Chapter 1: Before History

I. The evolution of homo sapiens

A. The hominids
1. Australopithecus
a. Appeared in east Africa about four million to one million years ago
b. Walked upright on two legs; well-developed hands
c. Stone tools; fire later
2. Homo erectus
a. 2.5 million to two hundred thousand years ago, east Africa
b. Large brain; sophisticated tools; definitely knew how to control fire
c. Developed language skills in well-coordinated hunts of large animals
d. Migrated to Asia and Europe; established throughout by two hundred thousand years
ago
B. Homo sapiens
1. Evolved as early as two hundred thousand years ago
2. Brain with large frontal regions for conscious and reflective thought
3. Spread throughout Eurasia beginning more than one hundred thousand years ago,
4. Ice age land bridges enabled them to populate other continents
5. The natural environment
a. Homo sapiens used knives, spears, bows, and arrows
b. Brought tremendous pressure on other species
II. Paleolithic society
A. Economy and society of hunting and gathering peoples
1. Economic life
a. Prevented individuals from accumulating private property
b. Lived an egalitarian existence
c. Lived in small bands, about thirty to fifty members in each group
2. Big game hunting with special tools and tactics
3. Paleolithic settlements
a. Natufians in eastern Mediterranean
b. Jomon in central Japan
c. Chinook in Pacific northwest area of North America
B. Paleolithic Culture
1. Neanderthal peoples
a. Europe and southwest Asia between one hundred thousand and thirty-five thousand
years ago
b. Careful, deliberate burials were evidence of a capacity for emotion and feelings
2. The creativity of homo sapiens
a. Constructed powerful and flexible languages
b. Accumulate and transmit knowledge to new generations
c. New tools, weapons, and trade networks
d. Venus figurines--fertility
e. Cave paintings of animals--sympathetic magic
III. The neolithic era and the transition to agriculture
A. The origins of agriculture
1. Neolithic era; new stone age; refined tools and agriculture
a. From about twelve thousand to six thousand years ago
b. Neolithic women began systematic cultivation of plants
c. Neolithic men began to domesticate animals
2. Early agriculture around 9000 B.C.E.
a. Agriculture emerged independently in several parts of the world
b. Merchants, migrants, and travelers spread food knowledge
c. Slash-and-burn cultivation involved frequent movement of farmers
d. Agriculture more work than hunting/gathering but steady, large supply of food
B. Early agricultural society; population explosion caused by surplus
1. Emergence of villages and towns
a. Jericho, earliest known neolithic village
b. Mud huts and defensive walls
2. Specialization of labor
a. Neolithic site of Çatal Hüyük, eight thousand people
b. Prehistoric craft industries: pottery, metallurgy, and textile production
3. Social distinctions, due to private land ownership
C. Neolithic culture; calendars and life cycle deities
D. The origins of urban life
1. Emergence of cities, larger and more complex than villages
2. Earliest cities in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, 4000 to 3500 B.C.E.

Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations

I. The quest for order

A. Mesopotamia: "the land between the rivers"
1. Valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates
2. Little rain, so area needs irrigation (small scale by 6000 B.C.E.)
3. Food supplies increase
a. Human population increases
b. Migrants to the area increase--especially Semites
c. Sumer (in south) becomes population center
4. First cities emerge, 4000 B.C.E.
a. Between 3200 and 2350 B.C.E., they evolve into city-states (control of surrounding
region)
 b. Governments sponsor building projects and irrigation
c. Attacks by others led to wall building and military development
d. Kingships evolve with cooperation of noble families
B. The course of empire
1. Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)
a. Coup against king of Kish
b. Seizes trade routes and natural resources
c. Gradually empire weakens and collapses about 2000 B.C.E.
2. Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.)
a. Centralizes the bureaucracy and regulates taxation
b. Capital is Babylon
c. Law Code: law of retribution and importance of social status
d. Hittite assault and empire crumbles in 1595 B.C.E.
C. The later Mesopotamian empires
1. Assyrians (northern Mesopotamia), about 1300-612 B.C.E.
a. Cities: Assur and Ninevah
b. Powerful army: professional officers (merit), chariots, archers, iron weapons
c. Unpopular rule leads to rebellions; ends 612 B.C.E.
2. New Babylonian empire, 600-550 B.C.E.
a. Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.E.)
b. Hanging gardens of palace shows wealth and luxury
II. The formation of a complex society and sophisticated cultural traditions
A. Economic specialization and trade
1. Bronze (made from copper and tin); used in weapons and later agricultural tools
2. Iron (about 1000 B.C.E.), cheaper and more widely available; used in weapons and tools
3. Wheel (about 3500 B.C.E.) helps trade; carts can carry more goods further
4. Shipbuilding: maritime trade increases in all directions; network develops
B. The emergence of a stratified patriarchal society
1. Social classes
a. Cities: more opportunities to accumulate wealth
b. Kings (hereditary) and nobles (royal family and supporters) are highest class
c. Priests and priestesses rule temple communities with large incomes and staff
d. Free commoners (peasants), dependent clients (no property); pay taxes and labor on
building projects
e. Slaves (POWs, criminals, debt servitude): mostly domestic servants
2. Patriarchy
a. Hammurabi's code: men are head of the household
b. Women get fewer rights after 2000 B.C.E.; by 1500 B.C.E. are wearing veils
C. The development of written cultural traditions
1. Cuneiform, Mesopotamian writing style, becomes standard
a. Reed stylus (wedge-shaped) pressed in clay then baked
b. Mostly commercial and tax documents
2. Education: vocational to be scribe or government official
3. Literature: astronomy, mathematics, abstract (religious and literary like Gilgamesh)
III. The broader influence of Mesopotamian society
A. Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews
1. Early Hebrews are pastoral nomads between Mesopotamia and Egypt (second millennium
B.C.E.)
a. Settle in some cities
b. Abraham leads group to Palestine 1850 B.C.E.
c. Descendents borrow law of retribution and flood story from Mesopotamia
2. Some migrate to Egypt in eighteenth century B.C.E. then back to Palestine with Moses
a. Twelve tribes become Israelites
b. Mesopotamian-style monarchs with Jerusalem as capital
c. David (1000-970 B.C.E.) then Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.)
3. Moses and monotheism
a. Ten Commandments: moral and ethical standards for followers
b. Compilation of teachings into Torah (1000-400 B.C.E.)
4. Assyrians conquer
a. Conquer Israel in north and Judah in south and destroy Jerusalem
b. Deportees return to Judea; become known as Jews (586 B.C.E.)
c. Prophets in this period increase devotion of people
d. Build distinct Jewish community in Judea with strong group identity
B. The Phoenicians
1. First settlers about 3000 B.C.E.; develop into kingdoms of independent city-states
2. Little agriculture; live on trade and communications networks
a. Overland trade to Mesopotamia; influence on culture
b. Sea trade most important; get raw materials, trade for manufactured goods
3. Have early alphabetical script (1500 B.C.E.)
IV. The Indo-European migrations
A. Indo-European origins
1. Linguists discover similarities between many languages; they must be related
2. Originate in steppes of central Asia; pastoral people; 4500-2500 B.C.E.
3. Domesticate horses; learn to ride; use horses with carts, then chariots
B. Indo-European expansion and its effects
1. Indo-European society breaks up about 3000 B.C.E.; peoples gradually migrate
2. Hittites settle in central Anatolia about 2000 B.C.E.
a. Build powerful kingdoms
b. Conquer Babylonian empire 1595 B.C.E.
c. Dissolve by about 1200 B.C.E.
d. Technology: light horse-drawn chariots (spokes) and iron metallurgy
3. Some migrate into central Asia by 2000 B.C.E.
4. Other migrations: Greece, Italy, central Europe, western Europe, Britain
a. All pastoral agriculturalists
b. All speak related languages and worship similar deities
 5. Later wave of migrations to Iran and India ("Aryan")

Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations

I. Early agricultural society in Africa

A. Climatic change and the development of agriculture in Africa
1. Sahara region used to be grassy steppe lands with water (10,000 B.C.E.)
a. Abundant hunting, fishing, wild grains
b. Eastern Sudan begins to herd cattle and collect grains (9000 B.C.E.)
c. Permanent settlements and the growing of sorghum and yams (7500 B.C.E.)
d. Small states with semi-divine rulers (5000 B.C.E.)
2. Climate becomes hotter and drier after 5000 B.C.E.
a. People are driven into river regions--Nile
b. Annual flooding makes rich soil for agriculture
B. Egypt and Nubia: "gifts of the Nile"
1. Egypt--lower third of Nile River; Nubia--middle third of Nile
2. After 5000 B.C.E. peoples cultivate gourds and watermelons, domesticate donkeys and cattle
(from Sudan), and grow wheat and barley (from Mesopotamia)
3. Agriculture easy in Egypt (due to Nile flooding) but more work in Nubia
4. States begin to emerge by 4000 B.C.E., small kingdoms by 3300 B.C.E.
C. The unification of Egypt
1. Strong Nubian realm, Ta-Seti (3400-3200 B.C.E.)
2. Egypt, large and prosperous state by 3100 B.C.E.
a. Menes at Memphis unites Upper and Lower Egypt
b. Pharaoh, absolute ruler and owns all land
3. Archaic Period (3100-2660 B.C.E.) and Old Kingdom (2660-2160 B.C.E.)
a. Great pyramids of Giza built during this period; Khufu the largest
b. Violence between Egypt and Nubia (Egypt dominates from 3000-2400 B.C.E.)
c. Nubia later develops into Kingdom of Kush
d. Interaction through diplomacy, Nubian mercenaries, and intermarriage
D. Turmoil and empire
1. Period of upheaval after Old Kingdom (2160-2040 B.C.E.)
2. Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B.C.E.)
3. Nomadic horsemen, Hyksos, invade Egypt
a. Using bronze weapons and chariots (Egypt does not have)
b. Captures Memphis in 1674 B.C.E.
c. Causes revolts in Upper Egypt
4. New Kingdom (1550-1070 B.C.E.)
a. Pharaoh gains power, huge army, large bureaucracy
b. Building projects: temples, palaces, statues
c. Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 B.C.E.) built empire including Palestine, Syrian, Nubia
d. Then Egypt falls into a long period of decline
5. Egyptians driven out of Nubia in 1100 B.C.E.
a. Nubian Kingdom of Kush; capital is Napata
b. King Kashta conquers Thebes (in Egypt) in 760 B.C.E.
6. Assyrians with iron weapons invade from the north
7. After sixth century B.C.E. series of foreign conquests
II. The formation of complex societies and sophisticated cultural traditions
A. The emergence of cities and stratified societies
1. Cities are not as prominent in Egypt as in Mesopotamia (agricultural villages)
a. Memphis, head of the delta
b. Thebes, administrative center of Upper Egypt
c. Heliopolis, center of sun god cult
d. Tanis, important sea port on Mediterranean
2. Nubian cities
a. Kerma, dominates trade routes
b. Napata, most prosperous city after Nubian conquest of Egypt
c. Meroë, most influential city after Assyrian invasion because it is farther south
3. Social classes
a. Egypt: peasants and slaves (agriculture), pharaoh, professional military and
administrators
b. Nubia: complex and hierarchical society (can tell from tombs)
4. Patriarchy in both but women have more influence than in Mesopotamia
a. Women act as regents, like female pharaoh Hatshepsut
b. Nubia: women serve as queens, priestesses, and scribes
B. Economic specialization and trade
1. Bronze important but copper and tin rare and expensive
2. Iron metallurgy develops independently in Sudan
3. Transportation: sailboats, carts, and donkey caravans
4. Trade networks
a. Egypt and Nubia: exotic goods from Nubia (ebony, gold, gems, slaves) and pottery,
wine, linen, decorative items from Egypt
b. Egypt and the north: especially wood, like cedar from Lebanon
c. Egypt with Africa: Punt (East Africa)
C. Early writing in the Nile valley
1. Hieroglyphics found on monuments and papyrus by 3200 B.C.E.
2. Hieratic script, everyday writing 2600-600 B.C.E.
3. Demotic and Coptic scripts adapt Greek writing
4. Scribes live very privileged lives
5. Nubia adapts Egyptian writing until Meroitic in fifth century B.C.E. (has not been deciphered)
D. The development of organized religious traditions
1. Principal gods: sun gods Amon and Re
2. Brief period of monotheism: Aten
a. Pharaoh Akhenaten's idea of a new capital at Akhetaten
 b. Orders all other gods' names chiseled out; their names die with him
3. Mummification
a. At first only pharaohs are mummified (Old Kingdom)
b. Later ruling classes and wealthy can afford it
c. Eventually commoners have it too (Middle and New Kingdom)
4. Cult of Osiris
a. Brother Seth murders Osiris and scatters his body
b. Wife Isis gathers him up and gods restore him to life in underworld
c. Becomes associated with Nile, crops, life/death, immortality
d. Osiris judges the heart of the dead against the feather of truth
5. Nubians combine Egyptian religions with their own
III. Bantu migrations and early agricultural societies of sub-Saharan Africa
A. The dynamics of Bantu expansion
1. Bantu--language group from west central Africa
a. Live along banks of rivers; use canoes
b. Cultivate yams and oil palms
c. Live in clan-based villages
d. Trade with hunting/gathering forest people
2. Early migrations of Bantu (3000-1000 B.C.E.)
a. Move south and west into the forest lands
b. Move south to Congo River and east to Great Lakes region
c. Absorb much of the population of hunter/gather/fisher people
d. By 1000 B.C.E. occupy most of Africa south of the equator
3. Features of the Bantu
a. Use canoes and settle along banks of rivers; spread from there
b. Agricultural surplus causes them to move inland from rivers
c. Become involved in trade
4. Bantu rate of migration increases after 1000 B.C.E. due to appearance of iron
a. Iron tools allow them to clear more land for agriculture
b. Iron weapons give them stronger position
B. Early agricultural societies of sub-Saharan Africa
1. Many other societies besides Bantu migrate
2. Spread of agriculture to most of sub-Saharan Africa by 1000 B.C.E.
3. Mostly small communities led by chiefs with "age sets" and initiation rites
4. Religious differences by area
a. Some worship single, impersonal divine force representing good and bad
b. Many individuals pray to ancestors and local gods for intervention
5. Much mixing and intermingling of cultures

Chapter 5: Early Society in East Asia

Chapter Outline

I. Political organization in early China

A. Early agricultural society and the Xia dynasty
1. The Yellow River
a. Water source at high plateau of Tibet
b. Loess soil carried by the river's water, hence "yellow"
c. "China's Sorrow"--extensive flooding
d. Loess provided rich soil, soft and easy to work
2. Neolithic societies after 5000 B.C.E.
a. Yangshao society, 5000-3000 B.C.E.
b. Excavations at Banpo village: fine pottery, bone tools
3. The Xia dynasty
a. Archeological discovery of the Xia is still in its early stages
b. Established about 2200 B.C.E.
c. Legendary King Yu, the dynasty founder, a hero of flood control
d. Erlitou: possibly the capital city of the Xia
B. The Shang dynasty: 1766-1122 B.C.E.
1. Arose in the southern and eastern areas of the Xia realm
2. Many written records and material remains discovered
3. Bronze metallurgy, monopolized by ruling elite
4. Horses and chariots traveled with Indo-European migrants to China
5. Agricultural surpluses supported large troops
6. A vast network of walled towns
7. The Shang capital moved six times
8. Lavish tombs of Shang kings with thousands of objects
9. Other states besides Shang, for example, Sanxingdui
C. The Zhou dynasty: 1122-256 B.C.E.
1. Zhou gradually eclipsed Shang
2. Mandate of heaven, the right to rule
a. The Zhou needed to justify the overthrow
b. Ruler as "the son of heaven"
c. Mandate of heaven only given to virtuous rulers
3. Political organization: decentralized administration
a. Used princes and relatives to rule regions
b. Consequence: weak central government and rise of regional powers
4. Iron metallurgy spread through China in first millennium B.C.E.
5. The fall of the Zhou
a. Nomadic invasion sacked Zhou capital in 711 B.C.E.
b. Territorial princes became more independent
c. The Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.)
d. The last king of the Zhou abdicated his position in 256 B.C.E.
 II. Society and family in ancient China
A. The social order
1. The ruling elites with their lavish consumption of bronze
a. Hereditary aristocrats with extensive landholding
b. Administrative and military offices
c. Manuals of etiquette
2. Free artisans and craftsmen mostly worked for elites
3. Merchants and trade were important
a. Trade networks linked China with west and south
b. Oar-propelled boats traded with Korea and offshore islands
4. Peasants, the majority of population
a. Landless peasants provided labor
b. Lived in small subterranean houses
c. Women's work: wine making, weaving, silkworm raising
d. Wood, bone, stone tools before iron was spread in the sixth century B.C.E.
5. Slaves, mostly war prisoners
B. Family and patriarchy
1. Early dynasties ruled through family and kinship groups
2. Veneration of ancestors
a. Belief in ancestors' presence and their continuing influence
b. Burial of material goods with the dead
c. Offering sacrifices at the graves
d. Family heads presided over rites of honoring ancestors' spirits
3. Patriarchal society evolved out of matrilineal one
a. The rise of large states brought focus on men's contribution
b. After the Shang, females devalued

III. Early Chinese writing and cultural development

A. The secular cultural tradition
1. Absence of organized religion and priestly class
2. Believed in the impersonal heavenly power--tian
3. Oracle bones used by fortune-tellers
a. Inscribed question, subjected to heat, read cracks
b. Discovery of the "dragon bones" in 1890s
4. Early Chinese writing, from pictograph to ideograph
a. More than two thousand characters identified on oracle bones
b. Modern Chinese writing is direct descendant of Shang writing
B. Thought and literature
1. Zhou literature--many kinds of books
a. The Book of Change, a manual of diviners
b. The Book of History, the history of the Zhou
c. The Book of Rites, the rules of etiquette and rituals for aristocrats
d. The Book of Songs, a collection of verses--most notable work
2. Most Zhou writings have perished

IV. Ancient China and the larger world

A. Chinese cultivators and nomadic peoples of central Asia
1. Nomadic peoples of the steppe lands--herders
a. Exchange of products between nomads and Chinese farmers
b. Nomads frequently invaded rich agricultural society
c. Nomads did not imitate Chinese ways
d. Nomads relied on grains and manufactured goods of the Chinese
B. The southern expansion of Chinese society
1. The Yangzi valley; dependable river; two crops of rice per year
2. The indigenous peoples of southern China
a. Many were assimilated into Chinese agricultural society
b. Some were pushed to hills and mountains
c. Some migrated to Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand
3. The state of Chu in the central region of Yanzi
a. Challenged the Zhou for supremacy
b. Adopted Chinese political and social traditions and writing

Chapter 6: Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania

Chapter Outline

I. Early societies of Mesoamerica

A. The Olmecs
1. Migration to Mesoamerica
a. Large wave of humans traveled from Siberia to Alaska around 13,000 B.C.E.
b. By 9500 B.C.E., humans reached the southernmost part of South America
c. As hunting became difficult, agriculture began (7500 B.C.E.)
2. Early agriculture: beans, squashes, chilies; later, maize became the staple (5000 B.C.E.)
a. Agricultural villages appeared after 3000 B.C.E.
b. No large domesticated animals, no wheeled vehicles
 3. Ceremonial centers by the end of the second millennium B.C.E.
4. Olmecs, the "rubber people," lived near the Gulf of Mexico (1200 B.C.E.)
a. Elaborate complexes built
b. The colossal human heads--possibly likenesses of rulers
c. Rulers' power shown in construction of huge pyramids
d. Trade in jade and obsidian
e. Decline of Olmecs: systematically destroyed ceremonial centers by 400 B.C.E.
5. Influence of Olmec: maize, ceremonial centers, calendar, human sacrifice, ball game
B. Heirs of the Olmecs: the Maya
1. The Maya lived in the highlands of Guatemala
a. Besides maize, they also cultivated cotton and cacao
b. Tikal was the most important Maya political center, 300 to 900 C.E.
c. Maya warfare: warriors had prestige; captives were slaves or victims
d. Chichén Itzá, power by the ninth century; loose empire in Yucatan
e. Maya decline began in 800 C.E.; many Mayans deserted their cities
C. Maya society and religion
1. Maya society was hierarchical
a. Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility at the top
b. Merchants were from the ruling class; they served also as ambassadors
c. Professional architects and artisans were important
d. Peasants and slaves were majority of population
2. The Maya calendar had both solar and ritual years interwoven
3. Maya writing was ideographic and syllabic; only four books survive
4. Religious thought
a. Popol Vuh, a Maya creation myth, taught that gods created humans out of maize and
water
b. Gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors and sacrifices
c. Bloodletting rituals honored gods for rains
5. The Maya ball game: sporting, gambling, and religious significance
D. Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan
1. The city of Teotihuacan in the highlands of Mexico
a. Colossal pyramids of sun and moon
b. High point between 400 and 600 C.E.; two hundred thousand inhabitants
c. Paintings and murals reflect the importance of priests
2. Teotihuacan society
a. Rulers and priests dominated society
b. Two-thirds of the city inhabitants worked in fields during daytime
c. Artisans were famous for their obsidian tools and orange pottery
d. Professional merchants traded extensively throughout Mesoamerica
e. No sign of military organization or conquest
3. Cultural traditions: ball game, calendar, writing, sacrifices
4. Decline of Teotihuacan from about 650 C.E.; was sacked and destroyed mid-eighth century

II. Early societies of South America

A. Early Andean society and the Chavín cult
1. Early migration to Peru and Bolivia region
a. By 12,000 B.C.E. hunting and gathering peoples reached South America
b. By 8000 B.C.E. they began to experiment with agriculture
c. Complex societies appeared in central Andean region after 1000 B.C.E.
d. Andean societies were located in modern-day Peru and Bolivia
2. Early agriculture in South America
a. Main crops: beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cotton
b. Fishing supplemented agricultural harvests
c. By 1800 B.C.E. the people produced pottery, built temples and pyramids
3. The Chavín Cult, from about 900 to 300 B.C.E.
a. Complexity of Andean society increases during Chavín
b. Devised techniques of producing cotton textiles and fishing nets
c. Discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy
d. Cities began to appear shortly after Chavín cult
e. Early Andeans did not make use of writing
B. Early Andean states: Mochica (300-700 C.E.) in northern Peru
1. Irrigation, trade, military, no writing
2. Artistic legacy: painting on pottery, ceramics

III. Early societies of Oceania

A. Early societies in Australia and New Guinea
1. Human migrants arrived in Australia and New Guinea at least sixty thousand years ago
a. By the mid-centuries of the first millennium C.E., human communities in all habitable
islands of the Pacific Ocean
b. About ten thousand years ago, rising seas separated Australia and New Guinea
c. Australia: hunting and gathering until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries C.E.
d. New Guinea: Turned to agriculture about 3000 B.C.E.
2. Austronesian peoples from southeast Asia were seafarers to New Guinea, 3000 B.C.E.
3. Early agriculture in New Guinea: root crops and herding animals
B. The peopling of the Pacific Islands
1. Austronesian migration to Polynesia
a. Outrigger canoes enabled them to sail safely
b. Agriculture and domesticated animals
2. Austronesian migrations to Micronesia and Madagascar
3. Lapita Society from New Guinea to Tonga (1500-500 B.C.E.)
a. Agricultural villages
b. Pottery with geometric designs
c. Networks of trade/communication: pottery, obsidian, shells, tools traded
d. After 500 B.C.E. trade network declined; cultures developed independently
e. Hierarchical chiefdoms; tension led to migration
f. Divine or semi divine chiefs: led public rituals, oversaw irrigation
Chapter 7: The Empires of Persia

Chapter Outline

I. The rise and fall of the Persian Empires

A. The Achaemenid Empire
1. Medes and Persians migrated from central Asia to Persia before
1000 B.C.E.
a. Indo-European speakers, sharing cultural traits with
Aryans
b. Challenged the Assyrian and Babylonian empires
2. Cyrus the Achaemenid (the Shepherd) (reigned 558-530 B.C.E.)
a. Became king of Persian tribes in 558 B.C.E.
b. All of Iran under his control by 548 B.C.E.
c. Established a vast empire from India to borders of
Egypt
3. Cyrus's son, Cambyses (reigned 530-522 B.C.E.), conquered
Egypt in 525
4. Darius (reigned 521-486 B.C.E.); largest extent of empire;
population thirty-five million
a. Diverse empire, seventy ethnic groups
b. New capital at Persepolis, 520 B.C.E.
5. Achaemenid administration
a. Twenty-three satrapies (Persian governors), appointed
by central government
b. Local officials were from local population
c. Satraps' power was checked by military officers and
"imperial spies"
d. Replaced irregular tribute payments with formal taxes
e. Standardization of coins and laws
f. Communication systems: Persian Royal Road and
postal stations
B. Decline and fall of the Achaemenid Empire
1. Commonwealth: law, justice, administration led to political
stability and public works
2. Xerxes (reigned 486-465 B.C.E.)
a. Retreated from the policy of cultural toleration
b. Caused ill will and rebellions among the peoples in
Mesopotamia and Egypt
3. The Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.E.)
a. Rebellion of Ionian Greeks
b. Persian rulers failed to put down the rebellion, sparred
for 150 years
4. Alexander of Macedon invaded Persia in 334 B.C.E.
a. Battle of Gaugamela, the end of Achaemenid empire, in
331 B.C.E.
b. Alexander burned the city of Persepolis
C. The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanid Empires
1. Seleucus inherited most of Achaemenid when Alexander died
a. Retained the Achaemenid system of administration
b. Opposition from native Persians; lost control over
northern India and Iran
2. The Parthians, based in Iran, extend to Mesopotamia
a. Power of Parthian was heavy cavalry
b. Mithradates I established a empire through conquests
from 171-155 B.C.E.
c. Parthian government followed the example of
Achaemenid administration
3. The Sasanids, from Persia, toppled Parthians; ruled 224-651
C.E.
a. Merchants brought in various crops from India and
China
b. Shapur I (239-272 C.E.); buffer states with Romans;
standoff with Kushan
c. In 651 C.E., empire incorporated into Islamic empire

II. Imperial society and economy

A. Social development in classical Persia
1. Nomadic society; importance of family and clan relationships
2. Imperial bureaucrats
a. Imperial administration called for educated bureaucrats
b. Shared power and influence with warriors and clan
leaders
3. Free classes were bulk of Persian society
a. In the city: artisans, craftsmen, merchants, civil
servants
b. In the countryside: peasants, some of whom were
building underground canals (qanat)
4. Large class of slaves who were prisoners of war and debtors
 B. Economic foundations of classical Persia
1. Agriculture was the economic foundation
2. Trade from India to Egypt
a. Standardized coins, good trade routes, markets, banks
b. Specialization of production in different regions

III. Religions of salvation in classical Persian society

A. Zarathustra and his faith
1. Zoroastrianism
a. Emerged from the teachings of Zarathustra
b. Visions; supreme god (Ahura Mazda) made
Zarathustra prophet
c. The Gathas, Zarathustra's hymns in honor of deities
d. Teachings preserved later in writing, by magi
e. Compilation of the holy scriptures, Avesta, under
Sasanid dynasty
2. Zoroastrian teachings
a. Ahura Mazda as a supreme deity, with six lesser deities
b. Cosmic conflict between Ahura Mazda (good) and
Angra Mainyu (evil)
c. Heavenly paradise and hellish realm as reward and
punishment
d. The material world as a blessing
e. Moral formula: good words, good thoughts, good deeds
3. Popularity of Zoroastrianism grows from sixth century B.C.E.
a. Attracted Persian aristocrats and ruling elites
b. Darius regarded Ahura Mazda as supreme God
c. Most popular in Iran; followings in Mesopotamia,
Anatolia, Egypt, and more
B. Religions of salvation in a cosmopolitan society
1. Suffering of Zoroastrian community during Alexander's invasion
2. Officially sponsored Zoroastrianism during the Sasanid empire
3. The Zoroastrians' difficulties
a. Islamic conquerors toppled the Sasanid Empire,
seventh century C.E.
b. Some Zoroastrians fled to India (Parsis)
c. Most Zoroastrians in Persia converted to Islam
d. Some Zoroastrians still exist in modern-day Iran
4. Zoroastrianism influenced Judaism, Christianity, and later, Islam
5. Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, Judaism also in Persia

Chapter 8: The Unification of China

Chapter Outline

I. In search of political and social order

A. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and his school
1. Confucius
a. Educator and political advisor
b. Sayings were compiled in the Analects by his disciples
2. Confucian ideas
a. Fundamentally moral and ethical in character
b. Thoroughly practical: how to restore political and social order
c. Concentrated on formation of junzi--"superior individuals"
d. Edited and compiled the Zhou classics for his disciples to study
3. Key Confucian values
a. Ren--a sense of humanity, kindness, benevolence
b. Li--a sense of propriety, courtesy, respect, deference to elders
c. Xiao--filial piety, familial obligation
d. Cultivate personal morality and junzi for bringing order to China
4. Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.), spokesman for the Confucian school
a. Believed in the goodness of human nature (ren)
b. Advocated government by benevolence and humanity
5. Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.) had a less positive view of human nature
a. Believed that humans selfishly pursue own interests
b. Preferred harsh social discipline to bring order to society
c. Advocated moral education and good public behavior
B. Daoism featured prominent critics of Confucian activism
1. Preferred philosophical reflection and introspection, a life in harmony with nature
2. Laozi, founder of Daoism, allegedly wrote the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of Virtue)
3. Zhuangzi (compendium of Daoist philosophy)
4. The Dao--the way of nature, the way of the cosmos
a. Elusive concept: an eternal principle governing all the workings of the world
b. Dao is passive and yielding, does nothing yet accomplishes everything
c. Humans should tailor their behavior to the passive and yielding nature of the Dao
d. Ambition and activism had only brought the world to chaos
e. Doctrine of wuwei: disengagement from worldly affairs, simple life
 f. Advocated small, self-sufficient communities
5. Political implications: served as counterbalance to Confucian activism
C. Legalism
1. The doctrine of practical and efficient statecraft
a. No concern with ethics and morality
b. No concern with the principles governing nature
2. Shang Yang (ca. 390-338 B.C.E.), chief minister of Qin and Legalist writer
3. Han Feizi (ca. 280-233 B.C.E.) synthesized Legalist ideas in essays
4. Legalist doctrine
a. The state's strength was in agriculture and military force
b. Discouraged commerce, education, and the arts
c. Harnessing self-interest of the people for the needs of the state
d. Called for harsh penalties even for minor infractions
e. Advocated collective responsibility before the law
f. Not popular among Chinese, but practical; put end to Period of Warring States

II. The Unification of China

A. The Qin dynasty
1. Qin, Located in west China, adopted Legalist policies
a. Encouraged agriculture, resulted in strong economy
b. Organized a powerful army equipped with iron weapons
c. Conquered other states and unified China in 221 B.C.E.
2. The first emperor was Qin Shihuangdi (221 B.C.E.)
a. Established centralized imperial rule
b. Project of connecting and extending the Great Wall
c. Buried 460 scholars alive because of their criticism against the Qin
d. Burned all books except some with utilitarian value
3. Policies of centralization
a. Standardization of laws, currencies, weights, measures
b. Standardization of scripts
4. Tomb of the First Emperor, who died 210 B.C.E.
a. Tomb was underground palace with army of life-size terra-cotta figures
b. Excavation of the tomb since 1974
5. The collapse of the Qin dynasty
a. Massive public works generated tremendous ill will among the people
b. Waves of rebels overwhelmed the Qin court in 207 B.C.E.
c. Short-lived dynasty, but left deep marks in Chinese history
B. The early Han dynasty
1. Liu Bang; persistent and methodical; by 206 B.C.E. restored order
2. Early Han policies
a. Sought a middle way between Zhou decentralization and Qin overcentralization
b. Han Wudi, the Martial Emperor (reigned 141-87 B.C.E.), emphasized centralization
and expansion
3. Han centralization; adopted Legalist policies
a. Built an enormous bureaucracy to rule the empire
b. Continued to build roads and canals
c. Levied taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries
d. Imperial monopolies on production of iron and salt
e. Established Confucian educational system for training bureaucrats
4. Han imperial expansion
a. Invaded and colonized northern Vietnam and Korea
b. Han organized vast armies to invade Xiongnu territory (nomads from steppes)
c. Han enjoyed uncontested hegemony in east and central Asia

III. From economic prosperity to social disorder

A. Productivity and prosperity during the Former Han
1. Patriarchal social structure
a. Women's subordination; Ban Zhao's Admonitions for Women
b. Children obey and honor parents
2. Vast majority of population were cultivators
3. Iron metallurgy: farming tools, utensils, and weapons
4. Silk textiles; sericulture spread all over China during the Han
5. Paper production; replaced silk and bamboo as writing material
6. Population growth: twenty million to sixty million from 220 B.C.E. to 9 C.E.
B. Economic and social difficulties
1. Expeditions consumed the empire's surplus
a. Raised taxes and confiscated land of some wealthy individuals
b. Taxes and land confiscations discouraged investment in manufacture and trade
2. Social tensions, caused by stratification between the poor and rich
3. Problems of land distribution
4. The reign of Wang Mang (9-23 C.E.)
a. Land reforms by the "socialist emperor"
b. Overthrown by revolts, 23 C.E.
C. The later Han dynasty (25-220 C.E.)
1. Yellow Turban Uprising: revolt due to problems of land distribution
2. Collapse of the Han
a. Factions at court paralyzed the central government
b. Han empire dissolved; China was divided into regional kingdoms
Chapter 9: State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India

Chapter Outline

I. The fortunes of empire in classical India

A. The Mauryan dynasty and the temporary unification of India
1. Magadha kingdom filled power vacuum left by withdrawal of Alexander of Macedon
2. Chandragupta Maurya began conquest in 320s B.C.E.
a. Founded Maurya dynasty stretching from Bactria to Ganges
b. Kautala's advice manual, Arthashastra, outlined administrative methods
3. Ashoka Maurya (reigned 268-232 B.C.E.)--peak of empire
a. Conquered the kingdom of Kalinga, 260 B.C.E.
b. Ruled through tightly organized bureaucracy
c. Established capital at Pataliputra
d. Policies were written on rocks or pillars
e. Empire declined after his death because of financial problems
B. The revival of empire under the Guptas
1. Greek-speaking Bactrians ruled in northwest India for two centuries
2. Kushans (nomads from Central Asia) conquered and ruled, 1-300 C.E.
a. High point was Emperor Kashika, 78-103 C.E.
b. Crucial role in Silk Road trading network
3. The Gupta dynasty, founded by Chandra Gupta (375-415 C.E.)
a. Smaller and more decentralized than Maurya
b. Invasion of White Huns weakened the empire
c. After the fifth century C.E., Gupta dynasty continued in name only
d. Large regional kingdoms dominated political life in India

II. Economic development and social distinctions

A. Towns and trade
1. Towns dotted the India countryside after 600 B.C.E.
a. Towns provided manufactured products and luxury goods
b. Active marketplaces, especially along Ganges
2. Trade with Persia, China, Indian Ocean basin, Indonesia, southeast Asia, Mediterranean basin
B. Family life and the caste system
1. Gender relations: patriarchal families, female subordination, child marriage
2. Development of caste system
a. With trade and commerce new social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants
appeared
b. These social groups functioned as sub castes, or jati
c. Vaishyas and shudras saw unprecedented wealth
d. Old beliefs and values of early Aryan society became increasingly irrelevant

III. Religions of salvation in classical India

A. Jainism and the challenge to the established cultural order
1. Vardhamana Mahavira (Jina) founded Jain religion in 5th century B.C.E.
2. Jainist doctrine and ethics
a. Inspired by the Upanishads: everything in universe has a soul
b. Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss
c. Principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things
d. Too demanding, not a practical alternative to the cult of the brahmans
3. Appeal of Jainism
a. Social implication: individual souls equally participated in ultimate reality
b. Jains did not recognize social hierarchies of caste and jati
B. Early Buddhism
1. Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.E.) became the Buddha
a. Gave up his comfortable life to search for cause of suffering
b. Received enlightenment under the bo tree
c. First sermon about 528 B.C.E. at the Deer Park of Sarnath
d. Organized followers into a community of monks
2. Buddhist doctrine: the dharma
a. The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path are the way to end suffering
b. Suffering is caused by desire
c. Religious goal: personal salvation, or nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence
3. Appeal of Buddhism
a. Appealed strongly to members of lower castes because it did not recognize social
hierarchies of castes and jati
b. Was less demanding than Jainism, which made it more popular
c. Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit
d. Holy sites venerated by pilgrims
e. The monastic organizations--extremely efficient at spreading the Buddhist message
and winning converts to the faith
4. Ashoka converted and became important patron of Buddhism
C. Mahayana Buddhism
1. Early Buddhism made heavy demands on individuals
2. Development of Buddhism between 3rd century B.C.E. and 1st century C.E.
 a. Buddha became a god
b. The notion of boddhisatva--"an enlightened being"
c. Monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy individuals
d. These changes became known as Mahayana Buddhism
e. Educational institutions (like Nalanda) promoted new faith
D. The emergence of popular Hinduism
1. The epics Mahabharata, a secular poem revised by brahman scholars to honor the god Vishnu,
the preserver of the world Ramayana, a secular story of Rama and Sita, was changed into a
Hindu story
2. The Bhagavad Gita
a. A short poetic work: dialogue between Vishnu and warrior
b. Illustrated expectations of Hinduism and promise of salvation
3. Hindu ethics
a. Achieve salvation through meeting caste responsibilities
b. Lead honorable lives in the world
4. Hinduism gradually replaced Buddhism in India

Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase

Chapter Outline

I. Early development of Greek society

A. Minoan and Mycenaean Societies
1. Minoan society arose on the island of Crete, late third millennium B.C.E.
a. Between 2200 and 1450 B.C.E., was the center of Mediterranean commerce
b. Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt
c. Untranslated form of writing, Linear A, was used
d. By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign domination
2. Mycenaean society: named after important city, Mycenae
a. Indo-European immigrants settled in Greece, 2000 B.C.E.
b. Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script, Linear B
c. Stone fortresses in the Peloponnesus (southern Greece) protected agricultural
settlements
d. Overpowered Minoan society and expanded to Anatolia, Sicily, and Italy
3. Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean after Trojan War (1200 B.C.E.)
B. The world of the polis gradually emerged in Greece
1. Sparta began to extend control during eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E.
a. Reduced the neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or semi-free servants
b. Maintained domination by a powerful military machine
2. Spartan society
a. Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle
b. Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent
3. Athens gradually broadened base of political participation
a. Solon sought to negotiate order by democratic principles
b. Citizenship was open to free adult males, not to foreigners, slaves, and women
4. Athenian society
a. Maritime trade brought about prosperity to Attica, the region of Athens
b. Aristocratic landowners were primary beneficiaries
c. Class tension became intensified in the sixth century B.C.E.
5. Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.), most popular democratic leader of Athens

II. Greece and the larger world

A. Greek colonization
1. Greeks founded more than four hundred colonies
a. Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands and people
b. Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions
c. Stimulated development of surrounding areas
B. Conflict with Persia and its results
1. The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.)
a. Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted against Persia, 500 B.C.E.
b. Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E., is decisive victory for Athens
c. Xerxes tried again to seize Athens; his navy lost battle of Salamis (480 B.C.E.)
d. Persian army retreated back to Anatolia (479 B.C.E.)
2. The Delian League
a. Military and financial alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat
b. When Persian threat subsided, poleis, other than Athens, no longer wanted to make
contributions
3. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.)
a. Tensions led to two armed camps, under leadership of Athens and Sparta
b. Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.
C. The Macedonians and the coming of empire
1. The kingdom of Macedon, a frontier state north of peninsular Greece
2. Philip of Macedon (reigned 359-336 B.C.E.) brought Greece under control
3. Alexander of Macedon succeeds Philip at age twenty and begins conquests
a. By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia
b. Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis, 331 B.C.E.
c. Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E., army refused to go farther
 d. Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three
D. Hellenistic Empires: Alexander's realm was divided into Antigonid, Ptolemaic, Seleucid
1. Antigonid empire: Greece and Macedon
a. Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities
b. Economy of Athens and Corinth flourished again through trade
2. The Ptolemaic empire: Egypt--the wealthiest
a. The rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society
b. Alexandria, capital at mouth of the Nile
c. Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library
3. The Seleucid empire: largest, from Bactria to Anatolia
a. Greek and Macedonian colonists flocked to Greek cities of the former Persia
b. Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society
c. Bactria withdrew from Seleucids and established independent Greek kingdom

III. The fruits of trade: Greek economy and society

A. Trade and the integration of the Mediterranean Basin
1. Trade and commerce flourished resulting in population growth and more colonies
a. Production of olive oil and wine, in exchange for grain and other items
b. Led to broader sense of Greek community
2. Panhellenic festivals (like Olympic Games) became popular
B. Family and society
1. Greek society in Homer's works
a. Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world
b. Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly
2. Patriarchal society was the norm
a. Women could not own landed property but could operate small businesses
b. Priestess was the only public position for women
c. Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis
3. Sappho: Talented female poet wrote poems of attraction to women
a. Instructed young women in music and literature at home
b. Critics charged her with homosexual activity (not acceptable for women)
4. Slavery: private chattel, property of their owners
a. Worked as cultivators, domestic servants
b. Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen and business managers

IV. The cultural life of classical Greece

A. Rational thought and philosophy
1. The formation of Greek cultural traditions: philosophy based on human reason
2. Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.): "An unexamined life is not worth living"
a. Encouraged reflection on questions of ethics and morality
b. Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths
3. Plato (430-347 B.C.E.): A zealous disciple of Socrates
a. The theory of Forms or Ideas--world of ideal qualities
b. This world is imperfect reflection of world of Forms
c. His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
4. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.): Plato's student, but distrusted theory of Forms
a. Devised rules of logic to construct powerful arguments
b. Philosophers should rely on senses to provide accurate information
5. Legacy of Greek philosophy
a. Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until seventeenth century
b. Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians
B. Popular religion and Greek drama
1. Greek deities: Zeus and scores of subordinate deities
2. Various types of religious cults; Cult of Dionysus most popular
3. Drama was performed at annual theatrical festivals
a. Great tragedians explored the possibilities and limitations of human action
b. Comic drama took delight in lampooning the public figures
C. Hellenistic philosophy and religion
1. The Hellenistic philosophers: search for personal tranquility
a. Epicureans: identified pleasure as the greatest good
b. Skeptics: doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity
c. Stoics: taught individuals duty to aid others and lead virtuous lives
2. Religions of salvation spread through trade routes
a. Mystery religions promised eternal bliss for believers; like Cult of Osiris
b. Speculation about a single, universal god emerged

Chapter 11: Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase

Chapter Outline

I. From kingdom to republic

A. The Etruscans and Rome
1. Romulus and Remus: legendary twins rescued by a she-wolf; founded Rome in 753 B.C.E.
2. The Etruscans dominated Italy eighth to fifth centuries B.C.E.
3. The kingdom of Rome was on the Tiber River
B. The Roman republic and its constitution
1. Establishment of the republic
 a. Rome nobility deposed the last Etruscan king in 509 B.C.E.
b. Republican constitution included two consuls: civil and military
c. Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated by the patricians
d. Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions
e. Both Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians
2. Conflicts between patricians and plebeians
a. Patricians granted plebeians the tribunes
b. Tribunes' power to intervene and veto decisions
c. Plebeians' tribunes dominated Roman politics, early third century B.C.E.
C. The expansion of the republic
1. Rome consolidated its position in Italy, fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E.
2. Conflict with Carthage (Punic Wars) and Hellenistic realms
3. Rome became preeminent power in eastern and western Mediterranean

II. From republic to empire

A. Imperial expansion and domestic problems
1. The Gracchi brothers supported land redistribution; both were assassinated
2. Military commanders recruited rural and urban poor--intensely loyal armies
a. Gaius Marius: general who advocated land redistribution
b. Conservative aristocratic class supported general Lucius Cornelius Sulla
3. Civil war
B. The foundation of empire
1. Julius Caesar: very popular social reformer and conqueror (Gaul)
a. Seized Rome in 49 B.C.E.
b. Claimed the title "dictator for life," 46 B.C.E.
c. Social reforms and centralized control
d. Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.
2. Octavion brought civil conflict to an end
a. Senate bestowed title "Augustus", 27 B.C.E.
b. Monarchy disguised as a republic
c. Created a new standing army under his control
d. The imperial institutions began to take root
C. Continuing expansion and integration of the empire
1. Roman expansion into Mediterranean basin, western Europe, down Nile to Kush
2. Pax romana, Roman Peace, for two and a half centuries
3. Well-engineered Roman roads; postal system
4. Roman law--tradition: twelve tables (450 B.C.E.)

III. Economy and society in the Roman Mediterranean

A. Trade and urbanization
1. Owners of latifundia focused on specialized production for export
2. Mediterranean trade
a. Sea lanes linked ports of the Mediterranean
b. Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates
c. The Mediterranean became a Roman lake
3. The city of Rome
a. Wealth of the city fueled its urban development
b. Statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, stadiums
c. First use of concrete as construction material
d. Rome attracted numerous immigrants
e. Attractions: baths, pools, gymnasia, circuses, stadiums, amphitheaters
B. Family and society in Roman times
1. The pater familias--eldest male of the family ruled
a. Women wielded considerable influence within their families
b. Many women supervised family business and wealthy estates
2. Wealth and social change
a. Newly rich classes built palatial houses and threw lavish banquets
b. Cultivators and urban masses lived at subsistence level
c. Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities
d. No urban policy developed, only "bread and circuses"
3. Slavery--one-third of the population
a. Spartacus's uprising in 73 B.C.E.
b. Urban slaves saw better conditions and possibility of manumission

IV. The cosmopolitan Mediterranean

A. Greek philosophy and religions of salvation
1. Roman deities: gods, goddesses, and household gods
2. Greek influence--Stoicism
a. Appealed to Roman intellectuals
b. Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) persuasive orator and writer on Stoicism
3. Religions of salvation gave sense of purpose and promised afterlife
a. Roman roads served as highways for religious spread
b. Mithraism was popular with Roman soldiers--men only
c. Cult of Isis very popular
B. Judaism and early Christianity
1. Monotheistic Jews considered state cults to be blasphemy
2. The Essenes, sect of Judaism; Dead Sea Scrolls
 3. Jesus of Nazareth
a. Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God and love for human beings
b. Attracted large crowds through his wisdom and miraculous powers
c. The teaching "the kingdom of God is at hand" alarmed the Romans
d. Crucifixion in early 30s C.E.
e. Became "Christ," or "the anointed one"
4. The New Testament and the Old Testament became the holy book of Christianity
5. Paul of Tarsus was principle figure in spread of Christianity
6. Rapid growth of early Christianity
a. Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women
b. Became the most influential faith in the Mediterranean by the third century C.E.

Chapter 12: Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads

Chapter Outline

I. Long-distance trade and the silk roads network

A. Zhang Qian's mission to the west
1. Held by Xiongnu for years
2. Told Han Wudi of possibility of establishing trade relations to Bactria
3. Han Wudi subdued Xiongnu, opening up region to safe trade routes
B. Trade networks of the Hellenistic era
1. Important developments of the classical era that reduced risks
a. Rulers invested in constructing roads and bridges
b. Large empires expanded until borders were closer
2. Trade networks of the Hellenistic world
a. Exchanges between India/Bactria in east and Mediterranean basin in west
b. Ptolemies learned about the monsoon system in Indian Ocean
c. Maritime trade included East Africa--Rhapta
C. The silk roads
1. Trade routes
a. Overland trade routes linked China to Roman empire
b. Sea lanes joined Asia, Africa, and Mediterranean basin into one network
2. Trade goods
a. Silk and spices traveled west
b. Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China
c. Roman empire provided glassware, jewelry, artworks, perfumes, textiles
3. The organization of long-distance trade
a. Merchants of different regions handled long-distance trade in stages
b. On the seas, long-distance trade was dominated by different empires

II. Cultural and biological exchanges along the silk roads

A. The spread of Buddhism and Hinduism
1. Buddhism in central Asia and China
a. First present in oasis towns of central Asia along silk roads
b. Further spread to steppe lands
c. Foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, first century B.C.E.
d. Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, fifth century C.E.
2. Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia
B. The spread of Christianity
1. Christianity in the Mediterranean basin
a. Missionaries, like Gregory the Wonderworker, attracted converts
b. Christian communities flourished in Mediterranean basin by late third century C.E.
2. Christianity in Southwest Asia follows the trade routes
a. Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran, second century C.E.
b. Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the seventh century C.E.
c. Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire
d. Nestorians emphasized human nature of Jesus, fifth century C.E.
e. Nestorian communities in central Asia, India, and China by seventh century C.E.
C. The spread of Manichaeism; best example of religion spread on silk roads
1. Mani and Manichaeism
a. Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew influence from Christianity and Buddhism
b. Dualism: perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil
c. Offered means to achieve personal salvation
d. Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards
e. Differentiation between the "elect" and the "hearers"
2. Spread of Manichaeism; appealed to merchants
a. Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean region
b. Appeared in all large cities of Roman empire, third century C.E.
3. Persecuted by Sasanids and Romans but survived in central Asia
D. The spread of epidemic disease
1. Epidemic diseases
a. Common epidemics in Rome and China: smallpox, measles, bubonic plague
b. Roman Empire: population dropped by a quarter from the first to tenth century C.E.
c. China: population dropped by a quarter from the first to seventh century C.E.
2. Effects of epidemic diseases
 a. Both Chinese and Roman economies contracted
b. Small regional economies emerged
c. Epidemics weakened Han and Roman empires

III. China after the Han dynasty

A. Internal decay of the Han state
1. Problems of factions and land distribution led to rebellions
2. Generals usurped political authority; the emperor became a puppet
a. By 220 C.E., generals abolished the Han and divided the empire into three kingdoms
b. Nomadic peoples came in; China became even more divided for 350 years
B. Cultural change in post-Han China
1. Gradual sinicization of nomadic peoples
2. Withering of Confucianism in light of political instability
3. Popularity of Buddhism; nomadic rulers embraced it

IV. The fall of the Roman empire

A. Internal decay in the Roman empire
1. The barracks emperors: series of generals seizing throne (235-284 C.E.
2. The emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.)
a. Divided the empire into two administrative districts
b. A co-emperor ruled each district with the aid of a powerful lieutenant
3. The emperor Constantine and new capital Constantinople
B. Germanic invasions and the fall of the western Roman empire
1. Germanic migrations from northern Europe to eastern and northern part of Roman empire
a. Visigoths--settled agriculturalists; adopted Roman law and Christianity
b. Roman authorities kept Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer
2. The Huns under Attila attacked Europe mid-fifth century C.E.
3. The collapse of the western Roman empire
a. Under the Huns' pressure, Germanic peoples streamed into the Roman empire
b. Established settlements in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa
c. Germanic general Odovacer deposed the Roman emperor, 476 C.E.
d. Imperial authority survived in the eastern half of the empire
C. Cultural change in the late Roman empire
1. Christianity most prominent survivor of the collapse of the empire
a. With Constantine's Edict of Milan, Christianity became a legitimate religion, 313 C.E.
b. Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the official religion, 380 C.E.
c. St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought
2. The Church became increasingly institutionalized
a. Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians
b. Established standardized hierarchy of church officials
c. The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader
d. As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation

Chapter 13: The Expansive Realm of Islam

Chapter Outline

I. A prophet and his world

A. Muhammad and his message
1. Arabian peninsula was mostly desert
a. Nomadic Bedouin people organized in family and clan groups
b. Important in long-distance trade networks between China/India and Persia/Byzantium
2. Muhammad's early life
a. Muhammad ibn Abdullah born to a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E.
b. Difficult early life, married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595
c. Became a merchant at age thirty and was exposed to various faiths
3. Muhammad's spiritual transformation at age forty
a. There was only one true god, Allah ("the god")
b. Allah would soon bring judgment on the world
c. The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad
4. The Quran ("recitation")--holy book of Islam
a. Followers compiled Muhammad's revelations
b. Work of poetry and definitive authority on Islam
c. Other works include hadith (sayings and deeds of Muhammad)
B. Muhammad's migration to Medina
1. Conflict at Mecca
a. His teachings offended other believers, especially the ruling elite of Mecca
b. Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants
c. Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the black rock at Ka'ba
2. The hijra
a. Under persecution, Muhammad and followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E.
b. The move, known as hijra, was the starting point of the Islamic calendar
3. The umma: cohesive community of Muslims in Medina
4. The "seal of the prophets"
a. Muhammad called himself the "seal of the prophets"--the final prophet of Allah
b. Held Hebrew scripture and New Testament in high esteem
c. Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind
 C. The establishment of Islam in Arabia
1. Muhammad's return to Mecca
a. He and his followers conquered Mecca, 630
b. Imposed a government dedicated to Allah
c. Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques
2. The Ka'ba was not destroyed; it became site of pilgrimage in 632
3. The Five Pillars of Islam, or obligations taught by Muhammad
4. Islamic law: the sharia, inspired by Quran
a. Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life
b. Through the sharia, Islam became more than a religion, it became a way of life

II. The expansion of Islam

A. The early caliphs and the Umayyad dynasty
1. The caliph
a. Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy")
b. Became head of the state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander
2. Dramatic expansion of Islam
3. The Shia
a. The Shia sect originally supported Ali and descendents as caliph
b. Versus the Sunnis ("traditionalists"), the Shias accepted legitimacy of early caliphs
c. Different beliefs: holy days for leaders, Ali infallible
d. Ongoing conflict between the two sects
4. The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)
a. The dynasty temporarily solved problem of succession
b. Established capital city at Damascus in Syria
c. Ruled the dar al-Islam for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy
5. Policy toward conquered peoples
a. Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam
b. Even the non-Arab converts were discriminated against
6. Umayyad decline, due to discontent of conquered and resistance of Shia
B. The Abbasid dynasty
1. Abu al-Abbas, descendant of Muhammad's uncle
a. Allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims
b. Won battle against Umayyad in 750 after annihilating the clan
2. The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.)
a. Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy
b. No longer conquering, but the empire still grew
3. Abbasid administration
a. Relied heavily on Persian techniques of statecraft
b. Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad
c. Appointed governors to rule provinces
d. Ulama ("people with religious knowledge") and qadis (judges) ruled locally
4. Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.), high point of Abassid dynasty
5. Abbasid decline
a. Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war
b. Governors built their own power bases
c. Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty
d. A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945
e. Later, the Saljuq Turks controlled the imperial family

III. Economy and society of the early Islamic world

A. New crops, agricultural experimentation, and urban growth
1. Spread of new foods and industrial crops
2. Effects of new crops
a. Increased varieties and quantities of food
b. Industrial crops became the basis for a thriving textile industry
3. Agricultural experimentation
4. Urban growth
a. Increasing agricultural production contributed to the rapid growth of cities
b. A new industry: paper manufacture
B. The formation of a hemispheric trading zone
1. Overland trade
a. Trade revived silk roads
b. Umayyad and Abbasid rulers maintained roads for military and administration
2. Camels and caravans
a. Overland trade traveled mostly by camel caravan
b. Caravanserais in Islamic cities
3. Maritime trade
a. Arab and Persian mariners borrowed the compass from the Chinese
b. Borrowed the lateen sail from southeast Asian and Indian mariners
c. Borrowed astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners
4. Banks
a. Operated on large scale and provided extensive services
b. Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks
5. The organization of trade
a. Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments
b. Traders even went to West Africa, Russia, Scandinavia
6. Al-Andalus with its capital city Cordoba
a. This area was Islamic Spain, conquered by Muslim Berbers
 b. Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty
c. Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence
C. The changing status of women
1. The Quran and women
a. The Quran enhanced security of women
b. The Quran and sharia also reinforced male domination
2. Veiling of women
a. Adopted veiling of women from Mesopotamia and Persia
b. Women's rights provided by the Quran were reduced through later interpretations

IV. Islamic values and cultural exchanges

A. The formation of an Islamic cultural tradition
1. The Quran and sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines
2. Promotion of Islamic values
a. Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents
b. Education also promoted Islamic values
3. Sufis, or Islamic mystics
a. Most effective missionaries
b. Encouraged devotion to Allah by passionate singing or dancing
c. Al-Ghazali believed that human reason was too frail and confusing
d. Sufis led ascetic and holy lives, won respect of the people
e. Encouraged followers to revere Allah in their own ways
f. Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs
4. The hajj
a. The Ka'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity
b. Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
B. Islam and the cultural traditions of Persia, India, and Greece
1. Persian influence on Islam
a. Most notable in literary works
b. Administrative techniques borrowed from Sasanids
c. Ideas of kingship: wise, benevolent, absolute
2. Indian influences
a. Adopted "Hindi numerals," which Europeans later called "Arabic numerals"
b. Algebra and trigonometry
3. Greek influences
a. Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle
b. Ibn Rushd (Averroës) turned to Aristotle in twelfth century
Chapter 14: The Resurgence of Empire in East Asia

Chapter Outline

I. The restoration of centralized imperial rule in China

A. The Sui dynasty (589-618 C.E.)
1. After the Han dynasty, turmoil lasted for more than 350
years
2. Reunification by Yang Jian in 589
3. The rule of the Sui
a. Construction of palaces and granaries;
repairing the Great Wall
b. Military expeditions in central Asia and Korea
c. High taxes and compulsory labor services
4. The Grand Canal integrated economies of north and
south
5. The fall of the Sui
a. High taxes and forced labor generated hostility
among the people
b. Military reverses in Korea
c. Rebellions broke out in north China beginning
in 610
d. Sui Yangdi was assassinated in 618, the end of
the dynasty
B. The Tang dynasty (618-907 C.E.)
1. Tang Taizong (627-649)
a. A rebel leader seized Chang'an and proclaimed
a new dynasty, the Tang
b. Tang Taizong, the second Tang emperor;
ruthless but extremely competent
c. era of unusual stability and prosperity
2. Extensive networks of transportation and
communications
3. Equal-field system--land allotted according to needs
4. Bureaucracy of merit through civil service exams
5. Foreign relations
a. Political theory: China was the Middle
Kingdom, or the center of civilization
b. Tributary system became diplomatic policy
6. Tang decline
a. Casual and careless leadership led to dynastic
crisis
b. Rebellion of An Lushan in 755 weakened the
dynasty
c. The Uighurs became de facto rulers
d. The equal-field system deteriorated
e. A large-scale peasant rebellion led by Huang
Chao lasted from 875 to 884
f. Regional military commanders gained power
and were beyond control of the emperor
g. The last Tang emperor abdicated his throne in
907
C. The Song dynasty (960-1279 C.E.)
1. Song Taizu (reigned 960-976 C.E.) was the founder
2. Song weaknesses
a. Financial problems: enormous bureaucracy
and high salary devoured surplus
b. Military problems: civil bureaucrats in charge of
military forces
c. External pressures: semi nomadic Khitan and
nomadic Jurchen
d. The Song moved to the south, ruled south
China until 1279

II. The economic development of Tang and Song China

A. Agricultural development
1. Fast-ripening rice increased food supplies
2. New agricultural techniques increased production
3. Population growth: 45 to 115 million between 600 and
1200 C.E.
4. Urbanization
5. Commercialized agriculture; some regions depended on
other regions for food
6. Patriarchal social structure
a. Ancestor worship became more elaborate
b. Foot binding gained popularity
B. Technological and industrial development
1. Porcelain (chinaware) diffused rapidly
2. Metallurgy increased ten times from ninth to twelfth
 centuries
3. Gunpowder was used in primitive weapons and diffused
through Eurasia
4. Printing developed from wood block to movable type
5. Naval technology: "south-pointing needle"--the magnetic
compass
C. The emergence of a market economy
1. Financial instruments: "flying cash" (letters of credit) and
paper money
2. A cosmopolitan society: communities of foreign
merchants in large cities
3. Economic surge in China promoted economic growth in
the eastern hemisphere

III. Cultural change in Tang and Song China

A. Establishment of Buddhism
1. Foreign religions: Nestorians, Manichaeans,
Zoroastrians, Muslim communities
2. Dunhuang, city on silk road, transmits Mahayana
Buddhism to China
3. Buddhism in China
a. Attraction: moral standards, intellectual
sophistication, and salvation
b. Monasteries became large landowners, helped
the poor and needy
c. Also posed a challenge to Chinese cultural
tradition
4. Buddhism and Daoism
a. Chinese monks explained Buddhist concepts in
Daoist vocabulary
b. Dharma as dao, and nirvana as wuwei
c. Teaching: one son in monastery would benefit
whole family for ten generations
5. Chan Buddhism
a. A syncretic faith: Buddhism with Chinese
characteristics
b. Chan (or Zen in Japanese) was a popular
Buddhist sect
6. Hostility to Buddhism from the Daoists and Confucians
7. Persecution; it survived because of popularity
B. Neo-Confucianism
1. Buddhist influence on Confucianism
a. Early Confucianism focused on practical issues
of politics and morality
b. Confucians began to draw inspiration from
Buddhism in areas of logic and metaphysics
2. Zhu Xi (1130-1200 C.E.), the most prominent neo-
Confucian scholar

IV. Chinese influence in east Asia

A. Korea and Vietnam
1. The Silla dynasty of Korea (669-935 C.E.)
a. Tang armies conquered much of Korea; the
Silla dynasty organized resistance
b. Korea entered into a tributary relationship with
China
2. China's influence in Korea
a. Tributary embassies included Korean royal
officials and scholars
b. The Silla kings built a new capital at Kumsong
modeled on the Tang capital
c. Korean elite turned to neo-Confucianism;
peasants turned to Chan Buddhism
3. Difference between Korea and China: aristocracy and
royal houses dominated Korea
4. China and Vietnam
a. Viet people adopted Chinese agriculture,
schools, and thought
b. Tributary relationship with China
c. When Tang fell, Vietnam gained independence
5. Difference between Vietnam and China
a. Many Vietnamese retained their religious
traditions
b. Women played more prominent roles in
Vietnam than in China
6. Chinese influence in Vietnam: bureaucracy and
Buddhism
B. Early Japan
1. Nara Japan (710-794 C.E.)
 a. The earliest inhabitants of Japan were nomadic
peoples from northeast Asia
b. Ruled by several dozen states by the middle of
the first millennium C.E.
c. Inspired by the Tang example, one clan
claimed imperial authority over others
d. Built a new capital (Nara) in 710 C.E., modeled
on Chang'an
e. Adopted Confucianism and Buddhism, but
maintained their Shinto rites
2. Heian Japan (794-1185 C.E.)
a. Moved to new capital, Heian (modern Kyoto), in
794
b. Japanese emperors as ceremonial figureheads
and symbols of authority
c. Effective power in the hands of the Fujiwara
family
d. Emperor did not rule, which explains the
longevity of the imperial house
e. Chinese learning dominated Japanese
education and political thought
3. The Tale of Genji was written by a woman, Murasaki
Shikibu
4. Decline of Heian Japan
a. The equal-field system began to fail
b. Aristocratic clans accumulated most land
c. Taira and Minamoto, the two most powerful
clans, engaged in wars
d. Clan leader of Minamoto claimed title shogun,
military governor; ruled in Kamakura
C. Medieval Japan was a period of decentralization
1. Kamakura (1185-1333 C.E.) and Muromachi (1336-1573
C.E.) periods
2. The samurai
a. Professional warriors of provincial lords
b. Valued loyalty, military talent, and discipline
c. Observed samurai code called bushido
d. To preserve their honor, engaged in ritual
suicide called seppuku