615-­‐‑616    
! Burt  et  al.  The  use  of  psychotropic  medications  during  breast-­‐‑feeding  .Am  J  Psychiatry  2001;  
158:1001-­‐‑1009  
! Jones,  KL  et  al  (1989).  Pattern  of  malformations  in  the  children  of  women  treated  with  
carbamazepine  during  pregnancy.  NEJM,  320:1661-­‐‑1666  
! Kohen,  D.  Psychotropic  medication  and  breast  feeding.  Advances  in  psychiatric  treatment  2005;  
11:371-­‐‑379  
! Kohen.K.  Psychotropic  medications  in  pregnancy.  Advances  in  Psychiatric  Treatment  (2004).Vol  
10,  59-­‐‑66                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
! Maudsley  Prescribing  guidelines  9th  Edition  2007.  
! O'ʹKeane,  V  &  Marsh,  MS.  Depression  during  pregnancy.  BMJ  2007;334:1003-­‐‑1005      
! The  Maudsley  prescribing  Guidelines,  9th  Edition,  2007  
! Williams,  K  &  Oke,  S.  Lithium  and  pregnancy.  Psychiatric  Bulletin  (2000)  24:  229-­‐‑231.  
! Yaeger  et  al.  Schizophrenia  during  pregnancy  and  the  postpartum.  Am  J  Psychiatry  163:2064-­‐‑2070  
! Yonkers,  KA  et  al.  Management  of  bipolar  disorder  during  pregnancy  and  the  postpartum  period.  
Am  J  Psychiatry  161:608-­‐‑620,  April  2004  

DISCLAIMER: This material is developed from various revision notes assembled while preparing
for MRCPsych exams. The content is periodically updated with excerpts from various published
sources including peer-reviewed journals, websites, patient information leaflets and books.
These sources are cited and acknowledged wherever possible; due to the structure of this
material, acknowledgements have not been possible for every passage/fact that is common
knowledge in psychiatry. We do not check the accuracy of drug-related information using
external sources; no part of these notes should be used as prescribing information  

©  SPMM  Course   11