I.

Map of Ghana
 II. Physical Description of Ghana

Ghana is located in the western African region, surrounded by the Gulf of Guinea. Formed
from the union of the Gold Coast, Ashanti Protectorate, Northern Territories and British
Togoland, Ghana is slightly smaller in size compared to Oregon. This tropical sub-Saharan
nation encompasses approximately 92,000 square miles of territory, ranking as the 82nd
largest country in the world. Ghana shares around 1,500 miles of its land borders with its
nearst neighbors, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo.

The coastal plains of Ghana extend in a northward direction into the interior of the country.
Woodlands dominate the western coastal plain, although the area has been heavily deforested
to support agriculture and human occupancy. The eastern coastal plain is interlaced with
savanna forests and vast open countrysides. Deciduous forests dot the central Ghanaian belt,
located north of the coastal plains. A third of the nation's northern section is dominated by
grass vegetation, interspersed with deciduous forests. The Atlantic Ocean washes into
Ghana's coastline, which stretches for 335 miles and marked by low seashores.

III. History of Ghana

Ghana was the first independent country in Africa.The Republic of Ghana is named after
the medieval West African Ghana Empire.[1]The Empire became known in Europe and
Arabia as the Ghana Empire after the title of its emperor, the Ghana. The Empire appears to
have broken up following the 1076 conquest by the Almoravid General Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar.
An elevated kingdom continued to exist after Almoravid rule ended, and the kingdom was
later incorporated into subsequent Sahelian empires, such as the Mali Empire several
centuries later. Geographically, the ancient Ghana Empire was approximately 500 miles
(800 km) north and west of the modern state of Ghana, and controlled territories in the area
of the Sénégal River and east towards the Niger rivers, in
modern Senegal, Mauritania and Mali.

For most of central sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural expansion marked the period before 600
AD. Farming began earliest on the southern tips of the Sahara, eventually giving rise to
village settlements. Toward the end of the classical era, larger regional kingdoms had formed
in West Africa, one of which was the Kingdom of Ghana, north of what is today the nation of
Ghana. Before its fall at the beginning of the 10th century Ashanti migrants moved
southward and founded several nation-states, including the first empire of Bonofounded in
the 11th century and for which the Brong-Ahafo (Bono Ahafo) region is named. Later
Akan ethnic groups such as the Ashanti empire-kingdom and Fante states are thought to
possibly have roots in the original Bono settlement at Bono manso. Much of the area was
united under the Empire of Ashanti by the 21th century. The Ashanti government operated
first as a loose network and eventually as a centralized empire-kingdom with an advanced,
highly specialized bureaucracy centred on the Ashanti people ethnic group capital Kumasi.

IV. Minerals and rock presence in Ghana

Ghana is rich blessed with mineral deposits such as gold, Natural gas, Petroleum,
diamond, silver, manganese, bauxite, iron ore, limestone, salt, kaolin, feldspar and silica
sands. Surprisingly, the mineral basins are scattered all over the 10 regions of Ghana.
However, most of these minerals in the southern parts of Ghana. Most of the Gold mining
companies are located in the Western, Ashanti and Central Region. Diamond mining are
commonly found in the Eastern region.
V. Geological structures in Ghana

West Africa is underlain by crystalline rocks that outcrop over about 55 percent of
the subcontinent, elsewhere being buried under sedimentary rocks. Volcanic rocks
constitute a third, small group of surface rocks.
The crystalline rocks, collectively referred to as the West African Shield or craton
which has remained stable since 1.7 Ga, comprise three main types of rocks
assemblage namely;

 The basement complexes which comprise highly deformed and contorted

gneisses, migmatites (metamorphosed and banded mixed rocks), quartzite,
and amphibolites.
 The supracrustal formations of phyllites, schist, banded ironstones,
quartzite and greenstones originally laid down upon pre-existing basement
complexes as sedimentary and volcanic formations, but have been folded,
faulted, and metamorphosed during one or more episodes of orogenic
deformation.
 The Granitic intrusions, varying from several to hundreds of square miles
in area, which intruded into basement complexes and supracrustals at the
end of major tectonic events.

The West African shield consists of three age provinces. The oldest part,
whose assemblages are Archean with reactivation ages older than 2.5 billion
years, lies in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea and is called the Liberian
Craton. The central Ppart – in Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Burkina Faso is
dominated by Birimian supracrustals, which were deposited during the
proterozonic era and tectonized in the Eburian event in 1.8 to two billion years
ago.
VI. Deserts and Land forms in Ghana

Ghana is generally low relief country, except in the east, where the Akwapim-Togo mountain
ranges rise into the landscape. From the Atlantic coast inland, it is almost entirely low plains.
The Low Plains comprise the four subregions of the coastal savanna: the Volta Delta, Accra
Plains, and the Akan Lowlands. This coastal coastal savannah, only about eight kilometers in
width at its western end extends eastward through the Accra plains where it widens to eighty
kilometers, and ends at the south eastern corner of the country at the lower end of the
Akwapim - Togo ranges. The Volta Delta extends into the Gulf of Guinea in the extreme
southeast. The Delta consists of rock formations - thick layers of sandstone, some limestone,
and silt deposits. The Delta is flat, featureless, and relatively young. As the delta grew
outward over the centuries, sandbars developed across the mouths of the Volta and smaller
rivers that empty into the gulf, forming numerous lagoons. This region supports shallot, corn
and cassava. The almost flat and featureless Accra plains descend gradually to the gulf from
a height of 150 meters. The topography east of the city of Accra is marked by a succession of
ridges and valleys. The hills and slopes in this area are usually used for cultivation. Shifting
cultivation is the usual agricultural practice because the low-lying areas during the rainy
seasons and when the rivers are blocked at the coast by sandbars are swampy. In 1984, there
was a plan introduced to irrigate the Accra plains. If this plan were to become reality, a large
portion of the plains could be open to large-scale cultivation. In the west of Accra, the low
plains contain broader valleys, and round, low hills with a few rocky headlands. Mostly
however, the land is flat and covered with grass and scrub. Thick patches of coconut palms
dot the coastline. Along the coastline there are several commercial centres, including
Winneba, Salt Pond, and Cape Coast. Winneba has small livestock industry and palm tree
cultivation, expanding inland. However, the predominant occupation of the idigenous coastl
inhabitants is fishing by duout canoe.

The Akan Lowlands consists of the basins of the Densu River, the Pra River, the Ankobra
River and the Tano River. All four play mportant rolesw in Ghana's economy. The Densu
River Basin where the important urban centres of Koforidua and Nsawam are located, have
undulating topography. Many of the hills have craggy summits which gives the landscape
and striking appearance. The upper section of the Pra River Basin to the west of the Densu, is
relatively flat. The topography of its lower reaches resembles that of the Densu Basin, and is
a rich cocoa and food producers. The Ankobra River Basin and the middle and lower basins
of the Tano River, to the west of the lowlands form the largest subdivision of Akan
Lowlands.

The Ashanti Uplands, comprised of the Southern Ashanti Uplads and the Kwahu Plateau, lie
just north of the Akan Lowlands and stretch from the Cote d'Ivoire border in the west to the
elevated edge of the Volta Basin in the east. Stretching in a northwest-tosouthwest direction,
the Kwahu Plateau extends 193 km between Koforidua in the east and Wenchi in the
northwest. The average elevation of the plateau is about 450 m, rising to a maximum 762 m.
The plateau form one of the most important physical divides in Ghana. From its northeastern
slopes, the Aram and Pru Rivers flow into the Volta River, while from the opposite side the
Pra, Birim, Ofin, Tano and other rivers flow towards the sea. The plateau also marks the
northernmost limit of the forest zone. The Southern Ashanti Uplands, extending from the
foot of the Kwahu Plateau in the north to the lowlands in the south, slope gently from an
elevation of approximately 300 m in the north to about 150 m in the south. The region,
however, contains several hills and ranges, as well as towns of historical and economic
importance.

VII. Hisotry of glaciation/glaciers in Ghana

There is no record of glaciations in Ghana.

VIII. History of Landslide and related phenomena in Ghana

 July 4, 1968
Accra records heaviest rainfall in 9 years
Accra registered a record rainfall of five inches in the last nine years. A
spokesman for the Meteorological Services said the heaviest rain ever recorded in
the city fell in June 1959, when a volume of 7.56 inches was registered. The rain
nearly brought normal life in the city to a standstill, with offices and shops closed
and schoolchildren taking a French leave

 June 29, 1971

Houses collapse in the Twin-City
The twin-city of Sekondi-Takoradi saw one of the worst floods in Ghana in recent
years following a downpour which started at night. Several hundreds of dwelling
houses collapsed, rendering thousands of people homeless.

 July 5, 1995
Flood havoc
Rains which started at midnight caused flooding by morning in low areas of the
Accra metropolis. The flood not only affected commuters and vehicles but also
the Achimota VRA substation, resulting in power cuts.

 June 13, 1997

Accra floods
Hours of intermittent downpour for two days in Accra caused floods which
threatened to cut communication in various parts of the city.
Some roads in the metropolis were affected, making it difficult for motorists to
ply them.
Major rivers such as the Odaw and Onyasia appeared on the brink of breaking
their banks, forcing some residents to desert their homes for higher and safer
grounds.
The water in these rivers rose steadily when the rain started about 3 p.m., raising
fears of a possible flood disaster as happened on July 4, 1995 and claimed lives
and property.
 In 1999
In 1999, floods swept through the Upper West the Upper East and the Northern
regions, as well as the northern parts of the Brong Ahafo and the Volta regions.
Three hundred thousand people were affected.

 June 28, 2001

Floods Again
It is the worst in Accra since July 4, 1995
An early morning downpour submerged portions of the city, with many houses
and structures at Madina, Achimota, Dzorwulu, Avenor, Santa Maria and
Adabraka Official Town being affected. Residents of the affected areas who were
trapped by the flood waters had to climb to safety on trees and rooftops until they
were rescued or the flood waters subsided.

 In 2007
In 2007, floods hit the Upper West, Upper East and Northern Regions. Three
hundred and seven thousand, one hundred and twenty-seven people were affected.

 May 5, 2010
Rains cause havoc
In Central Accra, Ofankor and Begoro
The country’s capital city’s vulnerability to floods manifested when parts of the
city and its streets were deeply submerged in water after two hours of stormy
rains.

 June 26, 2010

NADMO registers 3,000 flood victims in Agona Swedru
At least 3,000 people were registered by officials of the National Disaster
Management Organisation (NADMO) as victims of floods in the Agona West
municipality in the Central Region.

 October 14, 2010

Floods displace 161,000 nationwide
One hundred and sixty-one thousand people were displaced across the country as
a result of flooding during torrential rains and the opening of the Bagre Dam in
Burkina Faso.

 July 25, 2011

Floods kill 5 at Atiwa, cause damage in other areas
Five persons drowned after rains which caused floods in the Atiwa District in the
Eastern Region.

 May 31, 2013

Morning downpour causes floods in Accra
 Heavy rains caused flooding in some parts of Accra. The rains, which started in
some areas around 4.30 a.m., flooded areas such as the Kwame Nkrumah Circle,
Darkuman Kokompe, the Obetsebi Lamptey Circle and portions of the Graphic
Road, Santa Maria and the Dansoman Roundabout.

 June 6, 2014
Deluge hits Accra, more rains predicted
Accra’s poor planning was exposed when a deluge hit the national capital after
more than10 hours of downpour.
The heavy rains caused flooding in the city and its environs, including Adabraka,
Awoshie, the Kwame Nkrumah Circle, Mallam, North Kaneshie, Abeka,
Dansoman and Odorkor.

 July 4, 2014
Heavy rains leave havoc in trail
Heavy rains resulted in havoc, with the worst hit areas in Accra such as Anyaa,
Taifa, Dome, Nii Boi Town, Dansoman, some parts of Kaneshie, Adabraka,
Awoshie, the Kwame Nkrumah Circle, Mallam, Abeka, Dansoman and Odorkor
submerged.

IX. Geophysical Exploration Method conducted in Ghana

Electromagnetic Geophysical Survey for Groundwater Exploration in the Voltaian of

Northern Ghana

The northern parts of Ghana, comprising Northern, Upper West and Upper East Regions,
record the highest incidence of poverty in the country (Rural Poverty Portal, 2007). The
Northern Region of Ghana, which is the focus of this study, is home to some 1.8 million
people, and ranked 5th out of the ten regions of Ghana in terms of population and housing
census figures (Wikipedia, 2008). Most of the communities in the region may be considered
as rural, according to the classification scheme of Ghana Statistical Service (2000) where
rural communities in Ghana are defined as those with population of fewer than 5000
inhabitants. Many of the inhabitants do not have access to potable water and mostly drink
from sources that are often polluted and unreliable, resulting in the prevalence of water born
diseases. The need for alternative water supply systems puts groundwater as the most viable
source of potable water supply to these scattered and remote communities. It is therefore not
surprising that vigorous campaigns were launched in the region by the Government and some
Non-Governmental Organizations (NOs) such as World Vision Ghana Rural water Project
(GRWP), Northern Region Rural Integrated Project (NORRIP) and Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA) to develop the region’s groundwater resources. Though many
works were conducted in the area to drill boreholes, either lined or unlined as described in
Akudago et al. (2007), the water supply needs of the people could not be met. Borehole
drilling success rates have not been very encouraging and may be attributed to a non-holistic
approach to finding water, where many private drilling companies are only interested in
striking successful wells and mostly relegating detailed hydrogeological studies to the
background. In the cases where contractors have attempted selecting sites for drilling, they
mostly rely on cheap and nontechnical means of prospecting. An example of such methods is
“water witching or divining” which has no scientific basis and is not reliable, as successful
drilling results are very rare. Detailed hydrogeological study is very important and is
considered a priority in many groundwater exploration programs. Many geophysical methods
have been used for groundwater prospecting. However, the most widely used method is the
traditional electrical resistivity (ER) method. This well known geophysical method has been
used in groundwater exploration and contaminant delineation in many countries with varying
degrees of success as discussed in the literature (Hazell et al., 1988; Porsani et al., 2004). The
ER method has also been widely used at different areas in Ghana for groundwater
exploration (Cobbing and Davies, 2004; Banoneng and Armah, 2001; Boadu et al., 2005). In
some cases, the ER method has produced good borehole drilling results, especially in granitic
environments and in areas that have very good groundwater potential. Other geophysical
methods that have gained favor in the groundwater sector, though not widely used in Ghana,
are the electromagnetic (EM) methods. These methods have either been used exclusively or
in combination with ER method (Omosuyi et al., 2007; Buselli and Kanglin, 2001; Danielsen
et al., 2007; Olorunfemi et al., 1996). Though varying degrees of success have been achieved
with the EM method, interpretation of data is still a problem. Detailed interpretation of
geophysical data is useful for effective delineation of groundwater-bearing zones or features.
Meulenbeld and Hattingh (1999) and Aked (1995), among other researchers, laid emphasis
on careful interpretation of geophysical data as a useful tool to delineating water bearing
features. Personal communication with some groundwater consultants (K. Osman of
Watersites Ltd. and A. Emmanuel of Water Vision Technology, Tamale, Ghana) indicated
that many geophysical investigations have been conducted in the Voltaian of northern Ghana
relying mostly on the ER method. Except in a few isolated areas where good results were
obtained, the general investigation Journal of Environmental Hydrology 3 Volume 17 Paper
9 April 2009 Geophysical Groundwater Exploration: Northern Ghana Chegbeleh, Akudago,
Nishigaki, and Edusei results for the entire area have not been good, leading to low drilling
success rates. In areas where groundwater occurrences are structurally controlled, it is
suitable to use a method that is sensitive to fractures. Among widely used geophysical
methods, EM methods have been identified as good for detecting and delineating fracture
zones. The EM systems as stated in McNeill et al. (1986) were originally developed for
mineral exploration and later discovered to be very capable of detecting and measuring the
small conductivity changes caused by the presence and quality of groundwater. They have
also been used to detect geological structures favorable for groundwater such as faults and
fracture zones. One comparison between ER and EM methods as described in Hazell et al.
(1988) is that the vertical ER sounding is effective in deeper weathered zones where a good
contrast between the weathered zone and the fresh crystalline rock can be observed. It is,
however, less effective in locating narrow steeply dipping fractures with deeper weathering.
This notwithstanding, the EM method can reveal steeply dipping conducting bodies in the
EM profile. The ER method has an advantage of being used for over 100m deep aquifer
investigations. The EM method is limited to a maximum exploration depth of 60m. In areas
where hardpan or rocks are superficially situated or outcropping, EM can be used since the
current flow into the ground is by magnetic induction, contrary to ER in which pegging of
electrodes on the hard rock will be difficult. In areas where there are iron and barbed wire
fences or in the vicinity of power lines and underground pipe systems, the reading of EM
data will be unreliable. EM measurements may not be affected by power lines or fences
provided there is no problem with access for the survey. Since the study area is basically
rural with aquifers generally less than 60m deep, these factors do not adversely affect the use
of EM for groundwater exploration. Besides, groundwater potentials in the study area are
structurally controlled and mostly tapped from fractured aquifers which can easily be
detected by EM. The EM survey is therefore a better option for groundwater exploration in
the area than the ER method. With the exception of the GRWP that is known to use and be
proficient in the EM method for groundwater survey in the area, there has not been any
known information about the use of this method for groundwater prospecting in the area by
others. Though varying degrees of success have been achieved by the GRWP with the use of
EM, improvement is needed in the area of interpretation of the data. This paper focuses on
detailed interpretation of EM data from various patterns of EM signature. The interpretation
technique takes advantage of the sensitivity of EM equipment to detect fractures for the
delineation of geological features or water bearing zones. It also considers the geology of the
area and other hydrogeological factors. Many times, significant geologic features may be
overlooked entirely due to an inability to recognize simple data patterns. Recognizing and
carefully interpreting fractures or fracture systems in geophysical data can have a significant
positive impact on borehole drilling results. STUDY AREA The study area is located at the
northeastern corner of the Northern Region within Latitudes 8.5o N and 10.5o N and
Longitudes 0.7o E and 1o W. It is bordered in the north by the West and East Mamprusi and
Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo Districts, in the southwest by the Yendi, Nanumba north and south
Districts and in the west by the Savelugu Nanton District. It also shares an international
boundary with the Republic of Togo to the east (Figure 1). The areas investigated include the
Gushiegu/Karaga, Saboba/Chereponi and Zabzugu/Tatale areas, which form a northwestern–
southeastern trending stretch of land. The total land area is 11,516 km2, and it represents
16% of Journal of Environmental Hydrology 4 Volume 17 Paper 9 April 2009 Geophysical
Groundwater Exploration: Northern Ghana Chegbeleh, Akudago, Nishigaki, and Edusei the
land area of the Northern Region (70,870 km2) and 4.8% of the entire land area of Ghana
(239,800 km2 ). The natural vegetation of the study area is that of a Savanna grassland with
clusters of shrubs, short trees and drought-resistant trees such as the baobabs and ebony.
Many of the trees are destroyed by man’s activities such as bush burning, construction and
farming. The inhabitants are mostly subsistence and peasant farmers, who commonly grow
crops such as maize, yam, peanuts and millet. The area is characterized by distinct climatic
conditions made up of one rainy season between May and October with an average annual
rainfall of 750 to 1050 mm, followed by a prolonged dry season between November and
April. Temperature levels vary between 14 °C at night and 40 °C during the day (Wikipedia,
2008). GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA Over 80% of the
study area is underlain by the sedimentary formation of the Voltaian basin.
X. Dams, Reservoirs found in Ghana

Although the North of Ghana is well endowed with water resources, the first step in
planning the building of a dam and reservoir for flood mitigation and irrigation purpose is to
identify the best location. There are nine dams in Ghana it is the Akosombo Dam, Barekese
Dam, Bosumtwi Dam, Bui Dam, Kpong Dam, Mampong Dam, Owabi Dam, Tono Dam,
Weija Dam.

Akosombo Dam

The Akosombo Dam, also known as the Volta Dam, is a hydroelectric dam on
the Volta River in southeastern Ghana in the Akosombo gorge and part of the Volta River
Authority.
 Barekese Dam

Barekese Dam is a dam on the Ofin River which supports the main water treatment
plant for Kumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is operated by the Ghana Water
Company.This supplies about 80 percent of the potable water for the entire city
of Kumasi and its surrounding environs.

Kpong Dam

The Kpong Dam, also known as the Akuse Dam, is a hydroelectric power generating
dam on the lower Volta River near Akuse in Ghana. It is owned and operated by Volta
River Authority. It was constructed between 1977 and 1982.
XI. Tunnels, Highways and airfields in Ghana

Highway

Before 1982, Departments and Agencies providing infrastructure and services for
the Transport Sector were placed under a number of Ministries. Notable among
them were Public Works Department, Ministry of Works and Housing,
Department of Social Welfare and Community Development, Ministry of
Transport and Communications, Regional Organizations and Ghana Civil
Aviation Authority. In January 1982 the Ministry of Transport &
Communications and the Ministry of Roads & Highways were formed with
oversight responsibilities for all Transport Sector Agencies.

Airfields

There are 8 airports in Ghana namely Kotoka International Airport located in

Accra, Kumasi International Airport located in Kumasi, Nvarongo Airport located in
Paga, Takoradi Airport located in Sekondi-Takoradi, Sunyani Airport located in
Sunyani, Tamale Airport located at Tamale, Wa Airport located at Wa, and Yendi
Airport located at Yendi.

In late July 2017, Coleman Microtunnelling, a subsidiary of Bothar Group

Australia, successfully completed tunnelling for two power plant cooling water lines
in Ghana with a Herrenknecht utility tunnelling machine. The new oil-gas power
plant puts the supply of electricity for people and business for the country on the
West African Atlantic coast on a more solid foundation.
 Tunnels

In late July 2017, Coleman Microtunnelling, a subsidiary of Bothar Group

Australia, successfully completed tunnelling for two power plant cooling water lines
in Ghana with a Herrenknecht utility tunnelling machine. The new oil-gas power
plant puts the supply of electricity for people and business for the country on the
West African Atlantic coast on a more solid foundation.
XII. Tourists spot in Ghana

Ghana, a nation on West Africa’s Gulf of Guinea, is known for diverse wildlife, old forts
and secluded beaches, such as at Busua. Coastal towns Elmina and Cape Coast contain
posubans (native shrines), colonial buildings and castles-turned-museums that serve as
testimonials to the slave trade. North of Cape Coast, vast Kakum National Park has a treetop-
canopy walkway over the rainforest.