COMPANY POLICY

EXTRACT FROM COMPANY OPERATIONS MANUAL

Fuel Reserves

Fuel reserves [for all flights] shall be carried in accordance with Civil Aviation Advisory Publi-
cation [CAAP] No: 23-1 [0] dated March 1991. Which says:-

Fuel reserves recommended for a piston-engine VFR Charter Flight are-

Variable Reserve of 15% of the flight fuel

and

Fixed Reserve to allow 45mins over the destination aerodrome.

The Fixed Reserve may be calculated at a holding rate or at the normal cruising rate.

For the sake of exercises in this book the fuel reserves for the Echo aeroplane should be accord-
ing to the instructions on Page 13 of this supplement unless the question specifies otherwise.

CONVERSION FACTORS

The following conversion factors are used throughout

this book and in the CASA Cyber Examination.

1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 foot = 0.305 m
1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 US gal = 3.8 litres
1 US gal = 2.72 kg

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 1

 TAKE-OFF CHART - TYPE 1

Performance Supplement. Page 2 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

 LANDING CHART - TYPE 1

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 3

 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School
LONG WET GRASS

REFERENCE REFERENCE Type 2: LINEAR TAKEOFF WEIGHT CHART

LINE LINE
LONG DRY GRASS

ZERO FLAP
SHORT WET OR
SHORT DRY GRASS
HARD SEALED SURFACE
CLIMB WEIGHT LIMIT - KG

850 2400
00

REFERENCE LINE
60

900 2200

TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE - METRES

950 2000
00
50

1000 1800
00

1055 1600
40

AIRFIELD PRESSURE HEIGHT - FEET

00 1400
60
00 1200
40
00 1000
20

Performance Supplement. Page 4

0
800
600
400
UP DOWN TAIL HEAD
200
-10 0 10 20 30 40 2 0 2 4 6 5 0 10 20

750

800

850

900

950

1000

1050
SHADE TEMPERATURE °C SLOPE - PERCENT AMBIENT WIND TAKEOFF WEIGHT - KG
COMPONENT - KT
 Performance Supplement. Page 5
CLIMB WEIGHT LIMIT - KG

6000
1000
Type 2: LINEAR LANDING DISTANCE CHART
REFERENCE REFERENCE
1050 5000 LINE
LINE
1055 1000
MAX
4000

Note: Landing distance required is independent of landing weight.

900
AIRFIELD PRESSURE
HEIGHT - FEET

LANDING DISTANCE REQUIRED - METRES

800
6000
4000 700
2000
SL
600

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

500
400
300
DOWN UP TAIL HEAD
200
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 2 4 6 5 0 10 20
AMBIENT WIND
SHADE TEMPERATURE °C SLOPE - PERCENT COMPONENT - KT
 LOADING SYSTEM ALPHA Configuration 6/7 seats.

1. Obtain the Basic Empty weight and Index Units from current section 6.2 of the Flight
Manual. [Note the basic empty weight includes unusable fuel and engine oil].

2. Mark Basic Empty Weight Index units on the top scale. Enter Basic Empty Weight at
the top of the right hand column.

3. Enter the weights of load items required for flight in the appropriate squares of the
right hand column. Maximum weights for load items are indicated in the index unit
scales.

4. Total the weights in the right hand column to obtain the Zero Fuel Weight and
Take-off weight.**

5. Draw horizontal lines on the centre of gravity envelope corresponding to the Zero Fuel
Weight and the Take-off Weight.

6. Draw a line vertically down from the point marked on the Basic Empty Weight Index
Units scale to the first load item.
Move to the left or right on this load item scale as indicated by the arrow direction
and mark a point as appropriate to the load indicated in the right hand column.
[eg 154 kg load @ 77 kg divisions = 2 divisions].

7. Draw a line vertically down from the point marked on the first load item scale to the
second load item scale and continue as per the italic note above. Continue down the
scales to 'Rear Baggage' scale. Draw a line vertically from the 'Rear Baggage' point
down to intersect the Zero Fuel Weight line and the take-off weight line previously
marked on the envelope.

8. The two points defined in 7 above must not fall beyond the boundaries of the
envelope. If they do, rearrange the load and repeat steps 3 to 7.
**DO NOT EXCEED THE MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT AS SHOWN ON
THE ENVELOPE DIAGRAM OF THIS LOADING SYSTEM.

EXAMPLE. Basic Empty Weight 1050 kg

Empty Index Units -260
Row 1 150 kg
Row 2 [forward facing] 160 kg
Row 3 120 kg
Nose Baggage 40 kg
Rear Baggage nil

ZERO FUEL WEIGHT 1520 kg

Fuel 113 kg

TAKE-OFF WEIGHT 1633 kg

Performance Supplement. Page 6 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

 LOADING SYSTEM ALPHA
-260
AIRCRAFT BASIC IDEX UNITS
WEIGHT KG
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 +100 +200
1050

50 kg / Div
ROW 1
OCCS 150
77 kg / Div

50 kg / Div
ROW 2 FORWARD FACING

OCCS 160
77 kg / Div

R0W 2 AFT FACING 50 kg / Div

OCCS
77 kg / Div

50 kg / Div
ROW 3
OCCS 120
77 kg / Div

10 kg / Div
NOSE 45 kg MAXIMUM

BAGGAGE 40

45 kg MAXIMUM 10 kg / Div
REAR
BAGGAGE
ZERO FUEL
WEIGHT 1520
FUEL MAXIMUM 356 LITRES 252 KG nil scale 113

TAKE-OFF
WEIGHT 1633

MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT - 1633 KG

1600

1500

1400

1300

1200

1100

1000

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 7

 LOADING SYSTEM BRAVO

To check the loading of the aircraft before take-off, calculate the total weight and total mo-
ments as shown in the example below.

Plot the total weight and moment on the 'Centre of Gravity Envelope' chart given on the op-
posite page. If the point of intersection is within the boundaries of the envelope, the loading is
acceptable.

AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

Maximum take-off weight

Normal category 1000 kg [2200 lbs]
Utility category 841 kg [1850 lbs]

Maximum baggage compartment load 53 kg [120 lbs]

Notes:
This aircraft is fitted with standard tanks. [37 US Gallons @ 6 lbs per gal].

Empty weight includes unusable fuel and undrainable oil.

Obtain the moment index from the loading graph opposite or multiply the weight at
each station by the arm of that station [see example below], and divide by 1000.

EXAMPLE:

WEIGHT [lbs] ARM [ins] MOMENT [1000 inch pounds].

Empty weight 1260 80 100.80

Oil 15 32 0.48
Fuel [141 litres max]. 222 91 20.20
Row 1 320 91 29.12
Row 2 350 126 44.10
Baggage 25 151 3.78

TAKE-OFF
WEIGHT 2192 198.48

Check the intersection of 2192 lbs and 198.48 index units on the chart opposite.

Performance Supplement. Page 8 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

 LOADING SYSTEM BRAVO
The loading graph below converts weights in each location to a corresponding
moment index. However in practice [or in the examination] it is actually both faster
and much more accurate to multiply the weight by the location arm in the load sheet
example at left and divide the result by 1000. The load sheet example will be
provided in the examination.
500
LOADING GRAPH Cargo
LOAD - WEIGHT IN POUNDS

Pilot & Co-pilot

400
STD Fuel [37 gals useable @ 6 lbs/gal]

Rear seat passengers

300 OPT Fuel [51 gal useable @ 6 lbs/gal]

200

100
Baggage

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
MOMENT - 1000 INCH POUNDS

2200 CENTRE OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE

LOADED AIRCRAFT WEIGHT IN POUNDS

2100
ry
go
2000 ca
te
al
rm
No
1900

1800

1700
y
or
teg
ca
ty
ili

1600
Ut

1500

1400
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
MOMENT - 1000 INCH POUNDS

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 9

LOADING SYSTEM CHARLIE.

To check the loading of the aircraft before take-off, carry out a summation of weight and in-
dex units as shown in the example below. Calculate the centre of gravity of the aircraft at Zero
Fuel Weight and at Take-off Weight by use of the following formula:
index units x 100
Centre of gravity position [mm aft of the datum] =
gross weight

Plot the position of the centre of gravity so calculated against the gross weight on the centre of
gravity envelope opposite. The points plotted must fall within the boundaries of the envelope.

Aircraft limitations:

Maximum take-off weight

Normal category 1115 kg

Utility category 925 kg

Maximum baggage compartment load 122 kg

Notes:
Aircraft empty weight includes unusable fuel and undrainable oil.
All arms are in mm aft of the datum and are given in the example below.
One index unit = 100 kg/mm
The actual aircraft empty weight and moment index will be given in the question.

EXAMPLE:

WEIGHT [kg ARM [mm] MOMENT INDEX

Aircraft empty weight 687 .......... 19,522

Full oil 7 1230 86
Row 1 140 2750 3,850
Row 2 160 3600 5,760
Baggage 20 4210 842

ZFW 1014 30,060

Fuel 99 2950 2,920

TAKE-OFF 1113 32,980

At ZFW centre of gravity = 30,060 x 100 ÷ 1014 = 2965 [Check against weight opposite].
At TAKE-OFF centre of gravity = 32,980 x 100 ÷ 1113 = 2963 [Check against weight oppo-
site].

Performance Supplement. Page 10 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

 LOADING SYSTEM CHARLIE

CENTRE OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE

LOADING SYSTEM CHARLIE

1200

1150
MAX AUW 1115 kg

1100

1050

1000 NORMAL CATEGORY

KILOGRAMS

950

900

850
AFT LIMIT 2896

AFT LIMIT 3004

800 UTILITY CATEGORY

FWD LIMIT

750

700
2680 2760 2840 2920 3000
CENTRE OF GRAVITY POSITION - mm AFT OF THE DATUM
CENTRE OF GRAVITY POSITON - mm AFT OF THE DATUM

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 11

 PERFORMANCE DATA FOR THE ECHO AEROPLANE.

1.1 The Echo is a twin engined, six place unpressurised aircraft. It is fitted with fuel
injected, turbo charged engines with fully feathering constant speed propellers. The
aircraft is equipped with oxygen to allow flight at any level up to and including 20,000
feet. It has four separate cargo compartments the details of which are given on Page 17.

Nose
locker

seat seat

seat seat
wing wing
locker locker
seat seat

rear
locker

Removal of seats for freight operations.

The cabin seats are easily removeable and may be stowed in the rear compartment or left at
the departure aerodrome to increase the volumetric capacity of the cabin.

Performance Supplement. Page 12 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

AIRCRAFT FUEL CAPACITY
2.1 Two main and two auxiliary fuel tanks are fitted.

Usable Fuel Unusable Fuel Total Fuel

US Gallons US Gallons US Gallons

MAIN TANKS:
Left 50 2 52
Right 50 2 52

AUXILIARIES
Left 40 3 43
Right 40 3 43

TOTAL 180 10 190

2.2 The specific gravity of the fuel is 0.72, and the weight of all unusable fuel and all
engine oil is included in the aircraft's Basic Empty Weight.

FUEL POLICY

2.3 Allowance for start-up and taxi is................................................3 US Gallons

Reserves [for all flights]
Variable reserve...........................................................................15% of the flight fuel*
Fixed Reserve [45 minutes @ 45% MCP]..................................15 US Gallons
Holding Fuel when required ........................................................at 45% MCP

* Flight fuel is the fuel calculated to be consumed from take-off to arriving over the top of the
destination aerodrome [or alternate if required]. For the purpose of examination questions,
make no allowance for climbs or descents.

2.4 When refuelling the main tanks should be filled to capacity first. The auxiliary tanks
should be used only if the required fuel cannot be accommodated in the mains.

2.5 Use MAIN TANKS for start-up, taxi, take-off, climb and descent. Once in cruise, the
AUXILIARY TANKS should be selected and all auxiliary fuel should be used before
the main tanks are used.

Operating Limitations:

3.1 Never Exceed Speed [Vne]....................................................................230 kt IAS

Normal Operating Speed [Vno or Maximum Structural Cruising].......199 kt IAS
Maximum Flaps Extended [Vfe]...........................................................156 kt IAS
Landing Gear Extended [Vle]...............................................................139 kt IAS
Single engine Minimum Control Speed [Vmc].....................................75 kt IAS
Manoeuvring Speed [Va or Maximum Control Deflection]..................160 kt IAS
Maximum cross wind component..........................................................20kt
Maximum downwind component take-off or landing...........................5kt

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 13

3.2 Engine Limitations.

Take-off Power Maximum Continuous

Power [limit of 3 minutes]

Maximum RPM 3200 3200

Manifold Pressure 37.4 “Hg 34.5”Hg
Mixture Rich Rich
Brake Horse Power 375 per engine 340 per engine

3.3 Maximum Crosswind Component for take-off or landing.............20 kt.

3.4 Maximum Tailwind Component for take-off or landing................5 kt

Performance Data.

4.1 Take off and Landing performance is given in the form of ‘P’ charts within this
manual. The Echo is not to be operated into or out of any landing area that does not
meet the performance limitations obtained by the use of these charts. For any sealed or
gravel surface, the ‘short dry grass’ reference line on the take-off chart should be used.

4.2 Maximum Climb Performance [Maximum Rate of Climb]. Use 100% MCP.
The maximum climb performance expected at various combinations of Pressure
Height and Gross Weight is given in the table below. Note that the performance given
assumes ISA conditions. If temperature deviates from ISA, density height should be
used instead of pressure height.

MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB Gross Weight - TWO ENGINES

Pressure
Height ISA 2950 2500 2000 kg
feet. TAS ROC TAS ROC TAS ROC

Sea level 101 1600 92 2250 82 2950
5000 109 1500 99 2100 88 2800
10000 118 1400 107 1950 95 2650
15000 128 1300 116 1800 104 2500
20000 139 800 126 1250 112 1800

MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB Gross Weight - ONE ENGINE

Pressure
Height ISA 2950 kg 2500 kg 2000 kg
feet. TAS ROC TAS ROC TAS ROC

Sea level 105 280 97 525 92 780
5000 112 200 103 450 98 700
10000 120 100 111 360 106 625
15000 129 20 119 270 115 530

Performance Supplement. Page 14 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

4.3 The Cruise Climb chart.
The cruise climb chart shown below gives the distance, time and fuel required to climb
in no wind from sea-level to various pressure heights under various temperature and
gross weight conditions. The temperatures given at the bottom of the left-hand box are
the temperatures at the pressure height to which the climb is being made.

An allowance for wind can be made by calculating the distance represented by the
wind speed applied to the duration of the climb. [eg a wind speed of 30 kt for a six
minute climb would represent a distance of 3 nm]. This distance should be added to
the distance obtained from the graph for a tailwind, and subtracted for a headwind.
The time and fuel required for any given climb will not be affected by wind
The most accurate method for obtaining the figures for a climb from an aerodrome at
other than sea level [eg from 5000 ft to 15000 ft], is to calculate the set of figures from
sea-level to 15000 ft, then calculate the set of figures from sea-level to 5000 ft and
subtract the 5000 ft figures from the 15000 ft figures.

Power to be used for cruise climb is 75% MCP with mixture rich.
Climbing Indicated Airspeed for a cruise climb is 120kt.

CRUISE CLIMB - TWO ENGINES

t
igh
e He
sur 50
00

50
00

50

s
Pre 29
20

22
25

0ft
27

0
150
ISA

0ft
00
10

ft
00
50

el
ev
aL
Se

-30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Top of climb temperature °C Distance - Nautical Miles

Example:
Top of climb temperature 10°C
Climb Sea Level to 9000ft 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Gross Weight 2750kg Time - Minutes
7
Distance 26nm
Time 12min 0 5 10 15 20 25
Fuel 7.7gal Fuel - US Gallons

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 15

4.4 The TAS that may be planned for cruise at various pressure heights, temperatures,
gross weights and power settings are shown in the tabe below.

TAS knots
GROSS WEIGHT

Press Ht Temp 2950kg 2500kg 2000kg

75% 65% 55% 45% 35% 75% 65% 55% 45% 35% 75% 65% 55% 45% 35%
SL 177 165 156 142 116 180 168 159 145 118 184 171 161 149 120
ISA - 20

5000 185 172 160 145 116 188 172 163 147 119 192 178 166 151 121
10,000 193 179 165 147 117 196 182 168 150 119 201 185 171 153 122
15.000 201 185 165 147 116 204 189 173 152 117 209 193 177 155 120
20,000 209 193 174 150 ---- 213 197 178 154 ---- 217 201 182 157 ----

SL 181 168 158 144 116 184 171 161 146 118 188 174 164 149 121
5000 189 175 162 146 117 192 178 165 148 119 198 181 169 152 122
ISA

10.000 197 182 166 148 117 200 185 170 151 119 205 189 174 154 122
15,000 205 189 171 150 114 208 192 176 154 116 213 196 184 156 118
20,000 213 198 177 151 ---- 217 201 180 154 ---- 221 208 189 157 ----

SL 185 171 160 145 116 187 174 163 147 119 191 177 166 151 121
5000 192 178 166 145 116 195 181 166 150 119 200 185 171 153 122
ISA + 20

10,000 200 185 170 149 116 204 188 173 152 118 208 192 176 155 121
15.000 209 193 173 151 ---- 212 196 178 154 ---- 217 200 182 157 ----
20,000 216 201 179 149 ---- 221 205 183 152 ---- 225 209 186 155 ----

4.5 The fuel flow that can be planned for various power settings is shown in the table
below. Fuel flow depends only on the engine power output and is unaffected by the
aircraft gross weight and cruising level.

The mixture should be leaned to best economy at all power settings except for 100%
and take-off power, or during cruise climbs or as a means of controlling engine over-
heating.

FUEL FLOWS PER ENGINE IN US GALLONS PER HOUR

Engine Power Mixture leaned Mixture

% MCP. to best economy. fully rich.

100% not available 31.7*

75% 16.3 19.7
65% 14.0 16.9
55% 11.8 14.1
45% 10.2 11.8
35% 8.6 9.3

*100% power is not available above 15.000 feet.

Performance Supplement. Page 16 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

 Aircraft Weight and Balance Data:
5.1 The aeroplane basic empty weight includes all seats, unusable fuel and full engine oil.
The actual aircraft basic empty weight and moment index will be given in the
examination question.

5.2 Structural Weight Limitations.

Maximum take-off weight.......................................2950 kg
Maximum landing weight........................................2725 kg
Maximum zero fuel weight*......................................2630 kg
*All weight above zero fuel weight must be made up of fuel only.
5.3 Balance data. Aircraft centre of gravity limits.
The forward limit for the centre of gravity:
2400 mm aft of the datum for gross weights of 2360 kg or less.
2560 mm at a gross weight of 2950 kg.
Linear variation applies for weights between 2360 kg and 2950 kg.
The aft limit for the centre of gravity is 2680 mm aft of the datum for all weights.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord [MAC] data.
Location of leading edge of MAC = 2190 mm aft of the datum
Length of MAC = 1900 mm

The aircraft must be loaded so that the centre of gravity falls between the specified
limits at zero fuel weight and at take-off.
5.4 Loading data:
The arms [in millimetres aft of the datum], and limiting weights for cargo
compartments are given in the table below.

LOCATION MAX LOAD ARM [mm]

Row 1 [seats 1 & 2] Pilot and one passenger 2290

Row 2 [seats 3 & 4] two passengers 3300
Row 3 [seats 5 & 6] two passengers 4300

Cargo nose 55 kg 500

Cargo left wing 55 kg 3550
Cargo right wing 55 kg 3550
Cargo rear 155 kg 5000
Floor loading intensity 450 kg/square metre

Main fuel tanks

Left [useable] 50 US gallons 1780
Right [useable] 50 US gallons 1780
Auxiliary fuel tanks
Left [useable] 40 US gallons 2800
Right [useable] 40 US gallons 2800

Passenger seats may be removed to increase the volumetric capacity of the cabin. Each
passenger seat weighs 5 kg and the maximum weight of cargo that can be placed on
the area otherwise occupied by a seat is 82 kg.

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School Performance Supplement. Page 17

Sample load sheet.
Moment Index is obtained by multiplying the arm in mm aft of the datum by the weight in kg and dividing the
result by 10,000. In the example below, moment index is expressed to one decimal place, however in practice the
nearest whole unit would be acceptable.

ITEM WEIGHT ARM MOMENT INDEX.

Basic Empty Wt 1992 480.0
Row one 154 2290 35.3
Row two 160 3300 52.8
Row three 77 4300 33.1
Cargo nose 30 500 1.5
Cargo wings 60 3550 21.3
Cargo rear 100 5000 50.0
Zero Fuel Weight 2573 674.0 *
Mains fuel 250 1780 44.5
Take-off 2823 718.5 *
* Plot these points on the centre of gravity envelope below.

The left hand vertical scale represents aircraft weight in kg. The bottom scale represents the total moment index.
The centre of gravity of the loaded aeroplane must fall within the shaded area at zero fuel weight and at take-off.

Performance Supplement. Page 18 Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

 Take-off weight chart - Echo
Power to be used. MAP 37.4 RPM 3200
Flap setting Zero
Take-off safety speed - see scale.
Take-off distance factor 1.22

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School

Performance Supplement. Page 19
 Landing weight chart - Echo
Flap setting 45°
Approach Speed See scale
Landing distance factor 1.26

Performance Supplement. Page 20

Bob Tait's Aviation Theory School