The science of logic. Kawaif-ul-mantq.

Scott, T. J.
Lucknow, American Methodist Mission Press, 1879.

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 THE
V
SCIENCE OF LOGIC•
KAWAIF-TJL-MANTIQ,
YANE 1LM 1 MANTiq KA' MUFASSAL BATAN.

Jis he wdsin Sarlcdr ne indm diyd.

EEV. T. J. SCOTT, II. A., D.D.

A Government -Pi\ize j3 OOK.

Second Eaitio'i
REVISED AND ENLARGED.

All rights reserved.

LUCKETOW :
PfiBSS.
PRINTED AT THE AMEKICAH METHODIST KtSElON
Bet. T. Cbatem, SuverM:ndent.

1879,
bX$ $ « t'0

-;„.\..j .

FZB 26 1938
CONTENTS.
 CONTENTS.

Page.
Preface, ... ... ... ... 1

Introduction, ... ... .., ... 8

PART I-APPBEHENSION.

Introductory, ... ... ... •.• 16

Sphere of Logic ... ... ... ... „
Certain mental states, ... ... ... ... 20
1. — Attention, ... ... ... ... „
2. — Comparing,
3. — Abstraction, ... ... ... ... 22
4. — Generalization, ... ... ... ... ,,
5. — Language, ... ... ... ... „

Section 1.

Simple Apprehension, ... ... ... ... 26

Section 2.

The Term, ... ... ... ••• 28

Simple or complex, ... ... ... ... „
Proper, singular, common, collective, ... ... 30
Abstract and concrete, ... ... ••• ••• »
Absolute and relative, ... ... ••• ••• 32
Uni vocal, equivocal, synonymous, ... ... „
Contradictory, ... ... ... ••• »
Contrary, ... ... ••• ••• 34
Compatible and opposite, ... ... ... >,
 FIHRIST I MAZAMIN,

Dfba!cha,
Moqaddama,

HISSA I-TASATJWUR.

Aga'z KI' chakd ba'ten,

CHAND ZIHNI' QU'WATEN.
1. — Dhyan,
2. — Muqabala karna,
3. — Quwat i tafriqi,
4. — Quwat i jinsi,
5. — Quwat i natiqa,

Pahlf fasl.
Tasauwur ke baya"n men, ... ...

dc'sri' fasl.

ism ee baya'n men, ... ...

1. — Mufrad ya Murakkab,

2. — Jnziy&Kullf,
3. — Bin-nisbat ya bil£-nisbat,...
4. — Mushtarak, gair-mushtai'ak, mutaiidif,
5. — Mutanaqiza,

6. — Mutazadda, ... ...

VI CONTENTS.

Section 3.
Page
Classification, 38

Genus and species, • •- ,j

Extension and intention, 40

Differentia, 44

Property and accident, ... jj

Section 4.

Definition. 50
Kulesfor, 54

PART II-PROPdSITIONS.

Section 1.

Formation and Division of Profositions 56

1. — Simple and compound propositions, 58

2. — Affirmative and negative, 60

3. — Universal and particular,... 62
4. — Categorical and hypothetical, 60
Matter of Profositions, ... 63

Section 2.

Distribution of Terms.

Section 3.

Conversion, ,., ... 82

Section 4.

Offosition, ■»• **« 90

 F1HR1ST 1 MAZA'MI'N.

Ti'srf fasl.

bata'n ajna's adr anwa', wg.,

Umum o Khusus,
Fasl,
Bayaniarz, ...

Chauthi' fasl.

muarrif ee bata'n men,

Qawaid i Muarrif,

HISSA II-QAZIYA.

Pahli' fasl.

Bata'n QAZI'ON ka',

AQSAM 1 QAZ1YA,

1. — Mufrad ya murakkab,
2. — Mujiba ya saliba,
3. — Kulliya ya juziya,
4. — Hamliy a y a sb artiy a,

Bata'n ma'dde ka', ...

dc'sri' fasl.

Bata'n qazion kf kdllitat o jdziyat ka',...

Tfsbf fasl.

Aks ke bata'n men,

Chauthi' Fasl.

Naqi'z ke bata'n lien,

vm CONTENTS.

PART III-ARGUMENTS.

Section 1.
Page.
The Syllogism, .. 104

Section 2.

Figcjke, 13S

Section 3.

Mood, 15S
Reduction, ... 164

Section 4.

The Hyfothetical Syllogism,... 174

1. — Conjunctive, ...
2. — Disjunctive, ... 182
—
3. The Dilemma,... 1S4

Section 5.

Other forms of argument : — ... 192

1. — The Enthymeme,
2 — The Sorites, ... 196

PART IV-APPLIED LOGIC-

Section 1.

Fallacies. ... ... ... ... 210

First, Logical Fallacies. ... ... ... 212
1. — Undistributed middle, ... ... .. 214
2. — Illicit process of the major and minor term, ... 216
3 — Negative premisses, ... ... ... 218
 F1HR1ST I MAZA'Ml'N. ix

HISSA III-DALIL.

Pahlf fasl.
Safha.
DALFL Yil HDJJAT KE BAYA'N MEN, ... ... 103
Qiyas,... .,. ... ... ... 105

DU'SRI' FASL.

SHAKL KE BAYA'N MEN, ... ... ... 139

Tl'SRr FASL.

ZARB KE BAYA'N MEN, ... ... ... 159

KHULF, ... ... ••• ••• ••• 165

Chauthf fasl.

Baya'n Qiya's SHARTIYA KA',

1. — Qiyas i ittisali,
2. — Qiyas i infisali,
3. — Qiyas murakkab shartiya,

Panchwfn fasl.

Qiya's i Be-tartfb o Mdrakkab, ... ... 193

1. — Qiyas i mukhaffaf, ... ... ... „

—
2. Qiyas i musalsal, ... ... ... 197

HISSA IV-MANTIQ I ISTIAMALI.

Pahlf fasl.
Baya'n muga'lton ka', ... ... ... 211

qlsm auwal, muga'lta i su'rf, ... ... ... 213

1. — Hadd i ausat juzi, ... ... ... 215
2. — Najaiz knlliyat akbar ya" asgar kf, ... ... 217
3. — Muqaddamat i salibe, ... ... ... 219
X CONTENTS.

Page.
4. — Affirmative conclusion from negative premisses
'
and vice versa; ... ... ... „
5. — More than three terms in the argument, ... 220

Second, Non-Logical Fallacies. ... ... 230

Fallacy in the premisses,
1. — Petitio Principii, ... ••. ••• 230
2. — Arguing in a circle, ... ... ••• 232
3. — Nod -causa pro causa, ... ... ••• 234
Fallacy in the conclusion.
1. — Argumentum ad hominem, ... ••• 238
2. — Fallacy of shifting ground, ... ••• 242
3. — Fallacy of objections, ... ••• ••■ 244
4. — Fallacy of proving only a part, ... ••• 246
Rules for the examination of arguments, ... 248

Section 2.

Of Certain Methods op Applying Logic,... 254

1. — Induction, 254
2. — Deduction, 262
3. — Eeasoniug by example, «
4. — Reasoning by analogy, 264
5. — Seasoning a priori, 270
6. — Reasoning a posteriori, 272
7. — Reasoning a fortiori 91

Conclusion, 276
 F1HR1ST I MAZ&Ml'N.
4. —Natija i nifijiba,niuqaddamat i salibon
se aur baraks is ke,
5. —Ek qiyaa meg tin juzon se ziyada bona,

QlSM DtT'SRI', MUGALTA I MANAWL

Jdvgdlta muqaddamdt men.
1. — Muqaddama aur natija ek hi bona, ...
2. — Daur i Tasalsul,
3. — Wajh gair muwajjib, ... ...
Mugdlta natije men.
1. — Mugalta tamalluq-amez,
2. — Mugalta tagaiyur i mazmun,
3. — Mugalta iatirazon ka,
4. — Mugalta snbut i juzi,
Mugdlton ko zahir karne ke qawaid,

Du'SRI' FASL.

CHAND TAM'QE istiama'l Mastiq EE.

2. — Bay an istiqra ka,
2. — Istikhraj ka,
3. — Tamsil ka;
4. — Qarine ka,
5. — IUat se malul sabit
karna,
6. — Malul se illat sdbit
karna,
7. —Adna se ala ko sabit karna,
KhAtima.
 PREFACE.
The study of Logic is most useful in the cultivation
and development of the mind; but the means of prose
cuting this study in the vernacular languages of India
are very limited. Until recently, no works on logic could
be found in the vernacular. A small tract recently pub
lished in Urdu called " Dm i Mantiq," while good, is
still too brief to give any clear knowledge of the subject.
In Persian some small books on logic as the " Sug.rd"
and " Kubrd" are found, while a chapter or section of
some other books as the "Daryde Latdfat
" the " Makh-
zan-ul-ulum'' treats on the subject of logic, but these
are only accessible to good Persian scholars. Still
further beyond the reach of ordinary readers are the
Arabic works on logic from which the Persian are taken,
such as " Eisdla Sharnsiya" and the commentaries in
Arabic on it, as the " Qutbi.'' Moreover the subject as
treated is often not very comprehensible to the best
of Arabic scholars. The few works found in Sanskrit of
course are only available to scholars in that difficult
language. Such being the state of this useful science in
India,I have attempted to obviate the difficulties in
the way of its study by preparing a work in Urdu in
which the science of logic is treated at such length and
so fully illustrated by figures and practical illustrations
that any ordinary student, with proper effort, may master
it and make it available in every-day life.
The book is accompanied by the English, as some
native friends acquainted with English requested that
the work be issued in both languages. It was thought
that this would greatly aid students of English in under-
 DIBACHA.
Ilm i Mantiq ka parhna zihn ki arastagi aur sanwarne
ke waste bahut mufid hai. Lekin is ilm ki kitaben Hin
dustani zubanon men bahut kam hain. Ek mukhtasar
risala musamma ba " Ilm i Mantiq" hal men ba zuban
i Urdu chhapa hai. Agarchi wuh risala achchha hai,
magar phir bhi aise mukhtasar risala se ilm i Mantiq ka
hal saf nahin khulta hai. Farsi men bhi do ek chhote
chhote risale, maslan "Sugra," "Kubra," hain. Chandbaten
Mantiq ke bayan men "Darya i Latafat" aur "Makhzan-
ul-Ulum" men likhi hain, magar in kitabon se sirf unhin
logon ko faida hai, jo Farsi jante hain, aur jab ki Farsi
zuban men is ilm ka sikhna mushkil hua, to Arabi zuban
men ( jis se Farsi men tarjuma hua hai,) jaise risala i
"Shamsiya" jis ki sharh " Qutbi" hai, sikhna, awam-un-nas
ke waste bahut mushkil hai. Siwa is ke un kitabon se is
ilm ka hal aksar Arabi tahb ul ihnon ke bhi samajh men
aehehhi tarah nahin ata. Zuban i Sanskrit men chand
kitaben is ilm ki pai jati hain, magar wuh sirf unhin logon
ke kam ki hain, jo us mushkil zuban men dakhl rakhte
hain. Pas yih kaifiyat is ilm ki mulk i Hind men dekh-
kar more dil men ay a, ki un mushkilat ko jo is ilm ke hasil
karne men akar paiii hain, asan karun. Chunanchi isi lihaz
se yih kitab ba zuban i Urdu
jis

meu ilm Mantiq ka bayan

i

khub tawalat ke sath likha hai, aur

ja

ja

ba shaklon se
subiit diya hai, aur misalen aisi sahl sahl hain, ki agar koi
mubtadi tahb ul ilm bhi dil lagake parhe, to ilm ko hasil
is

kar le, aur roz-marra ke waste nafa uthawe, talif ki.

Koman-Urdu nuskhe ke sath Angrezi bhi hai. Baze
Hindustani doston ne, Angrezi se waqif hain, yih kaha,
jo

ki Agar yih kitab donon zubanon men ho, to kya kahna

Main no bhi yih socha ki Angrezi talib ilmon ko Mantiq
 4 PREFACE.

standing the subject in this language also, so that the

book would thus answer a double purpose.
Of the Urdu translation it may be remarked that it
is not always strictly literal. Where the meaning could
be better preserved the translation is free, and some
little change in arrangement has been made to suit the
terminology of logic in Urdu.
Still, as a rule, the Urdu will be found to correspond
closely with the English, so that a good end may be
subserved by retaining both in one volume. With the
hope that this book may assist the student of logic to a
better understanding of this useful science, it is sent forth.

Baebillt: I T. J. SCOTT.
December, 1870. )
 DI'ISA'CHA. 5

ke sikhne men is zuban se bari madad pahunchegi, aur do

matlab hasil honge.
Wazih ho, ki yih tarjuma bilkull lafzi nahin hai, jahan
jahan achchhi tarah mane nikalte hain, wahan waise hi
rahne diya hai, aur kahin kahin tartib ibarat ki is garaz se,
ki istilahat Mantiq ki Urdu men be-mahawara aur na-zeba
na malum hon, badal di hain. Magar phir bhi yih qaida
rakha hai, ki Urdu tarjuma bilkull Angrezi se mutabaqat
rakhta hai, yahan tak ki donon kd ek jild men rakhne se
faida nikalta hai. Garaz is ummed par, ki tulaba i ilm i
Mantiq ko khub madad pahunche, aur achchhi tarah is
mufid ilm ko samjhen, yih kitab jari ki jati hai.

Shahr i BARELf :
•) T. J. SCOTT.
Mdh i December, 1870. J
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Thr first edition of this book was soon exhausted,

and a second edition was called for, which has been long
delayed for want of time to make some needed correc
tions and additions. The book could easily be made
larger, by a more lengthy discussion of subjects, and
fuller, by the introduction of many petty distinctions
and divisions that perplex the memory without adding
much to a knowledge of the real subject. "But I
have
thought the book would be more generally useful not
encumbered with unimportant matter. Ordinarily the
mind works with more pleasure and power, the more
simple and direct its machinery or the lines of thought
over which it moves.
I
As far as possible, have conformed the terminology
and mode of treatment to that in use among Arabic and
Persian authors, but have not departed from what seem
ed a better method than theirs. Native scholars must
not infer that this implies error, for the mode of treating
the subject of logic even, is open to improvement like
many other things.

Baeeilly, N.-W. P., \ T. J. SCOTT.

May, 1879. )
 /
DIBACHA I TABA 1 SANI.

Taba i auwal ki jilden bahut jald kharch ho gain

sab
aur do-bara chhapne ki zururat pari. Magar baz zururi
islahat aur izafat ke liye qillat i waqt ke mani hone se
chhapne men bahut waqfa hua. Mazamin ki bahs i tawil
aur bahut si chhoti chhoti baton ke dakhil karne se hajm
is kitab ka barh sakta tha. Lekin is se bila husul kisi naf a
muatadd-bih ke zihn ko zabt i mazamin men diqqat waqa
hoti hai. Is waste gair zururi bayan ke dakhil karne se
muhtariz hoke nafa e amm ke laiq banana, munasib jana.
Kyunki saf wazih bayan par tabiat khub jamti hai. Hatt-
al-imkan main ne istilahat aur tarz i bayan Arabi o Farsi
musa'nnifin ke muwafiq ikhtiyar kiya hai. Lekin un ke
tarz i bayan se jo tarz mujhe bihtar malum hua, use nahin
chhora. Hindustani Mantiqin is se yih na samjhen ki is
men kuchh galati hai, kyunki is fann ke tarz i bayan men
bhi bahuteri aur baton ki tarah, taraqqi o tabdil ki gunjaish
hai.

Shahr i Bareli: "J T. J. SOOTT.

Mdh i May, 1879. j
 THE SCIENCE OF LOGIC.

INTBODUCTION.

1. — Logic iathe Science and also'the Art of reason

ing. As a Science it has reference to the necessary laws
of thought, in accordance with which the mind acts
in the production of thought, and in conducting a
correct argumentation in the search for truth. As an
Art it has special reference to the practical rules laid
down for conducting an argumentation ; for guarding
against erroneous processes of reasoning and the drawing
of false conclusions, and, in short, for making the best
practical use of a system of logic.
2.— -By some, logic is thought to be one method of
reasoning. It is thought that there are other modes of
reasoning besides logical reasoning. Logic is supposed
to contain rules by which we can so reason as to con
found an opponent by forcing him into traps'and snares,
and secure victory even for error. Hence it is supposed
to be chiefly useful in gaining victory in a dispute
whether on the side of truth or error, and for making a
display of smartness and learning through pride or for
sport. This is a common mistake in India. All this is a
misapprehension of the real nature and object of logic,
which is not merely a method of reasoning, but is the
is,

only method of reasoning ; that in the correct search

for truth the mind acts in but one way or only by
certain laws. A departure from these laws involves
 I.LM I MANTIQ.

MUQADDAMA.

1. — Mantiq ek aisa ilm aur fann hai, ki jis se aql

daurane aur dalil karne ka qanun malum hota hai. Istila-
han, mantiq ko ilm us halat men kahenge, jab aql daurane
ya dalil karne ke khass qanim ka bayan ho. Aur fann us
halat men bolenge, jab tariqa e hujjat ka bayan ho, aur
galati aur khata se mahfuz rahne ke tariqe muaiyan hon ;
—yane hasil. kalam yih hai, ki fann qawaid i mantiq ke
istiamal men lane ko kahte hain.
2. —Baz admi guman karte hain, ki aql daurane ke
kai ek qawanin hain, jin men. se mantiq ek hai. We
samajhte hain, ki mantiq ek aisa zaria hai, jis se mukhatib
ko pechida baton- men dalkar jhuth ko bhi each kar sakte
hain. Chunanchi we khiyal karte hain, ki mubahasa men
khwah saeh par ya jhuth par galib rahne, aur apne ibn aur
zihanat ke zahir karne ke liye khwah gurur ke taur par
ho, ya tamaskhur ke taur par yih kar-amad hai. Yih un
ki galat fahmi hai, aur aise logon ko mantiq ki asliyat aur
garaz malum nahin. Aisa na samajhna chahiye, ki man
tiq kai ek tariqon men se aql daurane ka ek tariqa hai
balki dar haqiqat sirf yihi ek tariqa hai, yane kisi mudmale
ki asliyat o haqiqat ke kamil daryaft karne men zihn sirf
ek hi taur par un qawaid i muqarrara ke bamujib jo
10 INTRODUCTION.

error. It is the object of logic to elucidate these laws

and furnish rules by which a departure from them may
be guarded against or detected in an argumentation.

Thus arithmetic is a science, the processes of wbich

are carried on by certain laws or rules. These must be
substantially the same in every age and country and
language. For instance, the rules for addition, sub
traction, multiplication, division, &c, must always be
the same. Thus, logic is the science of reasoning, and
if we reason correctly at all, we must reason by logic.
We may reason correctly without having a knowledge
of the rules of logic just as hundreds of persons doubt
less do. So one brought up in the society of those who
speak correctly will perhaps speak and write correctly
without knowing the rules of grammar. Yet it is well
to have the modes of correct speaking and writing given
in rules for the instruction of the ignorant and the cor
rection of those who do not speak and write correctly.
In like manner the rules of logic are useful for guard
ing against mistakes. They teach us how to detect bad
arguments.
3. — Some have mistaken the true nature and object
• of logic and have imagined that it has a tendency to
destroy belief in the existence of God and the truths of
religion. They have supposed it to be a kind of art or
trick by which any thing can be made true or false at
the will of the logician, causing him in the end to lose
all confidence in truth. All this is a great mistake; for
logic has a tendency to improve the mind and guard it
against error and confirm it in truth. This will be made
plainer in this book.
4. — Logic is a very ancient science, and in ancient
times is found only among two nations, the Greeks and
Hindus. All other nations seem to have received the
 2IUQADDAMA. 11

Khuda ke banae hain, larta hai; pas agar in qanunon

ke bamujib zihn na daure, to galati men par jata hai.
Asl garaz mantiq ki yih bai, ki wuh qawanin i mu-
qarrara bakhubi zahir ho jawen, aur wuh qaide hasil hon,
ki jin par agar lihaz rakha jae, to un qawanin mazkura ke
bamujib aql daure, aur agar koi un qawanin se alahidagi
ikhtiyar kare, to un ki rd se us ki galati malum ho jae.
Maslan, hisab ek ilm hai, jis ka istiamal chand muqarrar
qaidon ke bamujib kiya jata hai. Aur zurur hai, ki yih
qaide hamesha har mulk aur har zuban men ek hi hon.
Masal to maslan zuriir hai, ki qaide jama, tafriq, zarb,
taqsim ke hamesha ek hi rahen. Ala hazal qiyas mantiq aql
daurane ka ilm hai, aur agar ham thik thik aql daurana y^
sochna ehahen, to mantiq hi ke bamujib karna hoga. Aisa
bhi hai, ki aksar log durusti se sochte, mubahisa karte, aur
aql daurate hain, ba wujud is amr ke, ki zara bhi ilm i
mantiq ke qawaid se waqif nahin hote, jaisa ki aksar hua
karta bai, ki baze admi durust likhnewalon ki suhbat pane
se thik likhte aur bolte hain, agarchi sarf o nahw se mutlaq
bhi waqif nahin hote. Magar bahar hal yih bihtar hai, ki
qawaid durust likhne aur bolne ke na-waqifon ki talim ke
waste, aur un logon ke sudharne ke waste, jo ki sahih
nahin likhte aur bolte hain, muaiyan hon. Isi tarah par
qawaid i mantiq, khata aur galati se mahfuz rakhne ke
liye, aur auron ki kharab o naqis dalilon ka nuqs malum
karne ke liye kar-amad hain.
3. —Baze admi mantiq ke matlab o haqiqat se waqif
nahin hain, pas isi jihat se jante hain, ki mantiq ke sikhne
se iatiqad din par, aur Kbuda ke wujud par qaim nahin
rahta. We khiyal karte hain, ki mantiq ek tarah ka
hunar ya hikmat hai, jis ke zaria se mantiqi apni marzi
ke muwafiq har ek bat ko jhuth ya saeh kar sakta hai,
yahan tak ki akhir anjam yih hota hai, ki mantiqi ka
iatiqad sachohi bat par qaim nahin rahta ; yih galat fahmi
hai, kyunki mantiq se quwat i zihni barhti, aur aql saohai
par qaim ho jati hai, aur khata o galati se mahfuz rabti
hai.
4. —Mantiq bahutpurana ilm hai, aur qadim zamanon
men sirf do qaumon yane Yiinanion aur Hindiion ke dar-
miyan paya jata tha, aur sab qaumon ne inhin se yih ilm
12 INTRODUCTION.

science from them. It is not certainly known whether

the Greeks received it from the Hindus, or the Hindus
from the Greeks. Some learned men have thought that
the Greeks received their knowledge of logic from the
Hindus, while others have thought not. Most probably
each nation formed the science for itself and cultivated
it to the degree in which it has been found. The Rom
ans received their knowledge of logic from the Greeks.
European nations learned directly from the Greek of
Aristotle and from Arabic translations of, and comment
aries on, Greek works. The Arabs also received their
knowledge of logic from the Greeks, while the Jews
learned from the Arabs.
The first writer or teacher of logic among the
Greeks, of whom we have any knowledge, was Zeno,
who lived about 488, B. C. There were some good things
in his logic with some things obscure and worthless.
After Zeno, came Socrates, Euclid of Magera, Antis-
thenes, Archytas, Plato, and Aristotle. Zeno and some
of these writers cultivated a system of sophistical wrang
ling. Among them and their pupils logic seemed to be
simply a kind of recreation and diversion in which they
occupied themselves for hours in trials of each other's
acuteness. Socrates who lived 469, B. C, made a more
worthy use of logic. He desired to see logic employed
more for the investigation of truth and the cultivation of
the intellect. He used in reasoning a system of questions
and answers leading to a conclusion. Plato, the pupil
of Socrates, improved the science of logic still further;
but it remained for Aristotle, born 384, B. C, to bring
the science to something like perfection, so that from
his day to the present, logic, as taught in Europe, is
substantially that of Aristotle. The works of Aristotle
were translated into Arabic in the second century after
Mahomed ; and thus logic as studied among the Musal
 MUQADDAMA. 13

liya. Lekin yih thik nahin malum hai, ki aya Yunanion

ne Hinduon se paya, ya Hinduon ko Yunanion se mila.
Baze yih guman karte hain, ki Yunanion ko ilm i mantiq
Hinduon se mila, aur baze is ke baraks kahte hain. Aglab
hai, ki in donon qaumon ne alahida is ilm ko ijad kiya.
Yunanion se Rumion ne sikha. Yurapwalon ne yih ilm
Arastatalis ki mantiq se aur niz us ki Arabi tarjumon se
paya. Yunanion se ahl i Arab ne bhi paya, phir un se
Yahudion ne hasil kiya.
Malum hota hai, ki Yunanion men sab se pahla musan-
nif o muallim is ilm ka Zino tha, jo Masih se 488 baras
peshtar Yunan men tha. Us ki kitab men chand baten
achchhi pdi jati hain, aur muglaq aurnaqis baten bhi hain.
Us ke bad Suqrat, aur Uqlaidas Magerawala, aur Antis-
thenis, aur Arkytas, aur Aflatiin, aur Arastatalis jis ko
Arastu bhi kahte hain, mashhur hue. Zino aur baz auron
ne in men se ek tarah ki jhuthi aur pechdar taqrir ki rasm
nikali. Malum hota hai, ki un ke aur un ke shagirdon ke
darmiyan men. yih kaifiyat rahi, ki mantiq sirf ek tarah
ka khel aur tafrm i taba samjha jata tha, jis men ghanton
tak auqat sarf karte the, is amr ke waste, ki dekhen kaun
tez hai ; magar Suqrat jo 469 baras peshtar San i Iswi ke
maujud tha, achchhi tarah mantiq ko istiamal men laya,
aur chahta tha, ki har ek bat ki asliyat o haqiqat ke
daryaft karne aur taraqqi i zihn aur tahzib i akhlaq ke
kam awe. Us ka ek tariqa yih tha, ki mubahasa men
sawal o jawab is taur se karta tha, ki jo natija wuh
chahta tha, wuhi nikle. Aflatun shagird i Suqrat ne is
ilm ko aur bhi darja i taraqqi par pahunchaya. Bad
Aflatun ke Arastatalis ne jo San 384 peshtar Masih ke
paida hua, is qadr mantiq ko takmil di, ki us waqt se aj
tak koi kuchh bahut barha na saka. Pas wuh mantiq jo
Yurap men parhai jati hai, dar haqiqat Arastatalis hi ki
hai. Arastatalis ki yih tasnifat diisri sadi i Muhammadiya
men. Arabi men tarjuma ki gain ; ehunanchi mantiq jo
Musalmanon ke dars men. hai, wuh bhi Arastatalis ki hai.
14 INTRODUCTION.

mans also is that of Aristotle. The logical works of the

Musalmans are chiefly in Arabic, with some translations
in Persian; hence they are not available to the great
mass of readers.
The fault of these books is that they are not
sufficiently plain and comprehensible for the student.
The subject is left vague and impracticable. It is hoped
that this book may make it plainer and more available
in every-day life to the student of this useful science.
 MUQADDAMA. 15

Magar chiinki yih kitaben aksar Arabi aur kuchh kuchh

Farsi men bhi hain, is sabab se awamm logon ke kar-amad
nahin hain.
In kitabon men bara nuqs j'ih hai, ki wuh aisi saf
nahin hain, ki har koi samajh le, aur aisa parda hai, ki
bawujud parhne ke ilm i mantiq achchhi tarah kam men
nahin ata. Magar mujh ko nmmed hai, ki nazirin ko is
kitab ke dekhne se hal i mantiq khulega, aur sikhnewale
achchhi tarah is se faida uthawenc-e.
 PART I -APPREHENSION.

INTRODUCTORY.

The Sphere of Logic — Some Definitions of

Psycological Terms,

1.— Logic deals with the laws of mind in thinking

and reasoning. The mind is that spiritual non-material
existence within us which feels, perceives, and reasons.
The body is merely its tenement. The mind gains
knowledge of the material world in a mysterious way by
means of the five senses, viz., of sight, hearing, feeling,
taste, and smell.
The mind, like mirror, receives images or impres
a
sions through these senses. This figure illustrates the
receptive phase of mind. Besides these ideas or notions
obtained through the five senses, other ideas, as of God
and of the soul itself, of moral quality, &c, may be
awakened in the soul. Intuition, consciousness, original
suggestion may be mentioned as sources of ideas. The
discussion of this subject belongs to the science of
psycology rather than to the science of logic. The
mind is possessed of various powers, some of which
will be briefly discussed in this book.
 HISSAll-— TASAUWUR.

A"GA'Z Kt CHAND BATEN.

Mantiq ki murdd aur chand istildhdt dar-bdb % zihn.

1. — Ilm i Mantiq zihn ilaqa rakhtahai, al-alkhusus

se
halat sochne, aur mubahasa karne men. Zihn wuh ruhani
gair-maddi shai hamare jism men hai, jo sochta hai, aur
jis se har ek ehiz aur bat malum hoti hai. Badan jo hai,
sirf us ki ja e sukunat hai. Zihn, mahsusat yane, dlam
i jismani ko aise taur par, jo bafd-ul-aql hai, ba zaria
hawass i khamsake, malum karta hai; aur hawass i khamsa
yih hain, bdsira, (yane dekhnewali qiiwat,) sdmiq, (yane,
sunnewali qiiwat,) lamisa, (yane, chhunewali quwat,) zdiqa,
(yane, chakhnewali qiiwat,) shdmma, (yane sunghnewali
qiiwat.)
Zihn misl aine ke hai, jis par aks ban jata hai. Agar
wuh aks ba zaria hawass i khamsa ke ban jawe, to us ko
mahsiis, aur agar alawa in hawasson ke kisi aur tarah par,
zihn men tasauwur ban jawe, to us ko mqqul bolenge,
maslan Khuda ka, ya riih ka, ya neki wg. ka tasauwur
zihn men paida ho. Taaqqul aur Idrak aise tasauwurat ka
mamba hai. Yih bahs Ilm i Zihn ke mutaalliq hai. Ilm
i Mantiq se use chandan taalluq nahin hai. Janna chahiye,
ki zihn men kai tarah ki qiiwaten pai jdti hain, chunanchi
baz ka zikr is kitab men awega.
18 INTRODUCTORY.

2. — Logic is concerned with three acts or states of

the mind, viz: (1) simple apprehension; (2) judgment;
(3) reasoning or argument.
3. — Simple apprehension, or cognition as it is some
times called, is that act or state of mind by 'which we
are made aware of the existence of an object of thought.
Forexample, through perception by the sense of sight,
we are made aware of the existence of a tree or stone.
The state of the mind by which it receives the impres
sion of these objects is called "simple apprehension.'
Such also is the act of mind by which we grasp the idea
of justice, love, fyc. The result of an act of apprehen
sion is expressed by such words as idea, notion, concept,
percept, &c.
4. — Judgment is the mental act in which we compare
two or more notions or ideas gained by simple apprehen
sion and pronounce that they agree or disagree. Thus,
by the sense of sight we get an idea of the existence of
a tree, and by the same sense we get the idea of color.
Now, the act of mind by which these two ideas are com
pared, so that we may say "the tree is green/' or "the
tree is not green," is an act of judgment.
Again, by the sense of sight we get the notion of
the existence of a stone, and by the sense of touch we
get the notion of coldness or warmth in it, and, having
these two notions or ideas, the judgment is that act of
mind by which we pronounce that "the stone is cold"
or "the stone is warm/' or "the stone is not cold" or
" the stone is not warm." These conclusions, when
expressed in words, are called propositions.
5. — Reasoning is that act or process of the mind
by which, from two or more judgments formed, we
pass to another or others founded upon or drawn from
them. For instance,
 JTGJTZ KI CHAND BA'TEN. | 19

2. — Ilm i Mantiq tin amron se taalluq khass rakhta

hai, yane, tmauvour, aur tasdiq, aur dalil, jise burhdn aur
hujjat bhi kahte hain.
3. — Jabkisi shai ke wujud yamahiyat ka khiyal pahli
pahl zilui men ba zaria hawass i khamsa ke, ya kisi aur
tarah se guzre, ns ko tasauwur kahte hain.* Maslan, koi
darakht ya patthar ho, jis ke wujud ka khiyal ba zaria
hawass i basira, yane, dekhne se zihn men ata hai, pas us hi
patthar, ya darakbt ke khiyal ko tasauwur kahte hain. Isi
tarah insdf, muhdbbat wg. ke khiyal ko tasauwur kahenge.
4. — Ilm i Mantiq men dusra ami tasdiq hai. Agar
zihn men aise do tasauwur hon, jin ke bich men nisbat-i-
isbat ya nafi ki di jawe, ilm i mantiq men us hukm ko
tasdiq kahte hain. Maslan ba zaria hawass i basira ke, ek
to yih tasauwur zihn men aya, ki yih darakht maujud hai,
dusre ba zaria usi hawass ke, us ke rang ka tasauwur aya ;
pas do tasauwur Me. Ab wuh hukm, jo un do tasauwuron
ke bieh men hai, tasdiq kahlata hai, khwah wuh isbat ke
sath ho, ya nafi ke sath ho ; jaisa ki yih "darakht sabz
hai" ya " yih sabz nahin hai."
Dusri misal yih hai, ba zaria hawass i basira ke ek
patthar ka tasauwur aya, aur ba zaria hawass i lamisa ke,
yane, chhiine se, sardi ya garmi ka tasauwur zihn men
guzra. Ab un donon tasauwuron ke darmiyan men, hukm
jo hai, us ko tasdiq kahte hain, khwah wuh isbat ho ya
nafi ho. Tasdiq bil-isbat ki misal, jaisa ki "yih patthar
thandha hai ya garm hai." Tasdiq bil-nafi ki misal, jaisa
ki " yih patthar thandha nahin hai, ya garm nahin hai."
Jab tasdiq likhi jae ya boli jae, tab use qaziya kahte
hain. Pas tasdiq aur qaziya men sirf itna farq hai, ki tas
diq sirf zihn men thi, aur qaziya jab zuban par aya.
5. — Tisra amr ilm i mantiq men dalil hai,
jis

ko
" hujjat" aur "burhdn" bhi kahte hain. Dalil us ko
kahte hain, ki do ya kai tasdiqat maluma se majhul
i

ko nikalen. Pas dalil tasdiqat se banti hai.

Maslan do tasdiqat hain,

Lafz "mafhum" bhi istiaraal

*

men atX hai.

20 INTRODUCTORY.
" All iron is heavy " —is a. judgment.
" This staff is iron" —is a second judgment.
From these two we may draw third judgment
a
or conclusion, viz., " therefore this staff is heavy." The
act of the mind by which these two judgments are
compared, and the third deduced from them, is called
reasoning.
Another example of this operation is —
All men are mortal ;
/aid Amor and Bakr are men ;
Therefore Zaid Amar and Bakr are mortal.

Here also we have in this process the third state of

the mind with which logic is concerned, viz., reasoning.
6. — This book is divided into three parts, in which
these three mental states or processes are treated in order.
It is the law of thought concerned in them which consti
tutes the subject of logic.

Meanwhile there are a few mental states that may

be explained here. By them the materials of thought
are collected.
1. — Attention is the directing of the mind to an
object. It may be a voluntary state of the mind.
Thus, we may fix our attention on some object of sight,
or sound, or on the matter of a page we may be reading.
2. — Comparing is the act of the mind in which it
contemplates two or more things with reference to
one another. Thus, when we observe that iron is
heavier than wood, or that John is taller than James,
or that one man is more learned than another, we per
form an act of comparing. The conclusion we reach
from an act of comparing is a "judgment." The cor
rectness of every judgment and process of reasoning
depends on the accuracy of comparison.
 A'GA'Z KF CHAND BA'TEN. -
21

Pahli. — Kull loha bhari hota ha i.

DUsri. — Yih danda lohe ka hai.
Ab in do malum tasdiqon se tisra majhul nikalta hai,
ki yih danda bhdri hai. Pas ba zaria do tasdiqon maluma
ke, tisri tasdiq yane natija nikala. Dalil is hi ko kahte
hain.
Dtisrl mis&l. —Kull insan marnewale hain ;
Zaid, Amr, Bakr insan hain ;
Pas Zaid, Amr, Bakr, marnewale hain.
Chunanchi is tartib se aql ya zihn daurane ko hujjat
kahte hain.
6. — Yih
kitab tin hisson par munqasim hai, jin men
tasauwur aur tasdiq aur dalil ka mufassal bayan hoga.
Janna ehahiye, ki maqsud ilm i mantiq ka us aqli qanun
ka bayan hai, jo in tin baton men paya jata hai.

Munasib hai ki yahan par chand zihni halat aur qu-

waton ka bayan kiya jae.
1. — Dhydn ya g.aur us ko kahte hain, jab zihn khauz
o fikr ke sath kisi ehiz ya bat par lage ; masal to maslan,
kisi chiz par, jo dekhne men awe, ya awaz par jo sunne
men awe, ya kisi kitabi mudmile par parhte waqt ham
apna dhyan lagawen ya gaur karen.
2. — Muqdbala hamd us zihni halat ko kahte hain,
jis

se ham do ya ziyada chizon ko ek dusri se muqabala

karen. Pas jab ham dekhte hain, ki loha lakri se bhari
hai, Zaid Amr se lamba hai, ya Zaid Amr se ziyada dlim
hai, isi ko " muqabala karna"
kahte hain. Yahan par gaur
karna ehahiye, ki muqabala karne se tasdiqat nikalti hain.
Har ek tasdiq aur hujjat ki sihhat galati muqabale par
o

munhasar hai aur agar muqabala karne men kisi tarah

;

galati par jawe, to tasdiq aur hujjat men bhi galati ho jaegi-
22 INTRODUCTORY.

3. — Abstraction is that act or state of the mind in

which it considers one or more of the properties or
circumstances of an object to the exclusion of the rest.
Thus, it is by abstraction tftat we think of the shape of
a piece of iron to the exclusion of its color and hardness

and weight and odor; or when we think of its hardness

to the exclusion of all its other properties. The impor
tance of this power of the mind will be seen when we
come to treat of terms.
4. — Generalization is that process of the mind by
which we select the common properties of different
objects, and on account of their agreement in these
common properties call them by a common name. Thus,
the process by which, notwithstanding differences and
variations, certain flowers on account of common proper
ties are grouped under the name rose, is an act of general
ization. Again, notwithstanding great differences of
language, color, stature, &c, by observing certain marked
points of resemblance we are able to group the human
race under the term man. It is by this power of mind
in connection with the power of abstraction that we are
enabled to form common terms which stand for classes,
genera and species, the importance of which to logic will
be seen hereafter. All the operations or states of the
mind just described are more or less connected with
the study and understanding of logic.
5. — This may be as good a place as any for some
remarks on language. Man is gifted by the Creator with
the faculty of speech by which he can express in sound
all the varied operations, notions, and thoughts of his
mind. Man alone has the faculty of speech. Mere animals
 A'GAZ KI' CHAND BA'TEF. 23

3. —Ek aur quwat zilm men hai, jise qihrat i ta/riqi

kahna achchha hoga. Tih wuhi quwat hai, ki jab ham
chahen to kisi chiz ki aur sab khassiyaton ko chhorkar,
us ki ek khassiyat par lihaz karen. Maslan, jab ham
chahen, to isi quwat se lohe'ki aur sab sifaten, yane, rang
aur sakhti, aur wazn, aur bu wag. ko chhorkar sirf us ki ek
sifat, yane, shakl par lihaz rakh sakte hain. Ya alawa aur
sab khassiyaton ke, sirf us ki sakhti ya wazn par lihaz
rakhen. Is quwat i zihni ka bara faida age malum hoga.
4. — Ek aur quwat zihn men hai, jise quwat ijins kahna
achchha hoga. Yih wuh quwat hai, jis ke zaria se ham ba
lihaz dmm khassiyaton ke, jo mukhtalif chizon men pai
jati hon, ek nam un ke waste muqarrar kar sakte hain.
Maslan, bawujudekitarah tarah ke phul hain, magar chunki
bazon men ek khassiyat pai jati hai, is sabab se un mutafar-
riq phulon ko gulib kahte hain. Aur isi tarah bawujude
ki admion men mukhtalif boli, aur rang, aur qadd o qamat
wag. hai, magar ba lihaz &nm khassiyat ke, sab ke waste
ek hi nam, y;me, insdn rakhte hain. Pas yih wuhi quwat
ijinsi hai. Gaur karna chahiye, ki quwat i jinsi se ba
madad qi'ncat i
tafriqa ke, jins aur nait aur fast bana sakte
hain. Is bat ko achchhi tarah samajhna, ilm i mantiq men
nihayat pur-zarur hai, jaisa age malum hoga. Hasil yih
hai, ki in sab baton mazkura i bala ke samajhne se is ilm
ke sikhne aur samajh men kuchh na kuchh madad zurur
pahunchti hai.
5. — Boli yane quwat i ndtiqa ke kuchh bayan ke waste
yahan par achchha mauqa malum hota hai. Khaliq ne
insan ko quwat i nutq aisi ata ki hai, jis se ba zaria awaz,
jis se kalam banta hai, tarah tarah ke tasauwurat, aur
khiyalat, aur apni zihni halaten, jo guzarti rahti hain,
zahir kar sakta hai. Sirf insan hi men yih quwat hai.
Haiwan bhi apni taklifat, aur khauf , aur gussa, aur khushi
wg. ek tarah ki awaz se zahir kar sakte hain ; magar un
men wuh quwat nahin, jis se alfaz banawen aur kalam ka
ren, lekin hazaron alfaz, ya awazen, insan tarah tarah par
istiamal men la sakta hai, taki be-shumar khiyalat ko, jo
dil men guzarte rahte hain, zahir karen.
Alfaz, mufrad, ya murakkab awazen hain, jo insan ke
josh aur khiyalat ke izhar ke liye bole jate hain.
24 INTRODUCTORY.

are capable of uttering certain sounds indicative of fear,

anger, pain, &c, but they have no faculty of speech by
which they are capable of using a language. But man
can develop and employ thousands of words or articulate
sounds, connected in innumerable ways, to express the
multiplied thoughts that continually pass through hia
mind.
Words are the simple or compound sounds uttered
for the expression of feeling or thought.
 A'GAZ EI' CHAND BA'TEN. 25

Baldlat i alfdz
do qism M hai, wazqi aur iltizami. Wazai
wuh hai, ki jis lafz ko waza ne kisi mane ke waste waza
kiya hai, us par wuh lafz dalalat kare. Tih bhi do tarah
par hai, kyunki jis lafz ko •waza ne kisi mane ke waste
waza kiya hai, agar wuh lafz kull mane mauzu lahu par
dalalat karta hai, to us dalalat ko dalalat i mutdbiqi ka-
' insan '
henge. Jaise lafz ka, ki dalalat kare 'haiwan i
natiq' par. Aur agar juz i mane mauzu lahu par dalalat
kare, to dalalat tazammuni kahenge. Jaise lafz insan ka,
ki dalalat kare haiwan y& natiq par. Iltizami wuh hai,
ki dalalat lafz ki mane mauzu lahu par na ho, balki aise
mane par, jo us lafz ko lazim hon, jaise lafz sher k&, ki
dalalat kare bahddur par, ya Nausherwdn ka ddil par, ya
Shaitan ka sharir par.
 SECTION I.

Simple Apfrehension.

1.— We take up for more enlarged treatment the act

or state of mind called simple apprehension. Simple appre
hension is the act of the mind by which some notion or
conception of an object of thought is obtained. As of a
man when seen, of a sound when heard, of hardness,
coldness, &c, when felt. Thus, through the five senses
we gain ideas of the external world. In a similar ele
mentary manner by what is called internal perception
"
or apprehension, or the internal sense," we grasp ideas
relating to the soul itself, to moral truth, &c. By simple
apprehension we gather the elements of knowledge and
of thought, which are woven into trains of reflection
and reasoning.

2. — Apprehension may be of an object as incomplex

or complex. The result of an act of apprehension is
incomplex when the notion formed is simply of one ob
ject, or of several without any connection being perceived
between them; as man, tree, stone, bravery; and com
plex when, the notion we form of two or more objects
is a combination, as a man on horseback, a booh on the
table, a brave man.

The idea, notion or conception gained by apprehen

sion expressed in language is called, a term which will
now be briefly discussed.
 FASL I.

Tasauwur ke bayXn men.

1. — Ab tasauwur ka mufassal bayan hota hai. Kisi

shai ya bat ke khiyal ko tasauwur kahte hain, jaisa
ki kisi admi ka khiyal jab dekhne men awe, ya kisi
chiz ki sakhti ya thandapan ka, jab chhune men awe.
Jaise hawass i khamsa se mahsusat ka tasauwur hota
hai, isi tarah idrak i batin, ya taaqqul, ya hiss i batin
se ruh aur neki wg. ka tasauwur zihn men pahunchta
hai. Tasauwur karne wuh malumat, aur khiyalat hasil
se

hote hain, jo nazar o bahs ke silsile se wabasta hote hain.

2. — Tasauwur ya to
mufrad hoga, ya murakkab,
Tasauwur i mufrad use kahte hain, jab ki ek chiz ya
kai chizon ka khiyal alahida alahida bila ilaqa ke awe.
maslan, admi, patthar, bahaduri. Tasauwur i murakkab use
kahte hain, jab do ya ziyada chizon ka khiyal dil men
guzre : masal to maslan, tasauwur gfwre par sawdr ka. Gaur
karna chahiye, ki is tasauwur men ghore aur sawar ke
darmiyan ilaqa hai. Dusri misal, mezpar ki kitdb aur ddwdt,
ya bahddur admi. Yahan tin chizon ka tasauwur ilaqa ke
sath hai, aur isi ko tasauwur i murakkab kahte hain. Yad
rakhna chahiye, ki jab tasauwur zuban se sadir ho, to us
ko lafz kahenge.
 SECTION. II.

Of the Term.

A term is the result of an act of apprehension ex

pressed in language. For instance, if we have by the
sense of sight, the apprehension of a tree, the word tree
by which we express the conception formed is a " term."
Again, if we have in mind the idea of sweetness, the
word sweetness when used to express this notion is a
" term." In logic a term has the broad signification
of any combination of words expressing an idea and
which stand as the subject or predicate of a proposition.
There are several divisions of terms which we must notice.
1.' — Terms are simple or complex. A simple term
as opposed to complex is the name of a single thing and
is generally one word, as James, tree, sweetness. A
complex term is a compound word or phrase expressing
a complex notion gained by act of apprehension, as
" James the fisherman," a " tall tree," the " sweetness
of an orange." "James the fisherman" contains the
complex idea of a particular man and a certain craft.
Here we also have two ideas connected in a complex
term, tall tree. Again, the two ideas, sweetness and
orange give the complex term sweetness of an orange.
Words are said to be categorematic when they can be
used alone as terms, as tree, orange, man, &c. Words that can
not be thus used alone but are used in connection with other
words are called syncategorematic. Such are prepositions,
conjunctions, adverbs, the inflected cases of nouns, e. g., to,
with, and, truly, man's, &c. It must be marked that this
is a division of words merely as such, not of terms.
 FASL II.

ALU
~lQ>t- KE MUFASSAL BAYAN MEN.

Jab ki tasauwur
zuban se sadir ho, us ko /«/« kahte
hain. Masal to maslan, deklme se kisi darakht ki hayat
ka tasauwur zihn men awe, lafz darakht,
jis se us tasauwur
ko zahir kiya, malMz kahte hain.
Dusri misal, farz karo,
ki agar zihn men tasauwur mithas ka awe,
to us ki nishat
lafz mithas bolenge. Wazih ho, ki
lafz kai taqsim par
munqasim hai jis ka bayan age
awega.
1.— Lafz mufrad hota hai ya murakkab.
Jab kisi
tasauwur ke zahir karne ko ek hi lafz kafi ho,
yane ek hi lafz
us tasauwur par dalalat kare, to us lafz
ko mufrad kahte
hain, maslan, Zaid, darakht, mithns. Lafz murakkab, us
murakkab lafz ya fiqre ko kahte hain, jis se ek tasauwur i
murakkab zahir hota hai, jaisa Zaid machhud, unchd darakht,
ndrangi ki mithds, wg. Yahan par do tasauwur lafz murak
kab se zahir hue, yane ek khass shakhs aur us ka pesha.
Phir, iinchd aur darakht, in donon tasauwuron ke zahir
karne ko lafz i
murakkab undid darakht bola gaya. Dusri
misal mithas, aur narangi, in donon tasauwuron ke zahir
kame ko lafz i murakkab, yane mithi ndrangi bola gaya.
Janna chahiye, ki lafz tamdm aur nd-tamdm hota hai.
Lafz tamdm wuh hai, jo bila madad dusre ke, apne man*
batlawe, jaise insan,
Zaid, darakht, wg. Lafz nd-tamdm
wuh hai, jo bila madad kisi aur lafz ke,
apne mane na
batlawe. Maslan harf, kd, se, men, az,vrg.
30 THE TERM.

2. — Another
division of terms is into Proper, singular,
and common.* The Proper term is a word or phrase
used as the particular name of an individual, person,
place, or thing, as John, Calcutta, Kanchingivga. Here
we have Proper terms which are the name of a parti
cular person, of a particular city, and of a particular
mountain — not names common to every man, city,
and mountain.
A singular term, strictly applies like a proper term,
to only one object in its present use, otherwise it is a
common term, e.g., my dog, your horse, are singular
terms, but dog and horse are common terms.
A common term is a word or name that can be used
for all the individuals of a particular class or collection
of persons, places, or things, as man, city, mountain.
Here the common terms, man, city, mountain can be
used for any and every man, city and mountain. The
use of common terms will be seen further on in the
study of Logic. The individuals for which a common
term stands are called its " Signijicates."
A common term that expresses a group or multi
tude of objects, as army, people, senate, committee is also
called a collective term. The collective term is singular,
and can only be applied to the group as a whole, and
not to the individuals. We cannot speak of each soldier
as the army.
2af. — Terms again are divided into abstract and
concrete. An abstract term is a word used to express
aquality or thingwithoutreferringtoanyparticularobject;
thus the words hardness, wisdom, folly, are abstract terms,
when we speak of them without connecting them with
any particular object, as " we should seek after wisdom."

* The common
term is also called general and universal.
t Left out of the Urdu.
 ALFAZ KE BA FJTN MEA. 31

2.— Lafz ya juzi ya kulli hoga. Lafz juzi us ko kahte

hain, jo kisi khass shakhs ya mufrad shai ko batlawe, jaisa
Zaid, Kalkatta, darakht. Jab khass namon se murad hai,
to is ko istilah i nahwion men ism i marifa, ya alam kahte
hain.
Lafz i kulli us ko kahte hain, jo bahut si chizon,
ya ashkhas par bola jawe, jaisa insdn, sab admion ke waste
sadiq ata hai, ya lafz shahr, ki sab shahron par bola jata
hai, ya lafz daryd, ki sab daryaon ke waste mustamal hai.
Nahw men is ko ism i nakra ya ism i dmm bolte hain.
Jitni shai ya ashkhas lafz kulli men dakhil hain, un ko us
ke qfrdd kahte hain. Kulliat ka istiamal aur mufassal
bayan age awega. Jo kulli kisi jamaat ya guroh ka nam
ho, jaise fauj, log, jamaat, majlis, use ism i jins kahte
hain. Ism i jins wahid hota hai, lekin us ka istiamal
majmua i afrad ke waste ata hai, har fard ke liye nahin.
ata. Maslan sipahion ki jamaat ka nam fauj hai, har
sipahi ko fauj nahin kali sakte hain.
 32 THE TERM.

But if these words become connected with some ob

'
.

ject in which they exist, they are called concrete terms,

as the hardness of this stone, the wisdom of John, the
folly of James. In this connection these words become
"concrete terms."
3. — Terms are also divided into absolute and rela
tive. An term is a word denoting some object
absolute
or quality considered without any reference to its rela
tion with any thing else, as tree, man, river, sweetness,
wisdom, &c.
A relative term is a word in which its relation to
something else is expressed, as, father, husband, son,
king. Thus, a father implies a child to whom he is
related, son implies a father, and king implies a coun
try and subjects to whom he is related.
4.— Terms are univocal, equivocal and synonymous.
A univocal term is one which has invariably thesama

signification, as, mankind, wisdom, &c.

An equivocal term is one that may be employed in
different senses, as, head, door, shore, &c.
Synonymous terms are different words having the
same meaning, as, house and dwelling, remain and
abide, &c.
5. — Contradictory which are so com
terms are those
pletely opposed to each other that the two include every
thing, so that there is no object to which one or the
other does not apply; and if any object be included in
one it is thereby necessarily excluded from the other,
and viceversa. Thus, corporeal and incorporeal, perishable
and imperishable, combatant and noncombatant. These
terms differ from each other only in respectively wanting
and having a particle of negation expressed or implied. In
this way a twofold division may be made of every thing.
Such a division is often important in a course of
 ALFAZ KE BA YAN MEN. 33

3. — LaiV. ya to bin-nisbat ya bild-nisbat hota hai. Lafz

bin-nisbat wuh hai, jis ka aur kisi lafz ke sath ilaqa paya
jawe. Maslan, bap, beta, khawind, badshah. Chunanchi
bap se malum hota hai, ki koi beta hai, bete se bap ka
ilaqa paya jata hai; badshah se nisbat mulk aur raiyat ki
taraf hai, ala-haz-al-qiyas.
Lafz bild-nisbat wuh hai, Jo bagair nisbat dusre ke ek
shakhs, ya shai, ya khassiyat ko batlawe. Maslan, insan,
darya, danai, wg.
4. —Phir lafz tin aur tarah par hai, yane mushtarak, aur
gmr-mmhtarak, jis ko baze mufrad bhi bolte hain,* aur
mutarddif. Mufrad us ko kahte hain, jis se sirf ek hi
mane samjhe jawen, maslan, insan, danai, wg.
Mushtarak us ko kahte hain, jo kai mane par shamil
ho ; maslan, bukhar, kanara, wg. Bukhar se do mane pae
jate hain, ek to bimari ka nam, aur ek wuh jo pani se uthta
hai. Ala-haz-al-qiyas kanara do char mane par ata hai.
Ya lafz billi ka lo, ki ek janwar par, aur kiwar men. jo hoti
hai, us par bhi bola jata hai.
Mutarddif us ko kahte hain, jahan ki kai alfaz ek hi
mane par dalalat karte hain, maslan, ghar, khana, maskan,
ek hi mane par hain. Aur rahna, basna, sukunat karna,
in sab se ek hi mane zahir hote hain.
5. —Wuh alfaz mutandqiza hain, jo bilkull ek dusre se
mukhalifat rakhte hain, aur jitni chizen khilqat men mau-
jiid hain, in donon men se ek men. zarur hongi. Agar ek
men hain to dusre men nahin, aur agar diisre men hain, to
pahle men nahin, yane koi chiz in donon se khali nahin.
Maslan, jismdni aur gair-jismdni, fdni aur gxtir-fdni,
marnewdld aur na marnewdld. Gaur karna chahiye, ki in
lafzon ke darmiyan sirf nafi aur isbat ka farq hai. Pas
jitni chizen khilqat men hain is taur se do taqsim par ho
sakti hain. Aisi taqsim aksar kisi amr ki justoju, ya
* Yih mufrad ba iatibar lafz ke mane ke hai.
34 -.•''• THE TERM.

reasoning or investigation. For instance, this disease

is or is not consumption. Then it is or is not another
disease. Then it is or is not some other disease,
and thus (by the "abscission infinite" as it is called)
the field of investigation can be narrowed till some
result is reached.
6. — Contrary terms are opposed in a different manner
from contradictory terms, for although both can not be
applied to the same object, there may be objects to
which neither will apply, and thus they do not include
every thing as do contradictory terms. Wise and foolish
learned and ignorant are contrary terms, and while both
can not be applied to the same object, there are objects
to which neither can be applied. Thus, a stone is neither
wise nor foolish, and some men may be neither learned
nor ignorant, but mediocres. Contrary terms, then, are
those which, coming under the same class, are the most
widely different of all that belong to that class.
6a*. — Terms may be compatible or opposite.
Two terms which can be applied to an object at the
same time are compatible, as, white and cold, hard and
sweet. It is plain that a thing may be both white and
cold, as snow, or both hard and sweet, as crystal candy.
Compatible terms are also called " consistent."
When two terms can not be applied to an object at
the same time, they are opposite, as black and white, good
and bad. Nothing can be white and black at the same
time, and no man can be good and bad at the same time.
Opposite and contrary terms are the same.
These are the divisions of terms ordinarily given and
are sufficient for the purposes of logic. It should be
borne in mind that the same term may come under
different divisions according to the view we take of it.

* Left out of the Urdu.

 ALFA'Z KE BAYA'N MEN. 35

mubahise ke liye bare kam ki hai. Maslan yih bimari

tap i sill ki hai, ya aur bimarion men se koi hai. Magar
fulani fulani wajh se tap i sill nahin hai, to aur jo bimariag
rahin, un ki taraf mutawajjih honge, aur kahenge ki in
bimarion men fulaui bimari hai ya liahin, magar kisi
se

sabab se fulani bimari nahin ; pas rahin baqi bimarian.

Garaz yun taqsim aur daryaft karte karte us hadd tak
pahunchenge, ki asl bimari mil jaegi. Is ko mdniat-ul-
khulii bhi bolte hain.
6. — Alfaz mutazddda wuh hain, jo apas men mukha-

lifat rakhte hain, lekin mutanaqiza ki tarah nahin kyunki

agarchi donon ek hi chiz men shamil nahin ho sakte hain
tau bhi bazi chizen aisi hoti hain, ki in donon se khali
hoti hain: pas misl mutandqiza ki har shai men shamil
nahin hote hain. Maslan qqlmand aur be-wuquf, qlim, aur
kam-ilm, ism i mutazadda hain, kyunki ek hi shakhs par
donon sadiq nahin a sakte hain, magar aisi chizen hon,
ki donon se khali hon, maslan patthar, na aqlmand hai
na be-wuquf, aur baz admi aise hain, ki na dlim na kam-
ilm, lekin darja e ausat meg hog.

Yihi istilahat alfaz ke waste, Jim i Mantiq meg aksar

mustamal haig.
Wazih ho, ki ek hi lafz bila-nisbat, aur mufrad, aur
ki
jis

mutanaqiza wg. hota hai, iatibar se us waqt khiyal

ho. Yad rakhna chahiye, ki dalil ya mubahasa meg
36 THE TERM.

Thus, the same term my be singular, concrete, absolute

and univocal at the same time. The term may thus
belong to several divisions. The meaning of terms
should always be understood and fixed in a process of
reasoning.
f Simple, or complex.
Proper, singular, or common.
I Abstract, or concrete.
Ttrms may be -\ Univocal, equivocal, and synonymous.
Contradictory.
|| Contrary.

(. Compatible, or opposite.
 ALFA'Z EE BAYAN MEN. 37

auwal liar ek lafz ke mane kliiib samajhna aur thahrana

chahiye, kyunki aisa karne se bahut si taqrir aur galation
men parne se bachenge.
Lafz ka mujmal bayan.

f Mufrad va Murakkab.
| Juzi ya Kulli.
jBiu-uisbat ya Bila-oisbat.
Alfdz 1 Mushtarak ya Gair-mushtarak ya Mutaridif.
j Mutauaqiza.
(. Mutazadda.
 SECTION III.

Classification as related to genus, species and

differentia.

Another important subjectconnected with terms

and necessary to a proper understanding of logic is that
of species, genus, and differentia.
1. — Common terms obtained by generalization afford
the means of classification of objects with reference to
some common and distinguishing characteristic. A col
lection containing objects arranged in this manner is
called a species or genus. Genus is the more extensive
term, often including many species, while species in
cludes individuals. Genus is a group of groups or a
class of classes. For instance the term animal is a
genus including every thing having life and the power of
voluntary motion. In this genus we have many species
included as, man, beast, bird, &c. Any species may be
divided into several classes, then it becomes a genus
with reference to this new classification.
Thus, above, "beast," according to a common use
of this word, is a species including all warm blooded
quadrupeds, but these may be divided into horses, sheep,
dogs, &c.
These then become species, and the term "beast,''
which in the first classification was a species, becomes a
genus. Again, if we divide horses into different kinds,
as Arabian horses, mountain horses, &c, horse itself
becomes thus a genus, and so on. The more extensive
class is the genus, the more limited one is the species.
The genus when included in a higher classification be
 FASL III.

KuLLIYAT YANE BAYA"n I J1NS, NAU, FASL AUR ARZ.

1. — Wazih ho, ki jins, aur nau, aur qrx ka bayan alfaz

ke mutaalliq hai, aur mantiq ke samajhne ke waste pur-
zarur hai. Alfaz i Kulli se jins aur nau wg. banae jate
hain. Maslan jab kai chizog ke waste, balihaz ek ya ziyada
Bifaton ke ek nam muqarrar kiya jawe, us ko jins, aur nau
kahte hain.
Nau ki banisbat jins ke afrad ziyada hote hain, kyiin-
ki ek jins men kai nau hote hain. Masal to maslan, haiwan
ek jins hai, jis men jitni chizen jandar o mutaharrik bil-
irada hain shamil hain. Aur is jins men kai nau shamil
hain, jaise insdn aur chaupde aur parand wg.
Janna chahiye, ki nau bhi kai faslon par taqsim ho
sakti hai; phir is hal men, balihaz un faslon ke wuh ek
jins hai. Maslan chaupaya ek nau hai, jis men char
taggwale j an war dakhil hain, aur inhin ko fasl fasl par
bant sakte hain, maslan, ghore, bheren, kutte wg., pas
yih sab faslen nau ho jati hain, aur in ki banisbat wuh
lafz chaupaya, jo ki nau tha, ab jins hua.
Phir agar ghore ki taraf khiyal karo, yih bhi kai tarah
par ho sakta hai, jaisa Arabi, Kabuli, Turki, wg., pas, ab
is surat men ghora bhi ba-iatibar in qismon ke jins hua
aur ala-haz-al-qiyas.

s
42 CLASSIFICATION.

GUNDS. Species.

( Den Mango.
Mango. < Bombay Mango.
( Malda Mango.

2. — Genus
and species are thus classified with re
gard to each other: the classes which lie above any
wider extension are
is,
class, that which embrace

a
called, with regard to superior, while the classes below

it
it, included within are called inferior. The

it
e.,
i.

highest class called the summum genus or highest

is

genus, the lowest class called the lowest spesies. All

is
between the highest genus and the lowest species are
called subaltern genera or species. The genus next
above any species called its proximate genus — any
is

genus above that, remote genus of that species. The

a

species into which a genus divided are called co-ordi

is

nate or cognate species, meaning that they are not sub

ordinate to, or included in one another.
Thus we have,
Superior class.
Inferior class.
Highest geuus.
Classts * Lowest species.
J

Subaltern genera or species.

|

Proximate genus.
I

Remote genus.
I

Co-ordinate or cognate species.

(,

The meaning of these words should be well fixed in the

memory. An illustration may aid in understanding them.

Beast.
Bird.
Animal.
Reptile.
Fish.

" "
*

Class here used as general name for genus, species, groups, &c.
is

a
 AJNAS AUR ANWA* 43

Jilts. AttwX.

( Desi.
Amm. < Bambai.
( Malda.

2. —Wazih ho,ki jo jins kisi jins ke upar ho, us ko

jins i did kahte hain, aur jo kisi ke niche ho, jins i
adnd kahte hain, aur jo sah ke iipar hai, us ko jins ul ajnds
aur jo sab se niche hai, us ko nait i sdfil kahte hain. Jitni
jinsen/ms ul ajnas aur jins i sdjil ke darmiyan hain, unko
ajnas i mutawassitd kahte hain. Jo jins ki ek jins ke ain
upar ho, jins i qarib kahte hain, aur jo jins ki jins i qarib
ke ain upar ho, us ko pahli jins ki hanishat/ms i baid kahte
hain. Jitne anwa, ki mataht ek jins ke dakhil hain, un
ko barabar ki kahte hain.

Pas ajnas aur anwa ki aqsam yih hain : —

caii
j
Adna.
, - ul ajoas.
Jtn'
1 Safif.
j Mutavraasat.

Bald.
( Nau i Safil.
Nan.
( Anwfi i mutaBawia.

In ka matlab bakhiibi zihn-nishin karna chahiye. Ek

misal se ziyada saf hoga.

( Arabi.f
(Ghore I Kabul.
< Bheren.
( Turki, wg.
Parand. I Kut'te wg.
Machblian.
iChaupae
Eire Ma It ore.
44 CLASSIFICATION.

Here in reference to the class horse, beast is superior

while Arabian is inferior. Of this classification, animal
is the highest genus, and Arabian, &c, are the lowest
species. Beast and horse, because between these, are
called Subaltern. Beast is the proximate genus of horse,
and animal a remote genus. Again horse, cow, sheep
and dog are co-ordinate or cognate species. The student
may note that " bird," and the other words may in like
manner be divided into genera or species.
3. — Correct classification depends on another subject
which is called differentia. The differentia of a class is
its distinguishing characteristic or attribute which separates
it from other classesof the same group or genus. One or
moro attributes or marks may be fixed upon as the
differentia or differentiae. Thus, if animal be the genus
including several species of animated beings, one of
which is man, "speaking" might be fixed on as the
differentia, and man as a species of animal would be a
speaking animal. Bird is another species of animal
having feathers and wings. Feathers and wings would thus .
distinguish bird from other species of animal and be
come the differentiae. Bird is then a feathered winged
animal. The species as may be seen is really made up of
the genus and the differentia.
4. — Property and accident are terms used to denote
something joined to a species or to individuals of it,
but not included in its essence, or that quality or charac
ter which is fixed upon and constitutes the species.
A property is something joined necessarily and uni
versally to the species, that is, belonging to all the
individuals of it. The property may be peculiar as be
longing only to that species, or not peculiar, as belong
ing also to some other species. Thus breathing and the
habit of walking erect are properties of the species man.
They belong necessarily and universally to man, but not
 AJNA'S AUR AXWA'. 4a

Ab ismen ghore ki banisbat chaupae jins i ala, aur

Arabi adna hai. Aur taqsim i mazkura men haiwan jins
nl ajnas aur Arabi Kabuli wg. nau i safil hain. Chaupae
aur ghore, chunki jins ul ajnas aur nau i safil ke darmiyan
hain, jins i ausat hain. Chaupae, ghore ki jins qarib hai,
aur haiwan us ke jins i bafd, aur ghore, bheren, kutte,
barabar ki jinsenhain, waise hi chaupae, parand, machhlian,
aur kire makore hain.

Taqsim ajnas aur anwa ki durusti ke sath khass karke

ek hi bat par munhasar hai, yane fasl par.

3. — Fasl wuh hai, jo ekjins ko us ke mushdrikdt yane aur

jinsyd nau se juda kar de. .Fasl men ek ya ziyada sifaten
tamiz ke liye muqaiTar hain. Maslan, haiwan agar
jins qarar diya jae, jis men kai ek qism ke jandar shamil
hain, jin men ek insan samjho, to is surat men quwat i
ndtiqa us ki ek fasl hai, jis ke sabab se haiwanon men insan
ko " haiwan i Ala-haza haiwanon ki,
natiq" kahte hain.
parand bhi ek jins hai, jis ke par aur bdzii hain, aur in
paron aur bazuon ki jihat se parandon ko aur haiwanon se
tamiz hui, pas isi nazar se un ko fasl kahte hain, aur un
jandaron ko, jin men yih bat hai, parand bolte hain. Agar
khiyal karen, to malum hota hai, ki nau, jins aur fasl se
banti hai. Masal to maslan haiwan ek jins hai, bakhiyal jan
ke, aur us ke niche parand ek nau hai, is khiyal se, ki us ke
par hain : pas saf malum hai, ki nau i parand do khiyal
jins aur fasl se bani hai, yane us nau men jan hai, aur
par hain.
4. —Art ke baydn men. — Arz us ko kahte hain, jo
jauhar yane zat se kharij ho. Maslan dam lend aur bolna
insan ki zat se kharij hai, yane insaniyat in par mauquf
nahin, pas wuh arzi hua. Jab koi sifat ya khassiyat kisi
nau men pai jawe, lekin us ki zat yane mahiyat se kharij
hai, pas agar ek nau ke afrad men, khwah kull afrad men,
46 CLASSIFICATION.

to that which constitutes the species man. Of these,

breathing is not peculiar, because other species of
animals, as horses, dogs, &c, breathe, but walkicg erect
is peculiar, because belonging only to the species man.
An accident is something joined contingently or ac
cidentally to a species or only to certain individuals of
it, as Hindus are dark-shinned, James is walking, James
was bom in Calcutta. Here "walking" and "born in
Calcutta" are accidents of James, because not necessarily
a part of James, for he might be lying down or he
might have been born in any other city. Hindus are
not of necessity dark-skinned. Accidents are separable
or inseparable, i. e., they can be separated from the in
dividuals or they cannot be thus separated. In the
above example " walking
" is a separable accident,
because it may be separated from James, so that he may
be standing, or sitting, or lying down. But "born in
Calcutta," is an inseparable accident, because what thus
happened can not now be detached from James.

" "' \ Peculiar.

provertv
1 Not peculiar.

Accident \ SeParable-
Accident.
^ Inaeparable

5. — The five terms we have discussed, i. e., genus,

species, differentia, property and accident, are sometimes
called the " five predicables
" or the " five heads of
predicables," because in a proposition they express a
certain relation of predicate to subject. Thus when
the predicate is a common term related to the subject
as a larger to a smaller group, it is a genus, as " man is
an animal.'' Here animal is a genus. When the predic
ate is a common term related to the subject as a group
to an individual, it is a species, as "James is a man."
When to the common term used as a predicate some
distinguishing or differencing attribute or characteristic
 AJNAS AUR AKWAT. 47

ya baz men pai jawe, to us ko khdssa kahte hain, aur ek

nau ziyada men pai jawe, to us ko qrz i dmm kahte hain.
se

Maslan khass shan se khara hoke chalna ki sirf insan ke

afrad men paya jata hai, khdssa hai ; lekin dam lena siwae
insan ke aur anwa men bhi paya jata hai, is liye qrz i dmm
hua.

Agar wuh sifat ya khassiyat nau ki afrad se juda na

ho sake, us ko qrz i Idzim, aur agar juda ho sake, us ko qrz
i mufdriq kahte hain. Misal pahle ki, Zaid Kalkatta men.
paida Ma. "Paida hona Kalkatte men" Zaid se juda
ho nahin sakta. Ala-hazil-qiyas dam lena aurkhare hoke
chalna. Masal diisri, arz i mufariq ki, jaisa Zaid chalt&
hai, yih kuchh zarur nahin, ki Zaid hamesha chalta rahe,
kyiinki kabhi leta ho, ya baitha ho. Axz ki taqsim zail
men hai : —

iLmm.
Lazim.
Mufariq.
iKhasaa.

5. — Jins aur nau aur fasl aur arz i ilrnm aur khfissa in
ko pdnch kulli kahte hain. Yih kullien mahmul hone ki
haisiyat rakhti hain, kyiinki qazaya men mahmul ka taalluq
mauz6 se zahir karti hain. Pas agar kisi qaziye men koi
amm kulli mahmul waqi ho aur mauzu khass kulli ho, to
wuh amm kulli jins hoti hai. Maslan " insan haiwan hai."
Tahan haiwan jins hai. Aur jab kisi qaziye men koi dmm
kulli mahmul ho aur us ka mauzd ek fard ho, to wuh kulli
nau hoti hai. Jaise " Zaid insan hai." Jab kisi dmm kulli
se, ki mahmul waqi ho, koi sifat mumaiyaza ya juda karne-
wali khassiyat lagai jawe jis se mauzu ko tamam ajnas ya
anw£ mashmulae mahmul se tamiz ho jawe, to mahmul
48 CLASSIFICATION.

is added -which distinguishes or differentiates the subject

from all other classes or species included in the'predicate,
the differentiating part of the predicate is called differ
entia as
" man is a moral animal." Here the word
"moral" differentiates man from other animals. When
the predicate or some part of

it,
necessarily accompanies
the subject, but does not belong to its essence or mate
rial part or that character which has been fixed upon
to mark species or class, the predicate then a

is
as
it

property, as "man omnivorous."

is When the predicate
or some part of belongs only contingently or acciden
it

tally to the subject called an accident, as

" James

is
is
it

walking," " JameB was born in Calcutta."

 AJNAS AUR ANWA. 49

ka juz i mukhassis fast hota hai, jaise "insan zi-aql

jandar" had. Yahan "zi-aql" ka lafz insan ko aur jandaron
us ka koi juz mauzii
se makhsns karta hai. Jab mahmul ya
ko lazim hai, lekin us ki zat se kharij
hai, to mahmul qrz
hota hai, maslan insan hama-khor hai.
Jab mahmul ya us ka koi juz mauzii se lttifaqi
"
taalluq
rakhta hai, to mahmul khdssa hota hai, jaise Zaid chalta
hai" ya " Zaid Kalkatte men paida Ma."
6. Kullion ki nisbat, Arabi mantiqin ki rae char
" tabayun," " umum o khusus i mut-
tarah ki hai, "tasawi,"
"
laq," umum o lAususmin-wajhin." Do kullion men
tasawi
ki nisbat us waqt hoti hai ki donon ke misdaq donon ke
afradekhon. Maslan "insan" aur "danishmand jandar."
Tabdyun use kahte hain ki do kullion ke misdaq donon
ke afrad alahida alahida hon ; jaise patthar aur darakht.
Umum o khusus mutlaq wuh hai ki ek kulli £mm ho, aur
dusri khass ; jahan khass kulli sadiq ae aur jo chiz khass
kulli ki fard ho im kulli bhi us par sadiq ae, aur wuh
chiz us amm kulli ki bhi fard ho ; magar is ka aks nahin.
" "
Maslan " jandar aur insan." Umum o khususmin-wa/hin
use kahte hain ki ek kulli dusri kulli ki nisbat ek haisiyat
se khass aur dusri haisiyat se tom ho, maslan jandar aur
rufaid-rang.
 SECTION IV.

Definition.

Another subject connected 'with terms and the

subject of classification, and hence necessary to be
understood in a system of logic, is definition.
1. — Definition means giving the marks or char
racteristics of an object or class of objects so that it
or they may be recognized by these marks. Definition
itself has been defined "laying down a boundary."
When applied to terms, then, it means describing them
in such a manner as to distinguish them from other
terms..' .Sometimes simply a word well understood is
used for the word defined, e. g. an anthropophagus is a
cannibal. In reasoning, true and settled definitions of
terms are very important from the fact that different
persons employ them with different meanings, thus
causing confusion and error.
2. — Logicians usually divide what is called a logical
definition into two parts which are called the genus and
differentia. The definition is made by uniting the genus
to the differentia. Thus we may define man to be "an
animal gifted with speech." Here animal is the genus
united to " gifted with speech," the differentia by which
man is distinguished from other animals, as horse, bird,
&c. Again, the Bombay mango is a mango which came
originally from Bombay, Here mango is the genus, and
Bombay, the differentia distinguishing this mango from
others.
 FASL IV.

MUARRIF KE BAYAN MEN.

1. —Muarrif jise
" qaul i sharih " bhi kahte hain, is
ka bayan, chunki mutaalliq alf az ke hai, aur is lihaz se
jins nau fasl wg. se ilaqa rakhta hai, is sabab se us ka
janna ilm i Mantiq men bahut zurur hai. Muarrif kin
lafz ke hadd bandhne ko kahte hain. Risala i Shamsia
men is ki tarif yun hai : —
" Muarrif shai ka wuh hai, ki jab use pahchan len, to
wuh shai pahchan men a jawe, ya us shai ko uske ma tiwa
se tamia ho ]'ae."
Ilm i mantiq men jab is ka istiamal alfaz ke waste
kiya jawe, to yih murad hoti hai, ki bayan ya tarif hona
«n alfaz ka is taur se ki un ko auron se tamiz ho jawe.
Kabhi aisa bhi hota hai, ki ek lafz ki tarif, kisi asan lafz se
jise log khub samajhte hain, ki jati hai ; maslan " karga-
dan" ki "gende," se, ya "ganam" ki "bakri" se, ya
" safarjal" ki " amriid" se. Yih bahut zunir hai, ki muba-
hise men lafzon ke thik thik mane muqarrar kiye jawen,
kyiinki aksar aisa hota hai, ki ek lafz ke koi kuchh mane
leta hai, aur koi kuchh, is bais se tafriqa aur galati par
jati hai.
2. — Aksar Mantiqin ke nazdik muarrif men do baten
pai jati hain, yane jins aur fasl. Jins aur fasl ke milane
se muarrif banta hai. Masal to maslan, insan ka muarrif
haiwdn i ndtiq hai. Ab yahan par haiivdn jins hai, jo fasl
i ndtiq se milkar muarrif insan ka hai, pas malum hua,
ki haiwdn i ndtiq jo muarrif hai, insan ki jins aur fasl se
bana.
52 DEFINITION.

3. — Another division of definition, not generally

now used, is into nominal and real, i. e. definitions of
names and definitions of things. A nominal definition
merely gives the meaning of the term as a name, or
specifies the object real or imaginary to which it is
applied. For instance, a telescope is an instrument
for viewing distant objects. This is the definition usually
found in dictionaries and is most frequently made by
the use of synonymous words. A real definition is an
analysis or explanation of the real or imaginary thing
itself, such as will lead to a knowledge of its construc
tion and nature or its supposed character. Thus a real
definition of a telescope would enter into an explanation
of its construction with some necessary explanation of
light. The definition of a centaur, is a fabulous being,
half man and half horse, the body and head of the man
forming the neck and head of the horse.
There are other divisions of definition, but aa.
understanding of them as divisions is not essential to
the subject of logic, and their discussion requires a more
 MUARRIF KE BAYAN HEX. 53

Dusri misal, Bambai kd dm, ek am hai jo ki dar asl

Bambai ki taraf se aya tha, pas is jagah lafz i am jins hai,
aur lafz Bambai us ka fasl hai, jo is am ko auron se tamlz
deta hai. Bisala i Shamsia men muarrif ka bayan ynn
"
hai ki Farz kijiye, ki insdn muarrif hai, agar us ki tarif
men kaha jawe ki wuh haiwdn i ndtiq hai, to yih us ki
hadd i tdm hui, kyunki haiwdn, jins i qarib, aur ndtiq, fasl
i qarib se milkar bani ; aur agar kaha jawe ki wuh ndtiq
hai, ya jins i ndtiq hai, to yih us ki hadd i ndqis h6i,
kyunki niri fasl i qarib yane ndtiq se ya jins i bajd yan«
"jism" aur fasl i qarib yane "natiq" donon se milkar
bani hai. Agar insan ki tarif men kaha jawe, ki wuh
haiwdn zdhik, (hansnewala) hai, to yih us ki rasm i tdm
hui, kyunki haiwdn jins i qarib aur zahik khasse se bani.
Aur agar us ki tarif men nira zdhik ya jism i zdhik kaha
jawe to rasm i ndqis hui kyunki nire khasse zdhik ya jins
i baid jism aur khasse zahik se milkar bani. Naqsba i
Kail se is ki taqsim nazir ko ashkara hogi.

Muarrif.

iVojw Tdm. Ndqis Tdm.

3.— Janna chahiye, ki muarrif khasskar do taur par

hota hai, ya to sirf kisi haqiqi ya farzi shai ka nam aur
mane batlata, ya us ki haqiqat ko mufassalan zahir karta
hai. Maslan koi kahe, ki diixbin ek ^la dur ki chizen dekhne
ke liye hai, to sirf us ka nam aur kam malum hua,
aur agar
koi kahe yih shai is taur par fulani fulani ehiz se bani hai,
to us ki haqiqat malum Mi. Misal ek farzi ehiz ki yih hai,
ki anqd ek janwar daraz gardan hai, jis ka wujiid
farzi
use is
hai,' kyunki kisi ne use dekha nahin hai, aur anqa
sababsekahte hain, ki tawil ul anaq yane daraz-gardan
hota hai. Farsi men use simurg kahte hain.
54 ; DEFINITION.

lengthy treatment than can be undertaken in this book.

It is. the office of definition in logic to guard against
ambiguity and error in the use of terms.

Rules foe Definition.

To aid in this important matter rules have been

laid down, the most important of which are mentioned
below.

First. — The
definition must be adequate, that is
neither too extensive nor too limited. For instance
as a definition of money if one were to say that it is
" something made of metal," this would be too narrow,
because shells and paper are used and these would be
excluded by this definition. Or if it were defined as
" something given in exchange for something else
needed," this would be too extensive, because including
things which are given in exchange which are not
money. Grain, cloth, &c, are thus exchanged.

(Second. — The definition itself must be plainer than

the thing defined, otherwise it would not explain its
meaning. Hence the definition if possible should not
contain figurative, obscure or metaphorical language.
These two rules, well observed, will generally make
terms sufficiently plain to avoid error.

We pass now to the second division of the subject

of logic, viz., judgment which is made up as we have
seen of notions or ideas gained by apprehension. These
notions or ideas expressed in language are terms which
are combined to make propositions which are judgments
expressed in language.
 MUARRIF KE BAYA'N MEN. 5>

Muarrif ke aqsam aur bhi hain, lekin un aqsam k;i

janna ilm i Mantiq ke janne ke waste chandan zururi nahin.
Ba-khauf i tawalat, un ki bahs is maqam se chhor di hai.

Qawaid i Muarrif.
Muarrif ke banane men chand qaide hain, chunanchi
mi men sedo qaidon ka, jo nihayat zurur hain, yahan
par bayan kiya jata hai.
Palild. — Zariir chahiye ki muarrif tarn ho, jis ko baze
niantiqin hndd i tiim bolte hain, yane apne kull afr^d ko
jame ho, aur gair ke dakhil hone ko mana kare. Maslan
agar koi naqd ke mane yun batlawe ki wuh ek dhat ki chiz
hai, to yih tarif jame nahin hai, kyunki naqd men kaurian
bhi dakhil hain, halanki we dhat ki nahin hain. Ya agar
koi yun bole, ki naqd ek chiz hai, jis se jins kharidi jdti
hai, to yih gair ko dakhil hone se mana nahin karta ;
kyunki anaj wag. se bhi aur jins kharidi jati hai, pas ab is
surat men gair afrad bhi is tarif men dakhil hue jate hain.
Is liye yih muarrif tarn na hoga.
JDusrd. — Chahiye, ki muarrif us chiz se, jis ke mane
batlata hai saf ho, warna us chiz ki sharah bakhubi zahir
na karega. Is waste, agar mumkin ho, muarrif majazi, .

aur pechida na ho. Agar in donon qaidon par bakhubi

lihaz rahe, to har lafz ke mane aise saf rahenge, ki galati
o khata na paregi.*
Ab ham mutawajjih hote hain, taraf bayan tasdiqdt
ke, jo ki tasauwurdt se bante hain.

* Eisala i
Shamsia men muarrif ke qaide is tarah par hain:—
1. —Yih durust nahfn hai, ki muarrif nafs i mahiyat "ho, kyunki
muarrif, muarraf se pahle malum hoti hai, aur koi shai apui zat se pahchani
nahin jati hai.
2. —Na muarrif aisa chahiye, jo muarraf se gmmtar ya khasstar ho ;
balki douon umum o« khusus men harahar hon.
3. — Na kisi shai ki tarif aise lafzon se hona chahiye jo marifat aur
jahalat men masawi hon.
4. — Na tarif shai k£ aisi shai se hona chahiye ki wuh bagair shai
awwal ke pahchan men nahin ati hai.
5. — Alfaz i wahshi o garfb jis se same matlah par na pahunche-,
istiamal nahin karna chahiye.
 PART II —THE PROPOSITION

SECTION I.

FoBMATION AND DIVISION OP THE PROPOSITION.

1. A proposition is an act of judgment expressed

in language. A proposition as used in logic has also
been defined, "a sentence indicative." This disting
uishes a proposition from a question, command, an
entreaty, &c, which are not dealt with in logic.
2. A proposition is formed by combining two or
more terms, as " the tree is green." This proposition
consists of two terms tree and green connected by is.
Every proposition consist of three parts called the sub
ject, the predicate, and the copula.
The subject is that of which something is predicated
i. e., affirmed or denied. "The tree is green." Hero
tree is the subject of which something is affirmed or said,
viz. that it is green. The predicate is that which is af
firmed or denied of the subject, as in this example the
word "green'' which is of affirmed of the subject tree.
The copula is the uniting word which shows the
agreement or disagreement between the subject and the
predicate. The copula is always some part of the verb
to be and although this verb may not always be manifest
in the proposition, yet it is understood or the proposi
tion can be resolved into such a form as to bring it out,
 HISSA ll-QAZIYA-

FASL I.

BAYAN QAzfoN KA AUR UN KE AQsXm.

1. — Jab tasdiq zuban sesadir ho, to us ko qaziya kahte

hain. Baze log qaziye ki tarif yun likhte tain ki kai
lafzon se murakkab ho, aur ihtimdl jhuth aur sach kd pdyd
jdwe. Jlm i mantiq men gaziya ek jumla i baydniya hat,
yane wuh aisa jumla hai, ki na waste suwal na amr na
iltija ke, balki sirf waste bayan ke howe.
2. — Qaziya kai lafzon se murakkab hota hai, aur
jhuth aursachka ihtimalusmen pay a jata hai. Maslan,
" yih darakht sabz hai;" yih qaziya, murakkab "darakht"
aur " sabz" se hai, jis men lafz
" hai" ka, waste nisbat ke
aya hai. Qaziye men tin juz hote hain, yane mauzu, aur
mahmul, aur nisbat i hukmiya*
Mauzu us ko kahte hain jis ki nisbat kuchh kaha jawe,
khwah isbat ke sath ho, ya nafi ke sath. Misal " yih darakht
sabz hai." Yahan par " darakht" mauzu hai, jis ki nisbat
kuchh bayan hai, yane ki wuh "sabz" hai, aur mahmul
wuh hai, jo mauzu ki nisbat kaha gaya ho. Qaziye mazkur
men lafz " sabz" ka jo aya hai, mahmul hai. Nisbat i
hukmi wuh hai, jis ke zaria se mauzii par mahmul ke
darmiyan men muwafiqat ya na-muwafiqat pai jati hai.

• Baz
Mantiqrn "mauzii" o "mahmiil" ko mahkum-alaih aur
mahKiim-i'ih. aur jo lafz nisbat i Hukmi par dalalat karta hai, use rabit-
kahte hain. Nahviyon kf istilah men mauzij ko mahkum-alaih aur musnada
ilaih aur mubtada, aur mahmul ko mahkum-bih aur musnad-bih aur khahar
aur nisbat i hukmiya ko isnad, aur jo lafz isnad par dalalat karta hai use
harf i rabt kahte hain.
58 THE PROPOSITION.

showing that this verb is implied.

" The bird flies,"
here "flies" is equivalent to a copula "is" and a pre
dicate " flying. Thus " the Moguls conquered," is
equivalent to
" the Moguls were victorious." From this
proposition we see too that the verb is sometimes both
copula and predicate. Thus in the above proposition,
conquered is equivalent to the copula "were" and the
predicate " victorious." Sombtimes there is an inversion
in propositions, as "I hope to see you" equivalent to
" to see you, is the thing hope." These peculiarities
I
of proposition must be kept in mind.

Divisions of Propositions.
There are several divisions of propositions which
must be well understood in order to comprehend success
fully the subject of logic.
I. Propositions are divided into simple and com
pound.
A simple proposition is one whose subject and pre
dicate are composed of simple terms, i. e., there is in
ib but one subject and one predicate united by the
copula. "Iron is hard," is a simple proposition, having
but one subject "iron" united by the copula "is" to
one predicate "hard."
A compound proposition has two or more subjects
or two or more predicates, or both; i. e., it has more than-
one term either in the subject or predicate of the pro
position or in both, and it may be resolved into two or
more simple propositions. Thus, "beasts, birds and
insects have life." In the subject of this proposition
there are three terms or subjects, beasts, birds, and insects
and the proposition may be resolved thus,
Beasts have life ;
Birds have life ;
Insects have life.
 QAZION KE BA VAN MEN. 59

Maslan, " darakht sabzhai," yahan par lafz " hat" ka

nisbat i hukmi par dalalat karta hai. "Wazih ho, ki jo
alfaz nisbat i hukmiya par dalalat karte hain wuh masdar
hond se hamesha hote hain, magar yih nahin, ki sab jagah
z&hir ho, kyiinki bazi jagah aisa bhi hota hai, Id hukman
hoti hai. Maslan, " yih parand ur jawega," is men hona
hukman paya jata hai, kyunki dar haqiqat is ka matlab
yun hai, ki " parand ka urna hoga." Gaur karna chahiye,
ki bazi jagah mahmul aur nisbat i hukmiya ek hi hoti
hain, j aisa koi kahe, ki " Zaid jdtd hai," yahan par "jata
hai," mahmul aur nisbat i hukmiya donon hai. Garaz ki
qaziya men tin juz hote hain, yane, mauzu, aur mahmul,
aur nisbat i hukmiya. Maslan, " Zaid dlim hai," yahan par
Zaid, mauzu, aur dlim, mahmul, aur hai, nisbat i hukmiya.
Muglon ne Hindustan men hukiimat ki thi. Yahan lafz
"Muglon" ka mauzii aur "hukumat" mahmul, aur "ki
thi," nisbat i hukmiya.
Aqsam i QAZIYA.

Qaziya kai tarah par hai, jis ka samajhna ibn i mantiq

men pur-zarur hai.
1. — Qaziyaya mufrad hota hai ya murakkab ; qaziya
mahmul mufrad ho,
mufrad wuh hai, jis ka mauzii aur
maslan
" loha sakht hai." Yahan par lohd jo mauzu, aur
lafz sakht ka jo mahmul hai, donon mufrad hain.
Qaziya murakkab wuh hai, ki jis men kam se kam do
mauzu ya do mahmul hon, ya mauzu aur mahmul donon
kam se kam do do hon. Is qaziya ko juda juda karke kai
"
ek qaziye bana sakte hain. Maslan, Chaupae, parand, aur
kire makoye jandar hain." Gaur karna chahiye, ki dar
" chaupae" aur
asl is qaziye men tin mauzu hain, yane
" parand" aur " kire makore," aur tin qaziye ban sakte

hain; maslan,
Chaupae jandar hain.
Paraud jandar hiin.
Kire makore jandar haig.
 60 THE PROPOSITION.

"Men and aDgela are rational and religious be

ings." Here both in the subject and predicate there
are wo terms. In the one men and angels, and in the other
rational and religious. It may be resolved into four pro
positions.
1 Men are rational beings,
2 Men are religious beings,
3 Angela are rational beiugs,
4 Augels are religious beings.

Propositions in which the subject or predicate con

tains more than one term, but which can not be resolv
ed into simple propositions, are sometimes called complex
propositions. Thus "joy and sorrow are opposite mental
states,
" is simply a complex proposition, because it can
not be resolved into single propositions. Propositions of
this kind must not be taken for compound propositions.
2. Propositions are divided according to their
quality, into affirmative and negative.
An affirmative proposition is one in which the sub
ject and predicate are said to agree, as " ice is cold, "
"A is B."
A negative proposition is one in which the subject
and predicate are said not to agree, as " fire is not cold,"
" A is not B." A proposition is affirmative or negative
according to its copula, i. e., just as the predicate is
affirmed or denied of the subject. Thus, "not to obey
God is sin," is really an affirmative proposition, because
sin, the predicate, is affirmed of the subject " not to
obey God." Sometimes in negative propositions, the
negative particle is placed so far from the copula that
the negative character of the proposition may bo over
looked, as " not all the men and angels in the universe
can cleanse a soul from sin." Here the negative is the
first word of the proposition, far from the copula can.
The proposition in the ordinary form would be, " All
 QAZION KE BA TAN MEN. 61

Misal dusri. — " Insan aur firishte zi-aql aur dbid hain."
Yahan par mauzii aur mahmul donon do do hain. Is
qaziya i
murakkaba ko juda karke char qaziya e mufrada
bana sakte hain. Maslan,
Insiin zi-aql hai.
Insan abid hai.
Firishte zi aql hain.
Firiahte abid hain.
Janna chahiye, ki baze qaziye hain ki siirat men
aise
murakkab hain, lekin dar haqiqat murakkab nahin, mufrad
hain, Maslan " gam aur khushi, apas men mukhahf hain;"
yih koi kah nahin sakta, ki "gam mukhahf hai," ya "khu
shi mukhalif hai." Agar chahen, ki is qaziye ke do qaziyo
mufrada banawen to nahin ho sakta, kyunki dar asl wuh
mufrad hai.
2. — Qaziyaya mujiba hoga ya sdliba. Qaziya i mujiba
us ko kahte hain, jab mauzu aur mahmul ke darmiyan
muwafiqat ho, yane un ke bieh men nisbat i isbat pai jawe.
Maslan " barf thandha hai," " A. B. hai."
Qaziya i sdliba wuh hai," jis ke mauzu aur mahmul
men na-muwaflqat ho, yane un ke bich men nisbat i nafi
pai jae. Maslan, Ag thandhi nahin hai." — "A. B. nahin
"
hai."
Qaziya, bamiijib apne nisbat i hukmiya ke mujiba ya
saliba hota hai, yane jaisa ki iqrar ya inkar mahmul ka
mauzu ke waste ho. Maslan,
" rvhuda ke hukm ko na
manna, gunah hai," yih qaziya dar haqiqat mujiba hai,
kyunki lafz gunah ka, jo mahmul hai, mauzu ke iqrar
men aya hai, inkar men nahin.
Baze salibon men alamat nafi ki aise mauqa par hoti
hai, ki us ka saliba hona bakhubi malum nahin hota
Maslan "na tamam insan na firishte kisi ko gunah se
pak kar sakte hain." Aise qaziye ko "madula"
kahte hain.

Tahan par alamat nafi ki sab se pahle ai, aur fial se dur
hai. Agar yih qaziya bamiijib £mm muhawara ke bola jawe,
"
to yun hoga ; tamam insan aur firishte kisi ko gunah se p6k
 62 THE PROPOSITIOX.

the men and angels in the universe cannot cleanse a

soul from sin.' These irregular forms of propositions
must be understood. It may also be noted that every
proposition must be either affirmative or negative.
3. A third division of propositions is according to
their quantity into universal and particular.
A universal propositions is one in which the predi
cate is affirmed or denied of the whole of the subject,
i. e., agrees or disagrees with the whole of it. In other
words, the predicate is said of the whole of the subject,
hence the proposition is universal. Thus, "all men are
mortal'' is a universal proposition, because the predicate
" mortal" is affirmed of the whole of the subject "men."
Mortal is said not of one man, nor of some men, but of
all men. "All A. is B." is a universal proposition,
Again "no men are trees" is a universal proposition be
cause " trees," the predicate, is wholly denied of the
entire subject, " Men." So of " no A is B."
The signs of universality are all, each, every, no,
neither, and such words as indicate the whole of the
subject.
When tho sign of universality is not used, or the
indefinite article is placed before the subject, the univer
sal proposition is called indefinite. Thus, " sheep are
quadrupeds," is a universal proposition, because it is
evidently intended to be asserted that
" all sheep are
quadrupeds." Thus also, " a sheep is a quadruped"
means any sheep is a quadruped, hence that all sheep
are quadrupeds. " Liars are sinners/' " beasts are not
accountable," are universals having the sign understood.
Where the sign of universality is omitted, the
quantity of the proposition must be ascertained from its
matter. We must determine how it is intended that
the proposition be taken.
A particular proposition ia one whose subject ia
 QA ZIOS KE BA YAN MEN. 63

nahin kar sakte hain." Aise qazion be-tartib aur pechida

ke matlab k6 samajh lena chahiye ; aur yih bhi yad rakhna
chahiye, ki har qaziya do hal se khali nahin, ya to imijiba
hoga ya saliba hoga. Qazion ke ijab o salb ko
" kaif i
qazaya" kahte hain.
3. — Qaziya kulliya hoga j&juziya hoga.

Qaziya i
wuh hai, jis ka mahmul, mauzii ke
kulliya
tamam afrad ke iqrar ya inkar men awe ; yane mahmul
muwafiqat ya na-muwafiqat rakhe tamam mauzu se. Ya
is tarah par us ka bayan samjho, ki qaziya i kulli men
mahmul kull mauzu par bola jae. Maslan, " kull insan
marnewale hain." Yih qaziya i kulliya hai, is liye k1
lafz " marnewale" ka jo mahmul hai, kull mauzu ke waste'
jo " insan" hai, kaha gaya hai, yane lafz marnewale ka
sirf ek admi ke waste nahin, balki tamam insan ke waste
aya hai. " Kull A. B. hai." Yih qaziya bhi kulliya
hai.
Ek aur misal di jati hai. " Insan darakht nahin hai," yih
bhi qaziya i kulliya hai, kyiinki yahan par lafz darakbt ka,
tamam mauzii yane insan ke inkar men aya. " Koi A. B-
nabin hai." Yih bhi qaziya i kulliya hai. Sab, tamam, har ek,
koi nahin wg. jo lafz hain, in se qaziye ki kulbyat sabit
hoti hai.
Jis
qaziya i kulli men alamat kulliyat ki, lafzan maujud
" Bheren chaupae
na ho, usko muhmila kahte hain, maslan,
hain.." Ab yahan par bawujiide ki alamat kulliyat ki
maujud nahin, phir bhi saf malum hota hai, ki matlab sab
bheron se hai.
Jliuth bolnewale gnnahear hain.
Jan war zi-aqi uahiu liain.
Yahan par bhi kulliyat samjhi jati hai, agarchi zahir
men koi lafz nahin hai. Garaz yih ki jahan kulliyat ka koi
lafz na paya jawe, to wahan par sirf matlab se samjhenge.
jis

Qaziya ijuziya wuh hai, ke mauzii ke baz afrad

64 THE PROPOSITION.

taken in only a part of its extension, i. e.y the pred

icate is said to agree or disagree with only a part
of the subject. Thus, "some Christians are not true
followers of Christ," is a particular proposition, because
the predicate "true followers of Christ," is denied
of " some Christians," the subject, that is, does not
belong to all who are called Christians. The pre
dicate then only belongs to a part of the term " Chris
tians." Again, " many men or brave,'' " some A is B,'*
are particular propositions, because the predicate " brave"
does not belong to all " men," nor the predicate " B" to
all " A. Thus, we see that in particular propositions
something is said, i. e., affirmed or denied of only a part
of the subject, which is then taken in only a part of its
extension. The sign of a particular proposition is some
such word as, some, few, several, many, &c, indicating
that a part only of the subject is intended for the pre
dicate. Of that part only, the predicate is true.
Some particular propositions are indefinite, that is,
have not the words, some, few, &c, prefixed to them
to show that they are limited. Thus, " men are poets,"
" Hindus are idolaters," are indefinite propositions, be
cause it can not be intended that " all men are poets,"
or that " all Hindus are idolaters,'' for there are some
men who can not write poetry, and there are Hindus who
never worship idols, of which facts all are aware. The un
iversal or particular character of such propositions must be
determined from their intended meaning. Itisnotsomuch
the business of logic to determine their meaning, as to
pronounce on the character of the argument in which the
propositions are used, after their quantity has been deter
mined. Every proposition, then, must be either affirma
tive or negative, also universal or particular. Hence, with
the same subject and predicate four different propositions
may be formed. Let these propositions be distinguish
 QAZION KE BA YA'N MEN. 65

Bye jaen, yane mahmul mauzii ke kull afrad ke waste na

" Baz
aya ho, balki baz afrad ke waste. Masal to maslan,
Jsai Masth ke sachche pairau nahin hain."
Is misal men, chunki fiqra " sachche pairau" ka, jo
mahmul hai, " baz Isaion" ke inkar men, jo mauzii waqi
Ma is qaziye ko juziya kahte hain.
hai aya hai, is sabab se

Garaz ki is jagah par mahmul, mauzii ke baz afrad ke

inkar men aya hai, yane sab Jsaion ke waste nahin.
" Baz
Dusri misal.—" Bahut admi bahadur hain."
A. B. hain." Yih bhi qaziye i juziye hai, kyunki lafz
"bahadur" ka, jo mahmul hai, kull insan ke waste sadiq
" B." kull
nahin aya hai, aur isi tarah mahmul mauz^
"A." nahin karta. Garaz ham dekhte hain, ki
par dalalat
dalalat hoti
qaziya i juziya men mauzii ke baz afrad par
hai, khwah bil-isbat ho ya bin-nafi. Juziyat ki alamaten
baz, kuchh, wg. hain.
Baz qaziya i juziya bhi muhmila hote hain, yane
lafz juziyat ke baz, kuchh wg. un men nahin pae jatehain.
• Maslan, "admi shajr hote hain," "Hindu butparast
hain;" yih donon qaziya i muhmila hain, kyunki yih
matlab nahin ho sakta hai, ki tamam insan shair
hain;
kyunki bahutere admi aise hain, jin ko shiar kahna nahin
hain.
ata, aur Hinduon men bhi aise hain, ki butparast nahin
se
Aise qaziyon ki kulliyat ya juziyat sirf matlab
malum hoti hai. Qaziya i muhmila ki kulliyat aur juziyat
ka muqarrar karna jlm i mantiq ki garaz nahin. Us ki
aur juz
garaz sirf itni hai, ki jab ham qaziyon ki kulliyat
iyat qarar dekar baham-digar zarb den, aur phir zarb
ka
dene se jo natija nikle, us ki sihhat ya adam sihhat
batlana.
Is mauqa rakhna zariir chahiye, ki har
par khiyal
qaziya ya mvjiba hoga, yd sdliba hoga, aur har wahid
66 THE PROPOSITION.

ed by the vowels A. E. I. 0., and let x. and y. stand for

the subject and predicate, then we may have : — -
A. Universal affirmative ; All x is y.
E. Universal neeative ; No x is y.
I. Particular affirmative ; Some x is y.
O. Particular Negative ; Some x. is not v.*

4. A fourth division of propositions considered as -

sentences, is into Categorical and Hypothetical.

The categorical proposition unconditionally asserts that
the predicate does or does not agree with the subject.
As, " man is mortal/' " A is not B," which are simple
unconditional declarations.
The hypothetical proposition, which is compound,
makes its assertion under a condition or alternative. Hy
pothetical are divided into conjunctive and disjunctive
prepositions.
A conjunctive proposition implies that the parts of
the proposition are so conjoined that if one part of" the
proposition be true, the other follows, as,
" If James
return, John will go," " If Xis Y, it is Z." This proposi
* Note. — Sir William Hamilton
proposed the "quantification of the
predicate," by which the forms of the proposition are increased to eight,
thus—
Toto- total. All a is all y = (A.)
Toto-partial. All x is some y = (A.)
Toto-total. No x is y = (E)
Toto-partial. No x. is some y = (E. )
Parti-total. Some x is ally = (I.)
Parti-partial. Some x is some y =(I~)
Parti-total. Some x is not any y = (0)
Parti-partial. Some x is not some y = (0.)
It will be observed that the words "all" and "some." that determine)
the quantity of the subject are applied to the predicate also. This new
scheme is followed entirely or in part by a few logicians. It is claimed
that it makes conversion, the distribution of terms. and the forms of the
syllogism. more simple. But most logicians, some of them as Mill, the
ablest. reject this proposed improvement, as involving more trouble than
is avoided, and as giving some forms of propositions never really used,
while others which seem to contradict the common rules for the distribu
tion of the predicate. can be dealt with under the old forms as exceptional
or unnatural forms of judgment. This point will be noticed under the
discussion of rules for the distribution of terms.
 QAZION KE BA YA'N MEN. 67

donon men se ya hilliya hoga y& juziya. Pas ek hi mauzii

aur mahmul se ham char qaziye hana sakte hain.
Miijiba kulliya.
Saliba kulliya.
Miijiba juziya.
Saliba juziya.
: Ah in
eharon suraton ke waste ye huruf muqarrar
kiye jate hain, yane, —
mk. jis se murad miijiba kulliya, Maslau kull A. B. bai.^
sit.jis se murad saliba kulliya, „ koi A. B. nahin hai.
mj. jis se murad mujiba juziya, „ Baz A. B. bai.
jis se murad saliba juziya, * Baz A. B. nahin hai.
sj.

„
— Qaziya ya
hamliya hota hai ya shartiya.
4.

Qaziya hamliya men shart nahin hai, yane ishat ya

i

nafi hila shart pai jati hai. Maslan, " insan marnewala
hai," aur " ruh fani nahin hai," " A. B. nahin hai."
ki do
jis
Qaziya shartiya wuh hai, men. shart ho,

is
i

qismen hain, muttanla aur munfasila.

Qaziya muttasila wuh hai jis men sidq diisre qaziye ka,
awwal par mauquf ho. Maslan, "Agar Zaid dawa khawe,
to achehha ho jaega." "Agar A. B. hai, to wuh hai." J.
Is qaziya ki kai suraten ho sakti hain, maslan agar A. B. hai
* Sar William Hamilton Sahib ne qazion. ki char suraton mazkura ke
alawa, char aur suraten nikalf hain jiu men mahmul ke hai se bans hoti
hai, yane ki wuh kulli hai juzi. Is bayan se ath suraten ho jati hain maslan.
yi

Mauzu aur mahmul donon mk =kull A. kull B. hai.

Mauzu mk. aur mahmul m;'.=kull A. Baz B. hai.
Mauzu mahmul donon sk. = koi A. koi B- nahin.
o

Mauzu sk. aur mahmul mj. = koi A. baz B. nahin.

Mauzu mj. aur mahmul mk. = baz A. kull B. hai.
Mauzd mahmul donon mj. = az A. baz B. hai.
o

Mauzu mj. aur mahmul sk. = baz A. koi B. nalu'n.

Mauzu mj. aur mahmul = baz A. baz B. nuhin hai.
sj.

Janna chahiye ki alfaz "kull" aur "baz" mauzu ki kamiyat batate

jo

hain, mahmul ke sath bhi a sakte hain. Is nae tariqe ki taqlid baz mantiqin
kullan ya juzan karte hain. Is nae tariqewalon ka yih dawa hai ki
is

se aks,
aur kam kaif, aur surat qiyas. bahut asan aur sada ho jati hai. Lekin
o

aksar mantiqin jin men baz bare laiq hain. maslan Mill Sahib, wuh yih kahte
hain ki aur ziyada pechidagi diqqat waqj hoti hai, aur baz aqsam
is
se_

ki taqsim ki ru se bante hain, mutlaq istiamal men nahig ati hain,

jo

qazaya
is

aur baz qaziye kulliyat mahmul ke amm qaidon ke mukhalif malum hote
jo

hain, wuh mustasniyat men aur be-tartib shumar ki jati hain. ki bans
Is

qawaid kam kaif ke bayan meg likhenge.

o
i
68 MATTER OF PROPOSITIONS.

tion may take many forms, e. g., If A is B, C is D; if

A is not B, C is D ; If A is not B, C is not D ; If A
is B and C is D, E is F. If A is B, either C is D or E
is P. &c. If either A is B, or C is D, E is R
A disjunctive proposition, implying an alternative,
" James is
i3 formed with the disjunctives either, or, as
either a liar or a thief." " X is either Y or Z." This
proposition also may take many forms, e. g., either A
is B. or C is D ; either A is B or C is D, or E is F ; A
is either B or C or D ; either A or B or C, is D ; either
A is not B. or C is not D ; either A is B or C is not D.
This last division of propositions may be indicated
by a table, thus : —
- .,•
Proposition,
( Catecorical (Conjunctive
| Hypbthetioal \ Disjunctive.
The hypothetical proposition of
will be treated
more fully hereafter. For the present we will deal only
with categorical propositions.
Matter of Proposition.
This is as good a place as any to explain what is
meant by the matter or modality, of propositions. By
the matter is meant the nature of the connection be
tween the terms of a proposition, and it has reference to
the truth or falsity of the proposition.*
By observing the nature of the connection of the
terms we can see that there can be only three kinds of
matter, viz., necessary, expressed by an affirmative prop
osition, impossible, expressed by a negative proposition,
and, contingent, expressed by a particular proposition.
Thus if we have two terms "iron" and
" heavy," reflec
tion shows us that the truth or the nature of these terms
* By the modality of a proposition some writers on logic mean it
modification by some adverb of time, place, manner, degree, &c, or by some
phrase or expression. Some writers exclude the question of modality from
the subject of logic.
 MADDE KE BAYAN MEN. 69

to D. hai; agar A. B. nahin hai to J. D. hai; agar A.

J.
B. nahin hai to J. D. nahin hai; agar A. B. hai aur J. D.
hai to R. S. hai; agar A. B. hai to ya J. D. hai ya 11. S.
hai; agar A. B. haiya J. D. hai to R. S. hai, wg.
Qaziya munfasila wuh hai, jis men hukm bil infisal
paya jawe, yane na to donon juzon qaziya ka sachcha ho-
na mumkin ho, na jhutha hona donon ka. Harf infisal ka
"yd" hai. Maslan, "Zaid ya sachcha hai ya jhutha." "A.
ya B. hai, ya J.
hai." Is qaziya ki kai suraten ho sakti hain,
maslan A. B. haiya J.
D. hai; A. B. hai ya D. hai ya J.
R. S. hai ; A. ya B. hai ya J. hai ya D. hai; A. ya B. ya
J. D. hai; A. B. nahin hai ya J. D. nahin hai; A. ya B.
hai ya J. D. nahin hai, wg.

*.*• \SSR ...js-a:

Munfasila. (

Qaziya i shartiya ka bayan age chalkar mufassal hoga,

yahan par qaziya i hamliya ki misalen di jati hain.
Bayan Madde ka.

Tih
mauqa achchha malum hota hai, ki qazion ke
mdddc ka bayan kiya jawe.* Mddda us nisbat ki haqiqat
ko, jo qaziya ke juzon ke darmiyan men hai, kahte hain,
yane madde se yih murad hai, ki aya is qaziya men ihti-
mal sidq ka hai ya kizb ka.
Agar ham gaur karke dekhen, ki juzon ke darmiyan
nisbat kai tarah par hai, to malum hota hai, ki sirf tin tarah
par hai, yane zaruri bil ijdb, jo qaziya i mujibon men hoti
hai. Nisbat zaruri bis salb, jo qaziya i salibon men hoti hai.
Nisbat i tasdwi, jo ki qaziya i juziyon men pai jati hai. Mas
lan, do lafz hon, "lohd" aur " bhdri." Ab agar ham in
do lafzon ki asliyat par bagaur lihaz karen, to malum hota
hai, ki in donon ke darmiyan nisbat i ijdb biz zarur hai,
aur qaziya yun hoga, " loha bhari hai."
Aur agar yih do lafz hon, yane, " shakar" aur " khat-
ta," aur in ke darmiyan nisbat ijab di jawe, qaziye ka

*
B?z mantiqfn ki yih rae hai ki madde ka bayan ilm i mantiq ke muta-
alliq nahin hai, lihaza is ka bayan apni kitabon men nahin karte hain.
70 MATTER OF PROPOSITIONS.

makes it necessary for us to connect them affirmatively,

and we get the affirmative proposition, " iron is heavy."
Again, if we have the two terms "sugar" and
" sour" and wish to connect them in a true proposition,
it is impossible to do it affirmatively, and hence we get
the negative proposition "sugar is not sour."
Again, if we have the two terms "men" and
" learned," we see that they cannot be truthfully con
nected in a universal proposition either affirmatively or
negatively but they have a contingent relation, i. e., only
sometimes and under certain circumstances men are
learned, hence we must connect these terms in a parti
cular proposition, "some men ire learned."
Thus, from the matter of propositions three rules are
formed, the correctness of which will be manifest on
reflection.
1. In necessary matter all affirmatives are true and
all negatives false.
2. In impossible matter all negatives are true and
all affirmatives are false.
3. In contingent matter all particulars are true and
universals false.
The importance of understanding this point in the
consideration of propositions will be more fully seen
when we come to treat of " opposition of propositions.''
The student should fix well in mind the following : —■

Recafitulation.
f Simple or compound.
| Affirmative or negative.
n ... j Universal or particular.
Propositions are-{ CategoricaL

1.■ Hypothetical.
- ' ..J( Conjunctive.
Disjunctive.
( Necessary.
Matter is < Impossible.
( Contingent.
 MAUDE KE BAYJOf MEN. 71

sachcM hona gair-mumkin hoga ; pas is sabab se nisbat

salb ki dekar yun kahenge, ki "shakar
khatti nahin hai."
Aur agar yih do lafz hon, yane, " admi," aur " Alim,"
ham dekhte hain, ki in donon ke darmiyan nisbat
ijab ya
salb ki, kulbyat ke sath sadiq nahin a sakti hai, yane
koi
nahin kah sakta, ki " sab admi dlim hain," ya " koi admi
iilim nahin" ; balki in ke darmiyan men nisbat gair-
muaiyana hai, yane yih muqarrar nahin, ki nisbat bil ijab
ho ya bis salb, jis ke sabab se yun kahna chahiye, ki " baz
admi alim hain," ya " baz admi cilim nahin."
Pas ba lihaz madde qazion ke, tin qaide nikalte hain,
jin ka hal gaur karne se malum hota hai, ki yunhi
sadiq ate hain.
1. — Nisbat zariiri bil ijab men qaziya i mujiba sab
sahih, aur salibe sab galat hote hain.
2. — Nubat zariiri
men upar ke baraks yane
bis salb

salibe sab sahih, aur mujibe galat hote hain.

3. — Nisbat i
tasdici men qaziya i juziya sab sahih, aur
kulliya sab galat hote hain.
Madde ke samajhne ka faida, qazion ki naqiz ke bayan
men chalkar malum hoga.

Nazirin ko bayan i mujmal mundarja i zail bakhubi

zihn-nishin kar lena chahiye.

f Ya mnfrad hoga ya mnrakkab.

Ya mujiba hoga, ya saliba.
Ya kulliya hoga, ya juziya.
Qaziya. <
Ya hamliya hoga,
ya
'
. .. (Muttasila.
IShartiya
JMunfasila.
( Zariiri bil ijab.
Mddda i nisbat. \ Zaruri bis salb.
••-•..; .. (Tasawi. .
 SECTION II.

DlBTBlBUTCON OF TEEMS.

1. The distribution of terms is an important matter

connected with propositions. Terms, as has been seen,
are fonnd in the subject and predicate of propositions.
The terms of a proposition are said to be distributed,
-when they include or relate to every thing that can be
referred to by them. A term, then, is "distributed"
when it is used universally, that
is,
when stands for

it
or includes all its significates, and " non-distributed
"
is,

when particular, that stands for but part of its

is
it

a
significates.
"
Thus, in the proposition " All men are mortal the
"
subject all men" distributed, because the whole of

it
is

taken as affected by the quality of mortality. On the

is

other hand the predicate " "

mortal of this proposition-
undistributed because, as used in this proposition, it
is

is manifest that but part of the extension of the term is

a

used, viz., that which includes or covers man, there being;

many other creatures besides man for which the term
could be used, but here confined to man, is
is
it

it

e.,
i.

not distributed.
2. Without fully understanding the distribution of
terms, but little use can be made of the study of logic,
hence we proceed to present clearly the principles on
which depends. We may note that proper, singular,
it

collective, or abstract term, always taken in a general

is

or universal sense, hence where one of these terms the

is
 FASL II.

BaYAN I KAM, YANE KULLIYAT ATJR JUZIYAT, MAUZlJ

AUR MAHMUL KA.

1. —Bay an ikulliyat aur juziyat, mauzii

kam, yane
aur mahmul ka, qazion ke sath zarur hai. Jab qaziye ie
mauzu o mahmtil apne tamdm afrdd ho shdmil karte hain,
to un ho kulli hahte hain,aur jab sir/ bqz afrdd ho shdmil
harte hain, to un ko juzi hahte hain. Masal to maslan, qaziya
" kull insan fani hain," is men mauzu,
" kull insan" kullf
hai zera ki apne tamam afrad ko fdni hone men shamil
karta hai, magar
" fani," jo mahmul hai, is qaziye
men juzi hai, kis waste ki saf zahir hai, ki yihlafzis jagah
apne kull afrad par dalalat nahin karta hai, balki baz par,
yane insan par is jihat se, ki lafz
fani men hahut aur
makhluq shamil hai. Insan to makhlaq ka sirf ek juz
hai.

2.Tawaqte ki yihi kam yane kulliyat aur juziyat,

bakhubi samajh men na &we, ilmimantiqko achchhi tarah
istiamal men nahin la sakte hain. Chunki istiamal ilm i
mantiq ka is hi par munhasar hai, lihaza us amr ka, jis par
kulliyat aur juziyat mauqiif hai, saf o mufassal hayan kiya
jata hai. Tih amr bhi q^Lbil i lihaz hai ki ism i muaiyan
aur mufrad aur ism i jins hamesha kulliyat ka faida det^
Is liye qaziye men kisi qism
jis

hai. mazkura ka koi ism

i
74 DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS.

subject of a proposition it is to be treated as a universal

and the subject is distributed. Thus, "James lovea
"
John," my dog is black," " Parliament is prorogued,"
" wisdom is justified of her children," may be treated aa
universals. Where the subject of a proposition is a
single thing, Mill calls the proposition singular. Such
are universals in the sense of distributing the subject.
Both the aubject and predicate of a proposition must
always be either distributed or non- distributed.
The distribution of the subject cf a proposition
depends on its quantity, i. e.t on its being universal or
particular, while the distribution of the predicate de
pends on the quality of the proposition, i. e., on its being
affirmative or negative. The truth of these statements
will appear from some illustrations.
Four kinds of categorical propositions can be form
ed, viz.,—
Universal affirmative.. (A) All X is Y.
Universal negative .(E) No X is Y.
Particular affirmative. .(I)SomeXia Y.
Particular negative . .(O) Some X is not Y.
These may be represented by geometrical notation s,
each pair of circles representing a proposition, thus : —
 B AYAN I KAM. 75

mauzu waqi ho, to us qaziye ko kulliya kah sakte hain,

aur mauzii kulli hota hai. Maslan, " Yaqiib Yuhanna se
muhabbat rakhta hai" ; ya " majhs barkhast ho gai" ; ya
"merakutta siyah hai." Aise qazion ko, bawujude ki un
ka mauzu mufrad hai, kulliya kah sakte bain. Mill Sahib
is qism ke qaziye ko qaziya mufrada kahte hain.
Har qaziya ka mauzu aur mahmul do hal se khall na-
hin hoga, yane, ya to kulli hoga, ya juzi.
Wazih ho, ki mauzii ki kulhyat aur juziyat, qaziye ki
kulliyat aur juziyat par mauquf hai ; magar mahmul ki
kulhyat aur juziyat, qaziye ke rjab o salb par mauquf hai.
Kaifiyat is ki, zail ki misalon se bakhubi malum hogi.
Qaziya i hamliya ki char sdraten hain, yane,

Mujiba kulliya, (m. k.) Eull A. B. hai.

Saliba kulliya, Kof A. B. nahfa hai.
(a.

k.)
Mujiba juziya, (ni-j Baz A. B. hai.
)

Saliba juziya, j.) Baz A. B. uahin hai.

(«.

In eharon qazion ko TJqlaidas Id shaklon se bhi bayan

kar sakte hain.
Har daire ko ek qaziya samjho —
:

Kull A. B. hai, A. B. hai,

j.

m m Ba«
h.

Koi A. B. nahtg hai. Baz A. B. nahin hai,

k.

j.
«
e
76 DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS.

Inspection of these propositions, first with regard

to the subject, will show that in the universal proposition
the subject is distributed, that is, it is taken in its fullest
extension including all its significates. This is indicated
by the prefixes all and no, and a glance at the geometrical
figure shows the truth of this statement to the eye.
Hence the rule—
1. — All universal propositions distribute the subject.
An examination further of these propositions shows
that in the particulars the subject is not distributed, i. e.,
a part only of the term is taken, as is indicated by the
prefix some, and is made plain to the eye by the geomet
rical figures, only a part of X being included in Y.
Hence the rule—
2.— Particular propositions do not distribute the subject.
Thus, it is seen that the distribution of the subject
depends on the quantity of the proposition.
Again, if we examine the four categorical proposi
tions with reference to the predicate, we will see that its
distribution is by no means implied in the distribution
of the subject, and that it depends on the quality of the
proposition, i. e., its being affirmative or negative. it If
be asserted, in a universal affirmative proposition, that
"all men are mortal," or "all X is Y," it is not asserted
that other beings besides men, are not mortal, or that
other things besides X, are not Y. Other beings beside
men may be mortal, and other things besides Xmay be
included in Y, as is seen in this figure.

Hence it is evident that the

whole of the predicates " mortal"

and "Y,'' is not considered.

 BAYAN 1 KAM. 77

Agar mauzu ki nisbat in qazion par lihaz kiya jawe, to

malum hota hai, ki qaziya i kulliya ka mauzu, hamesha
kulli hota hai, yane apne kull afrad par dalalat karta hai,
;iur wuh dalalat, lafz i " kull" aur " koi nahin" se malum
hoti hai. Aur dairon ke dekhne se bhi yih bat malum hoti
hai. Pas qaniin yih hai, ki—
1. Qaziya i kulliya kd mauzu kulli hota hai.
Agar mauzu ki nisbat, qaziya i juzion par lihaz kiya
jawe, to malum hota hai, ki mauzu bhi juzi hota hai, yane
faqat apne baz afrad ko batlata hai, aur yih juziyat, lafz
"baz" se malum hoti hai, aur daira i
marqiima e bala se
sari kaifiyat is ki roshan hai, ki faqat ek hissa daira A. ka
B. men dakhil hai. Pas qanun yih thahra, ki —
2. Qaziya ijuziya kd mauzu hamesha juzi hotd hai.

Pas malum hiia, ki kulliyat aur juziyat mauzd ki,

qaziye ki kulliyat aur juziyat par mauquf hai.
Aur agar mahmul ki nisbat in char qaziya i hamlion
par lihaz kiya jawe, to malum hot& hai, ki yih kuehh zarur
nahin, ki mahmul ki kulliyat o juziyat, mauzu hi ki manind
ho, kyunki mahmul ki kulliyat o juziyat, qaziye ke ijab aur
salb par mauquf hai.
Agar koi qaziya mujiba i kulliya ho, jaise " kull
insan fani hain," ya kull " A. B. hai," to is se yih dawa
nahin nikalta, ki aur makhluq&t siwa insan ke fani nahin,
ya siwa A. ke aur koi chiz B. men nahin hai. Bahut aur
makhluq hain siwa insan ke jo fani hain, aur aur daire
hain siwa A. ke jo B. men shamil hain, jaisa ki shakl i zail so
zahir hai. Pas saf zahir hua, ki kull
mahmul " fani" aur " B" kam
men is jagah nahin aya, yane
mahmul ke kull afrad par dala
lat nahin hai.
?8 DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS.

Again, if we make propositions particular,

these
thus, "some men are mortal" — "some Xis Y/' it will
still be seen that only a part of " mortal'' and " Y" is
distributed. A part or all of other
( x
things besides X may be included

in Y, as is seen in the annexed

figure. Hence whether universal

or particular, we get the rule: —

3.— -Affirmative propositions do not distribute the

predicate.
There are exceptions to this rule, where affirma
tives, both universal and particular, by an inverted, un
natural, or exceptional form of expression, may distribute
the predicate. Thus, in the propositions, "all men are
rational animals/' " all triangles are figures bounded by
three straight lines/' "some men are poets/' " some
animals are men," the predicate is co-extensive with the
subject, i. e., is distributed. We may treat these cases as
exceptional and understand the general rule as given
above.
If we turn now to negative propositions, we see
that whether universal or particular, the predicate is al
ways distributed. Thus, in the universal negatives,
"no "no
f
men are birds,"
X is Y," it is plain that we y }t v\J
must consider, i. e., distribute, the V J\.
whole of the predicate "birds,"
it,

before we can affirm that there are no men in and the

whole of Y, before we can assert that no X included
is

in it. Hence, in the universal negative the predicate is

 SAIA'N 1 RAM. 79

Aur agar ham in do qazion ko juziya banawey,

maslan, "Baz insan fani hain," ya"bazA. B." hai, to
is siirat men bhi mahmul " fani,"
aur B. juzi rahta hai, kyunki
alawa insan ke, baz aur makhluq
bhi fani hain, aur alawa A. ke
baz aur daire hain, ki daira i B.
men sMmil hain.

Pas qaziyakulliya ho, ya

juziya, qanun yih raha, ki —

3. Qaziya i mujiba, khwdh kulliya ho yd juziya, mah-

mul us kd juzl hotd hai.
Baz qaziye mujibe, khwah kulliye hon ya juziye, is
amm qaide se mustasna hain. Maslan in qazaya men ki
"
"tamam admi haiwan i natiqhain." Baz admi shair hain."
" Baz haiwan insan hain," mahmul mauzu se masawi ul
afrad yane kulli hai. Aise qazion ko mustasniyat men
shumar karna, aur dmm qaidon mazkura i bala ko sahih

tasauwur karna chahiye.

Ab agar ham qaziya i saliba ki taraf khiyal karen,

khwah wuh kulli ho ya juzi, mahmul us ka hamesha kulli

"
hoga. Maslan, saliba i kulliya, koi admi chiriya nahin,"
" koi A. B. nahin." Yahan par gaur
ya
" A b
karna chahiye, ki kull mahmul chiriya" ^ J ^

par jab lihaz ho, to ham kah sakte hain,

ki koi insan ehiriyon men nahin hai. Pas is qaziya
men mahmul " chiriya" kulli hua. Ala-hazal-qiyas, jab
kull mahmul "B" par lihaz ho, to ham kah sakte
hain, ki kuchh hissa A. B. men nahin ^-^
,—.
hai. Pas har qaziya saliba ka mahmul kulli ( A ) B
J
^S
(

hoga. Isi tarah par har qaziya saliba juziya

80 DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS.

distributed. So also of the particular negative, for if it

be asserted, that " some X is not Y,"
it is plain that the whole of the
predicate " Y
" must be passed in
review or examined, that is distribu-
(^T\x\
\yy
ted, before the statement can be
truthfully made that Y does not
belong to the part of X under consideration. Hence for
all negatives we get the rule : —

4. — All negative propositions distribute the predicate.

Thus, it is seen that the distribution of the predicate

depends on the quality of the proposition. All these
facts should be kept well in mind. The rules for dis
tribution, collected together, are as follows : —
1 . All
universal propositions, distribute the subject.
2. Particular propositions do not distribute the subject.
3. Affirmative propositions do not distribute the predicate.
4. All negative propositions distribute the predicate.
The importance of this point in propositions; will be
more fullj seen in part third of this book.
 BAYA'N I KAM. 81

ka bhi. Maslan saliba i juziya, " Baz A. B. nahin hai."

Yahan par saf zahir hai, ki jab tak kull B. na
dekh lewen, ham nahin kah sakte hain, ki kuchh
B. A. ke us hisse men nahin hai, jis ka zikr
hai. Pas sab qaziya i salibon ke liye yih qanun
nikalta hai, ki—

4. Ear qaziya sdlibe kd mahmul, kulll hai.

Ab malum hua ki kulliyat mahmul ki, qazion ke

ijab o salb par mauquf hai. In baton ko khub zihn-nishin
karna chahiye.
Majmua qawanin i kulliyat o juziyat ka, zail men
hai: —
1. — Qaziya i kuttiya ka mauzu kulli hotd hai.
2. — Qaziya i juziya ka mauzu juzi hotd hai.
3. — Qaziya i mujiba kd mahmul juzi hotd hai.
4. — Qaziya i sdliba kd mahmul kulli hotd hai.

Is
kitab ke tisre hisse men chalkar malum hoga ki is
bat ka janna kaisa zaruri hai.
 SECTION III.
Conversion.

1. The conversion of a proposition, consists in

transposing its terms so as to place the subject for the
predicate and the predicate for the subject. Thus, the
proposition " no men are angels," may have the subject
and predicate transposed and become, " no angels are
men"--" Some men are good," "some good (beings)
are men" is likewise converted. The proposition to
be converted is called the exposita* that into which it
is changed is called the converse.
Conversion is only allowable when the truth of the
converse is implied by the truth of the exposita. Such
is called "illative" conversion, and is the one used in
logic. Any thing else would be only an apparent, not a
real conversion. It is often useful in an argument, or in
detecting an error to thus transpose the subject and
predicate of a proposition.
2. There are three kinds of conversion, by one of
which every proposition may be converted.
First. — When the subject is simply made the pre
dicate, and the predicate the subject without any further
change, it is called simple conversion, as
" No good man is a rebel."
"
Converse. — No rebel is a good man."
" Some bad men are learned."
Converse. — " Some learned men are bad."

" No X is Y."
" No Y is X."

* Called by Sir Wm. Hamilton the

convertend.
 FASL III.
Aks ke bayan men.

1. — Aks us ko kahte hain, ki qaziye ke mauzu ko

mahmul kar den, aur mahmul ko mauzii. Maslan yih
qaziya, ki " koi insan firishta nahin hai," agar is ke mauzii
ko mahmul kar diya jae, to qaziya yun hoga, " koi firishta
insan nahin hai." Dusri misal,
" baz admi nek hain," is
ka aks " baze
nek (makhluq) admi hain."
Jab kisi qaziye ka aks kiya jawe, to us ko mqkusa
kahte hain, aur qabl aks ke qaziye ko g.air mqkusa kahte
hain. Aks us waqt durust hoga, jab qaziya i makusa, aur
gair makusa ki haqiqat men. kisi tarah ka farq na waqi ho,
pas aise aks ko aks i sahih kahte hain, aur agar kisi aur
tarah kiya jae, to wuh aks sirf ba zahir hoga, na yih, ki
haqiqat men.
2. — 'Aks tin taur par hota hai, aur har qaziye ka aks
in tinon men se kisi na kisi ke bamujib ho sakta hai.
Autval. — Mauzu ko aur mahmul ko
mahmul karnd,
mauzu karnd, aur kisi tarah kd tabaddul aur tagaiyur na
karnd.
Maslan, " Koi achchha admi bagi nahin hai."
is ka aks, " Koi bagi achchha admi nahin hai."
" Baz kharab admi, alim hain."
is ka aks,
" Baz alim, kharab admi hain."

" Koi A. B. nahin hai."

" Koi B. A. nahin hai."

84 DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS.

Universal negatives and particular affirmatives are con

verted in this way.
Second. — But by an examination of the four categor
ical propositions, it will be seen that they cannot all be
transposed by simple conversion. Thus, take the uni
versal affirmative : —
" All horses are quadrupeds," and the simple con
verse,
" all quadrupeds are horses," is not true, for there
are many four-legged animals that are not horses.
Thus, also
" all X is Y," cannot be con
verted to " all Y is X." Hence, in or
der to preserve a true proposition in
the converse of a universal affirmative,
we must make it a particular, thus the
converse of the above propositions
should be —
" Some quadrupeds are horses."
" Some Y iB X,"

and they become true Thus the converse of a

enough.
universal affirmative must be a particular affirmative.
This is
The quantity of the proposition is changed.
" All
called conversion by limitation or per accidens."
universal affirmatives, are converted in this way.
In the
that distribute
exceptional cases of universal affirmatives
conversion
the predicate (page 78), of course simple
this rule.
may be used, forming an exception to
Third.— By an examination of a particular negative,
can be
it will be seen that its subject and predicate
nor by limita
transposed neither by simple conversion
tion as in the last example. Here then is a peculiar
difficulty. We can say, "Some quadrupeds are not
and say
horses," but we cannot convert this simply,
" Some horses are not quadrupeds," for this would not
conversion, and the proposition would not
be illative
 SAYAN I KAM. 85

Is ah i mustawi kahte hain.

ko
Doyam. — Agar ham qaziya i hamliya ki charon sura-
ton ka aks isi tarah par banan^ chahen, to nahin ho sakta
hai ; jaisa ki mujiba i kulliya,
" Sab ghore chaupae hain ; "
agar is ka aks usi tariqe par banaya chahen, to sahih na
hoga. Maslan, agar koi kahe, ki "sab chaupae ghore
hain," to sahlh nahin hai, kyunki
bahut chaupae ghore nahin hain.
Dusri misal, "sab A. B. hai," is
ka aks yun nahin ho sakta, ki " sab
B. A. hai," kyunld A. ke siwa B.
men bahut aur wasat hai. Pas is
waste ki mujiba i kulliya ke asli manon men farq na awe
us ka aks mujiba i juziya hoga ; maslan, —
" Baz chaupae ghore hain."
"BazB. A. hai."'
Pas ^imm qaida yih thahra, ki mujiba i kulliya M aks
mujiba juziya dtd hai, yane sirf kulliyat aur juziyat men
farq a jata hai
Is ko bhi ah i mustawi kahte hain.
Janna chahiye ki jis mauqe par mujiba kulliya ka
mahmul, km qaide ke khilaf kulli hota hai, (Dekho
safha 79,) qaziya ka aks kulli awega.
Seyum. Agar ham chahen, ki saliba i juziye ka aks
in donon men se kisi ke bamiijib banawen, to sahih na hoga.
Tahan par ek diqqat hai. Agar ham yun bolen, ki—
" Baz chaupae ghore nahin hain,"

to is ka aks yun nahin ho saktd hai, ki—

"Baz ghore chaupae nahfn hain,"

kyunki yih sahih nahin hai; aur agar saliba i kulliya

banawen, maslan
" Sab ghore chaupae nahin hain," tau
86 CONVERSION.

be time. Nor does it make truth to convert the parti

cular into a universal, and say
" All horses are not quadrupeds."
Hence some writers on logic say that the particular
negative cannot be converted. But this particular
negative can be converted by a peculiar process. If we
detach the negative particle from the copula, and attach
itto the predicate, the proposition really becomes a
particular affirmative, and may readily be converted by
limitation, thus,—
*'
Some quadrupeds are not-horses."
" Some Xis not-Y."
Here we have changed the quality of the proposi
tion and have really a particular affirmative with the
term " not-horses
" for its predicate which
may then
be converted by limitation, thus —
" Some not-horses, are quadrupeds"

or plainly expressed,
" Some animals not-horses, are quadrupeds,"

which is true enough. Thus also —

" Some men are not-poets."
" Some not-poets are men."

This is called, conversion by negation, or contraposition.

3. Thus, there are three regular kinds of conver

sion by means of which every proposition may be con
verted. An examination of the process of conversion,
shows that a term undistributed in the exposita, remains
undistributed in the converse. The predicate of the
affirmative proposition,
" all horses are quadrupeds '' —
is undistributed, because affirmatives do not distribute
the predicate.* Hence, when we convert illatively and
the predicate becomes the subject, it must be undistri
buted, and we get, " some quadrupeds are horses."
* Except in certain unusual cases. See p. 73
 AKS. 87

bhi durust na hoga. Is liye baz mantiqin kahte hain, ki

saliba juziya ka aks nahin ho sakta hai.
Taham is ka ek tarah ka aks ho sakta hai. Agar
ham harf i nafi ko, nisbat i hukmiya se alag karke,
us ko mahmul ka ek juz kar den, to is surat men qaziya i
mujiba juziya ho jaega, aur is ka aks ho jaega ; maslan, —
" Baz chaupae ghore nahin hain."

Ab harf i nafi ko nisbat i hukmiya se alag karke,

mahmul ka juz banana chahiye, yane —
" Baz chaupae, nd-ghore (yane gair i asp) hain."

Is ka aks yun hoga, ki

" Baz gair i asp, chaupae hain,"

yane, janwar jo ghore nahin hain, chaupae hain.

baz
Dusri misal is ki : —
" Baz admi, shair nahin,"

Is ka aks yun na hoga, ki

" Baz shair, admi, nahin hain."

Lekin agar harf i nafi,

mahmul ka juz ho jae, us
surat men us ka aks ho jaega, jaisa ki

" Baz gair i shair, ddmi hain."

Is ko ales i naqiz kahte hain.

3. Garaz ki aks tin taur par hota, yane do tarah ke

aks i mustawi, aur ek aks i naqiz hai, jin ke zaria se har
qaziye ka aks ho sakta hai. Qaziye ke aks karne ke tariqe
jo hain, un par agar gaur kiya jawe, to malum hota hai,
ki mauzu o mahmul ijuzi, bad aks ke bhi juzi rahtd hai ;
Maslan, —
" Sab ghore chaupae hain."

Is ka mahmul " chaupae" jo hai, juzi hai, kis waste

88 CONVERSION.

So of every proposition, and we get the rule for

conversion —
No term must be distributed in the converse that was
undistributed in the exposita.
( 1 Simple conversion.
Conversion is of three kinds, < 2 Conversion by limitation.
( 3 Conversion by negation or
contraposition,
 AKS. 69

ki qaziya i mujiba ka mahmul kulliya nabin hofca hai.

Pas agar aks kiya jawe, to yun hoga,
" Baz chaupae ghore haifl,"
aur 4mm qaida yih thahra, ki
Jo mauzu yd mahm&l ki juzi hai, bad aks ke bhtjusi
rahtd hai.
.
ii. (1 Aks i Mustawi.
 SECTION IV.

Opposition.

1. — Opposition in propositions, is the relation be

tween any two, which having the same subject and pre
dicate, differ in quantity, or quality, or both. Thus
—
One may deny in whole or in part what the other
affirms, e, g.
All X h Y, opposed by j g*J » ^ y
One may affirm, in whole, or in part, what the other
denies, e. g.
No X is Y, opposed by j ^meX isY.
One may affirm in whole, what the other affirms
in part, e. g.
All X is Y, opposed by some X is Y.
One may deny in whole what the other denies
in part. e. g.
No X is Y, opposed by Some X is not Y.
Now, as there are four forms of categorical proposi
tions, universal, particular, affirmative, negative, and any
two of these may be opposed, it is plain that with the
same subject and predicate, there are four kinds of op
position, as is seen in the above statement.
If two universal propositions differ in quality only,
they are called contraries,
( Everv X is Y.
88
| No X is Y.
If two particular propositions differ in quality only,
they are called subcontraries,
( Some X is Y.
as
\ Some X is uot Y.
 FASL IV.

Naqiz ke bayan men.

I. — Naqiz hain, ki do qazion kd mauzu o

us ko kakte
mahmul ek ki rake, magar kulliyat o juziyat, yd ijdb o salt,
(yane ham o kaif) yd donon men ikhtildf ho. Maslan,
1. Agar auwal qaziya mujiba i kulliya ho, to dusra
us ki naqiz saliba i kulliya ho ya juziya. Jaise sab A.
B.hai.
Sab A. B. nab(n hai.
Naqiz, <
Baz A. £. ualiin hai.

2.Agar auwal qaziya mujiba kulliya ya juziya ho,

us ki naqiz saliba i kulliya ho ; maslan,

S 1:1.
ha!;

JNaqfe,koCA.B.naW0h«.
Agar auwal qaziya miijiba kulliya ho, to us ki
3.

naqiz mujiba juziya ho. Maslan, sab A. B. hai. Naqiz,

i

baz A. B. hai.
Agar auwal qaziya, saliba kulliya ho, to us ki
4.

naqiz saliba juziya hai. Koi A. B. nahin hai. Naqiz,

i

baz A. B. nahin hai.

Qaziya hamliya ki char suraten hain, yane, mujiba
i

kulliya, aur mujiba juziya, aur saliba kulliya, aur

i

saliba juziya pas chunki in charon men se koi do muqa-

i

bale men ho sakte hain, se yih zahir hai, ki mauzu

is

mahmul ki naqiz char tarah par hoti hai —

Pahle. —Do kulliye faqat ijab
:

salb men mutanaqiz

o

hon. Misal,
Sab A. B. hai.
Naqiz, Koi A. B. nahin hai.

JDusre. — Do juziye, sirf ijab salb men mutanaqiz hon.

o

Misal, Baz A. B. hai.

Naqiz, Baz A. B. nahin hai.
92 OPPOSITION.

If two
propositions agree in quality, but differ in
quantity, they are not actually opposed to each other,
and are called subalterns :
< Every X is Y. or
( No X is Y.
aB
( Some X is Y. \ Some X is not Y.
If two propositions differ both in quality and quanti
ty, they are called contradictories : —
„
as
( Every X is Y. .
ana
( No X is Y.
( Some X is not Y. \ Some X is Y.
Or to state this matter in another way : —
Universal affirmatives, opposed to universal nega
tives, are contraries.
The two particulars opposed, are subcontraries.
The two affirmatives or the two negatives opposed,
are subalterns.
Two propositions opposed both in quality and quan
tity, are contradictories.
The four kinds of opposition may be illustrated by
a figure thus,
Ail men are mortal A Contraries E No men are mortal.

-5

</
/ %.

Some men are mortal I Subcontraries O.Eome men are not mortal.

Opposition is a form of immediate inference in

2.
which, from the truth or falsity of one proposition, the
truth or falsity of another proposition, having the same
subject and predicate, may be inferred. By recollecting
what was said on the truth or falsity of propositions
under the head of matter, an inspection of the above
scheme shows that, —
 JfAQTZ KE BAYA'N MEN. 93

Tisre. — Do qaziye, ijab o salb men muwafiq hon ma-

gar kulliyat o juziyat men mutanaqiz hon. Magar aisi
naqiz, halanki haqiqi nahin hai, phir bhi ek tarah ka
tanaquz is men paya jata hai.

Misal, Sab A. B. hai, Misal, Eoi A. B. nahin hai.

Naqiz, Baz A. B. hai, Naqiz, Baz A. B. nahin hai.

Chauthe. — Do qaziye, ijab o salb, aur kulliyat aur

juziyat, donon men mutanaqiz hon,

Maslan, Sab A. B. hai.

Naqiz, Baz A. B. nahin hai.
Ya Koi A. B. nahin hai.
Naqiz, Baz A. B. hai.

Garaz ki mukhtasar bayan yan hai ki

mi. aur si. mutanaqiz.

mj. aur
sj.

mutanaqiz.
mk. aur mj. mutanaqiz.
sk. aur sj. mutanaqiz.

In charon qism ki naqiz ki shakl zail men mastur hai.

Snb insan fani hain ** Mutanaqiza Sk.Koi insan fani nahin hai.
N
*

a
''-4a .J^'"
=5

.%«-
',
3

Si

Bat insan fani haig Mj Mutanaqiza ^r'.Baz insan fiini nahin hais.

II. — Bahs kizb qazion ka

i jo

madde men sidq

o
i

bayan ho chuka hai, agar yad ho, aur shakl mazkura

i

bala par bhi lihaz rahe, to malum hoga, ki —

:
94 OPPOSITION.

If one contraryis true, the other must be false, but—

If one contraryis false, the other may be false also.
If one subcontrary is false, the other must be true, but—
If one subcontrary is true, the other may be true also.
If, in subalterns, the universal is true, the particular
must be true.
But in subalterns, if the particular be true, the uni
versal may or may not be true.
Jf, in subalterns, the particular is false, the universal
must be also.
If one
contradictory is true, or false, the other must
be just the opposite.
This may be summed up in three rules, thus—
Contraries may both be false, but never both true.
Subconlraries may both be true, but never both false.
Of contradictories, if one be false the other must bo
true, and vice versa.
These points in regard to opposition, should be well
kept in mind. In logic we may thus learn how far the
truth or falsity of one proposition, may be inferred from
the truth or falsity of another.
 NAQI'Z KE BATAS MEN. 95

Agar ek kulliya sadiq hai, dusra zarur kazib hai.

Agar ek kulliya kazib hai, to mumkin hai, ki dusra
bbi kazib ho.
Agar ek juziya kazib hai, to dusra zarur sadiq hai.
Agar ek juziya sadiq hai, to mumkin hai, ki dusra
bbi sadiq ho.
Agar do mujibon ya salibon ke bich men kulli sadiq
hai to juzi bhi zarur sadiq hai.
Agar do mujibon ya do salibon ke bich men juzi
sadiq ho, to kuchh zarur nahin ki kulli bhi sadiq ho.
Agar do mujibon ya salibon ke bich men juzi kazib
ho, to kulli bhi zarur kazib hoga.
Agar do qaziye, kulliyat o juziyat, ijab o salb men
mutanaqiz hon, to agar ek sadiq ya kazib ho, to dusra
khilaf us ke hoga.
Tin qaida i zail kull bayan mazkiira ko jame hairi :
Pahle. — Do kulliyon ka kazib hona mumkin, lekin
donon ka sadiq hona gair-mumkin hai.
Busre. — Do juzion ka sadiq hona mumkin, lekin kazib
hona gair-mumkin hai.
Tisre. — Un do qazion men, jo mukhtalif hon, ijab o
salb, aur kulliyat o juziyat men, agar ek sadiq ya kazib
ho, to dusra us ke khilaf hoga.
Naqiz ki bahs men jo qaide malum Me, un ko khiib
zihn-nishin karna chahiye, kyunki in hi ke zarie se malum
hota hai, ki ek qaziye ka sadiq ya kazib hona, dusre par
kis tarah mauqiif hai.
 RECAPITULATION.

Having thua gone over the second great division of

logic, it may be well to collect what has been said on
propositions, in a tabular form to be memorized.
A proposition is an act of judgment expressed in words.
A proposition consists of three parts, the subject,
the copula, and the predicate.

f Simple and compound.

Affirmative and negative. (quality)
Divisions of J Univer8al ™d particular. (quantity)
propositions.
"j
LCategoricalandHypothetical,
j gjJSSS"
The matter of propositions (Necessary- (affirmatives)
if of three kinds. Impossible- (negative.)
) Contingent — (particulars)
t
Rules foe Matter.

1.—In necessary matter all affirmatives are true,

and universals false.
2. — In impossible matter all negatives are true and
affirmatives false.
3.— In contingent matter all particulars are true,
and universals false.
The terms, i. e., the subject and predicate of propo
sitions, are distributed when they are taken universally,
non-distributed when only taken in part.

Rules fob Distribution.

1. — All
universal propositions distribute the subject.
2. — Particular propositions do not distribute the
subject.
 QAZIYE KA MUJMAL BAYAN.

Mantiq ka dusra hissa tamam hua, ab bihtar hai,

ki pbir qazion ka bayan y&d-d&sht ke waste mujmalan
likha jae.
1. — Jab tasdiq ba zaria lafz ke zahir ho, us ko qaziya
kahte hain.
2. — Qazion men tin jm hote hain, yane mauzu, aur
mahmul, aur nisbat i hukmiya.

ho ya murakkab.
Miijiba ho ya saliba.
Kulliya ho ya juiiya ,
MntUiila.
Hamliya ho ya sbartiya,
iMufrad j Munfasila.

Nisbat izaruri bil-fiab, mujibon men.

»en niTbJriia ( Zan,l>
*>ia salb.salibon men.
taur par hai ' <
v
>ane,
I Masawat. iuzion men.
^

5. Qaw&id i nisbat :
—

Pahle. — Nisbat zaruri bil-ijab men, qaziye i imijibe

sab sahih, aur salibe sab galat hote hain.
Diisre. — Nisbat i zaruri bis salb men, qaziye i salibe
sab sahih, aur mujibe galat.
Tisre. — Nisbat i tasawi men, qaziye juziye sab sahih,
aur kulliye galat.
6. — Mauzu o mahmul agar apne tamam afrad par

dalalat karen, kulli hain; aur agar baz afrad par to

juzi hain.
7. Qawaid kulHyat o juziyat ke.

Pahld. — Qaziya i kulbya ka mauzii kulli hota hai.

Bmrd. — Qaziya i juziya ka mauzu juzi hota hai.
98 RECAPITULATION.

3. — All negative propositions distribute the pre

dicate.
4. — Affirmative propositions do not distribute the
predicate.*
The conversion of a proposition consists in transpos
ing its terms, so that the subject becomes the predicate
and the predicate the subject.
The original proposition is called the exposita, the
new one formed from

it,
the converse.
Only illative conversion allowable, e., where the

is

i.
•truth of the converse implied by the truth of the exposita.
is

rit f
Illative „ Simple
"""r1 conversion.
•

g 2t 1
•

conversion is)
i
. . ,- -.. »•„
of Conversion by limitation.
or three kinds
lands.
\ \

Conversion by negation.

Rule for Conversion.

. No term must be distributed in the converse that was
undistributed in the exposita.
Propositions are opposed, when having the same
subject and predicate, they differ in quality or quantity,
or both.
Opposition of four kinds.
is

— Two universal propositions, differing only in

1.

quality, are contraries.

— Two particular propositions, differing only in
2.

quality, are subcontraries.

3. — Two propositions agreeing in quality, but dif
fering in quantity, are subalterns.
4. — Two propositions, differing both in quantity
and quality, are contradictories.

Rules foe Opposition.

— Contraries may both be false, but never both
1.

true.

The exceptions on page 78 must be kept in mind.

 MUJMAL BAYAS. 9£

Tisrd. — Qaziya i saliba ka mahmul kulli hota hai.

*
Chauthd. — Qaziya i mujibaka mahmul juzihota hai.

8. — Aks us ko kahte hain, ki qaziya ke mauzu ko

mahmul, aur mahmul ko mauzu karna.
9. —Aks i sahih wuh hai, jis men asl qaziya ke mane
se ikhtilaf na ho.

10. Aks do tarah par hota hai.

** IS3T1
11. Qaida aks ka yun hai : —

Jo mauzu ya mahmul, ki juzi hai, bad aks ke bhi

juzi rahe.

12. Naqiz us ko kahte hain, ki do qazion ka mauzu

o mahmul ek hi rahe, magar kulliyat o juziyat ya ijib o
salb, ya donon men ikhtilaf ho.
13. Naqiz char tarah par hota hai :

Mk. naqiz 8k.

Mj. „ Sj.
Mk. „ Mj.
8k. „ Sj.

14. Naqiz ke qawaid : —

Pahle. — Do kullion ka kazib hona mumkin, lekin

sadiq hona gair-mumkin.

* Siwae chand mustasniyat ke. Dekko safha 79.

100 RECAPITULATION.

2. — Subcontraries may both be true, but never both

false.
3. — Of contradictories, if one be false, the other must
be true, and vice versa.
We now proceed to Part III. of this Book, where
propositions are gathered into arguments, thus completing
the subject of logic.
 MUJMAL BAY&N. 101

Dusre. — Do juzfon ka sadiq hona mumkin, lekiu

kazib hona gair-mumkin.
Tisre. — Tin do qazion men, jo mukhtalif hain, ijab o
salb aur kulliyat o juziyat men, agar ek sadiq ya
kazib ho, to dusra us ke khilaf hoga.
Ab Ilm i Mantiq ka tisra men bahs dalil ki

jis
hissa,
liai, shurii hoga.
 PART III.

SECTION I.

Reasoning oe Argument.

1, The third operation of the mind with which

logic is concerned is reasoning. An act of reasoning
expressed in words, is called an argument.* Every ar
gument consists of two parts, the point to be proven,
and that by which it is proven. The term argument, is
by some writers, confined to this part alone. It is here
used in the more popular way.
The part to be proven is called the conclusion, and
that by which it is proven the premisses. In the logical
order, the premisses are stated first, and after them the
conclusion, connected by the illative conjunction there
fore. Thus, an argument: —

Whatever exhibits marks of design, must have an intelli

gent author.
The world in which we live, exhibits marks of design :
Therefore, The world must have an intelligent author.

Here the first two statements are the premisses, and

consist of judgments or propositions, in an argument
proving that the world has an intelligent Creator. The
statement beginning with therefore, is the conclusion.

* Sir William Hamilton insists that argumentation, not argument.

should be used for the complex act of reasoning, the argument being that part
from which the conclusion is drawn.
 HISSA III.

FASL I.

DALfL, YANE HUJJAT KE BAYAN MEN.

I. — Tisra aror jis se ilm i mantiq mutaalliq hai, dalil

yane hujjat hai. Dalil, us soch ko kahte hain, jo aise

yaqini muqaddamat se murakkah ho, jin se natija yaqini

nikle. Masai to maslan : —

Jis chiz men kisi tarah ki karigari pai jati hai, us ka bana-
nevala zarur hai.
Khilqat men karigari pai jati hai,
Pas, Khilqat ka koi bananewala zarur hai.

Dalil msn do haten hoti hain, yane Mil aur madlul.

jis

Ddllwxih. hai, ki ke zaria se natija hasil hota

kai, aur us natije ko madlul kahte hain. Misal mazkura
bala men pahle do muqaddamon ko dall kahenge, aur
e

tisra, un donon se hasil hua, madlul hai.

jo
104 THE SYLLOGISM.

An argument, then, is an expression of reasoning in

which, from something laid down and granted as true, i. e. ,
the premisses, something else beyond this, viz., the conclu
sion, necessarily follows, and must be admitted as true.
The two parts of an argument then, are made up of
propositions. The propositions in the first part, called
the premisses, are as has been seen, admitted to be true,
and from them another proposition or other propositions
are drawn, which is the conclusion, or second part of the
argument. Now, logic teaches us to draw from known
or admitted propositions, true conclusions.
2. — An argument stated in its full, regular, logical
form is called a syllogism.
In
the syllogism, the conclusion follows from the
mere force of the expression or arrangement of the pro
positions, without considering the meaning of the terms.
Thus :—
All X is T.
ZisX.
Therefore Z is Y.
Itis manifest that the conclusion must follow what
ever the terms X, Y, and Z may stand for, i. e., the con
clusion follows from the mere force of the expression, as
may be seen by a geometrical figure.

All X is contained in Y.

Z is contained in X.

Therefore Z is contained in Y.

Or to express the same thing in plain propositions.

All men are mortal.
Zaid, Amr, Bakr are men.
Therefore, Zaid, Amr, Bakr are mortal.
 QIYAS KA' BA YAN. 105

aur 'madlul, jaisa ki is misal se malum hota

Dall
hai, qaziye hain. Qaziya i dalla, yaqini hote hain, aur
un se ek, ya ek se ziyada qaziye yaqini hasil hote hain(
aur wuh jo hasil hote hain, un ko madlul ya natija kahte
hain.
Ilm i mantiq se yih malum ho jata hai, ki natija i
yaqiniya ha zaria muqaddamat i yaqiniya ke, kis tarah par
nikalna chahiye.
II. — Jo hujjat ha tartih i kamil, hamujih ilm i mantiq
ke, hayan ki jawe, us ko qiyds kahte hain.
GUyas men qaziye is tartih par hote hain, ki natija
khud ha khud hasil hota hai, hagair samajhne mauzu aur
mahmul ke ; maslan,
A. B. hai.
J. A. hai.
Fas, J. B. hai.
Tih
saf zahir hai, ki agarchi in harfon se koi matlab
nahin malum hota hai, magar taham natija yunhi nikalta
hai. Chunanchi is ki kaifiyat shakl i zail se hakhuhi
zahir hai.

A. B. men sMmil hai.

J. A. men shamil hai.

Pas J. B. men shamil hai.

Mis&l tltisri. — Sab insan fani hain.

Zaid, Amr, Bakr insan hain.
Pas, Zaid, Amr, Bakr fani hainT

Qiyas murakkah hota hai kull tin qazion se jis men

pahle ko kubrd, aur diisre ko sugxd, aur tisre ko natija
kahte hain. Pahle do muqaddamat kahlate hain. *
* Arabi mantiqin tarti1) i qiyas men, sugra ko auwal, aur kubri ko
us ke niche rakhte haig. Is se natija nikalne men kuchh farq nahin ati.
Arabi mantiqin faqat do muqaddamon, yane sugra o kubra ke is taraU
tartib dene ko, ki natija mkal awe, qiyds kahte hain.
106 THE SYLLOGISM.

3. — Every simple syllogism, then, consists of three and

only three propositions, the first two of which are called
the premisses, and the last which follows from them
is called the conclusion. The first proposition in the
syllogism is called the major premiss, and the second is
called the minor premiss. Every proposition, as was
seen, contains two terms, called the subject and predicate.
Now, let it be kept in mind that every syllogism con
tains three, and only three called the major term,
terms,
minor term, and the middle term. The major term is
so called because found in the major premiss, the minor
term because found in the minor premiss. The middle
term, which is found in both premisses, is so called
because it comes between the other two, and is the
medium of comparison between them. Having been
thus compared with it, they are declared to agree, or
disagree, in the conclusion which thus contains both the
major and minor terms. Thus, the syllogism is the com
parison of two notions or terms, with a third notion or
term, to ascertain whether they agree or not. Suppose
the question is whether a certain thing is poisonous or
not. In order to ascertain the agreement of the term
poisonous, and the thing before us, we compare it with a
third thing, arsenic, which we know to be poisonous, and
find that it contains arsenic, hence we may say that it is

poisonous. The syllogism for this would be,

Arsenic is poisonous.
This thing is arsenic.
Therefore, It is poisonous.

The minor term is always the subject of the con

clusion, and the major term the predicate.
4. — A few examples of syllogisms are subjoined and
analyzed, for practice in the form and elements of the
syllogism.
 QIYAS KA BATAX. 107

III. — Bayan hua, ki har qaziye men tin juz, yane

mauzu, aur mahmul, aur nisbat i hukmiya hote hain. Tad
rakhna chahiye, ki har qiyas men tin juz hote hain, yane
akbar aur asgar aur hadd i ausat. Akbar is sabab se kahte
hain, ki wuh kubra men. hota hai, aur asg.ar is sabab se

kahte hain, ki sugra men hota hai. Madd i ausat ko, jo

kubra aur sugra donon men pai jati hai, hadd i ausat is
sabab se kahte hain, ki goya wuh akbar aur asgar ke dar-
miyan men, un ki nisbat batMne ka ek wasta hai. Pas is
tarah par hadd i ausat se natija men akar malum hota
hai, ki akbar aur asgar ke bich men muwafiqat hai, ya
na-muwafiqat.
Garaz ki qiyas bolte hain do tasauwuron (akbar o
asgar) ko tisre ke (hadd i ausat) sath milane ko, taki ma
lum ho jawe, ki in donon tasauwuron men muwafiqat hai
ya nahin.
Maslan koi sawal ho, ki fulani chiz zahr hai ki nahin?
jis

Ab yahan par tisri chiz se, jaise sankhiya, ko ham jante

jis

hain ki zahr hai us shai ko ka zikr hai, milaenge, taki

malum ho jawe, ki yih shai bhi zahr hai ki nahin Agar
?

malum ho jawe ki yih shai sankhiya se muwafiqat rakhti

hai, to malum Ma ki zahr hai. Pas qiyas yun hoga,

Sankhiya zahr hai.

Yih shai sankhiya hai.
Pas, Yih shai zahr hai.

Wazih ho, ki natija ka mauzu, asgar, aur mahmul,

akbar hota hai.

IV. — Chand misalen qiyas ki, bit-tafsil, zail men,

ia

maqsad ke waste mundarj ki jati hain, ki mashq barhe.

 108 THE SYLLOGISM. I

Syllogism.

Every desire to gain by another's loss, is sin.

Allgaming, is a desire to gain by another's loss.
Therefore, Allgaming is sin.

Here are three propositions; the first is the major

premiss, the second the minor premiss, and the last the
conclusion.* Each proposition has its subject and pre
dicate connected by a copula. In the first proposition,
"
or major premiss, the subject is every desire to gain by
another's loss," the predicate is " sin.'' In the second
proposition, called the minor premiss, the subject
" all

is,
" a desire to gain by

is,
gaming," and the predicate
another's loss." In the last proposition, called the con
clusion, " all gaming
" the subject, and " sin
"
the
is

is
predicate. By observing, will be seen that the syl
it

logism really contains only three terms, e., "desire to

i.
gain by another's loss," "sin;" and "all gaming." "Desire
to gain by another's loss," the middle term, being that
is

with which the other two terms are compared. " Sin "
in the major premiss, the major term, and " all gaming,"
is

in the minor premiss, the minor term. As always

is

must be the case, " all gaming," the minor term, the
subject of the conclusion, and
" sin," the major term, is

is
its predicate.

Syllogism.

All murderers deserve death.

Nana sahib was murderer.
a

Therefore, Nana sahib deserved death.

Here are three propositions, the two first are the

premisses, the major and minor, the last the conclusion.
is

* The Arabic logicians put the minor This not

premiss first. does
affect the result in the reasoning process.
 QIYAS K£ BAYAN. 109

Qiyds.

Apne nafa ke waste, gair ka nuqsan takes', gunah Lai.

Jde men aisa nafa hai, jis ki bailaulat gairon ka nuqsau taka
jata hai.
Fas, jua gunah hai.

Yahan par tin qaziye hain, auwal kubrd, dusrd sug.rd,

tiara natija ; aur har qaziye men mauzu, aur mahmul, aur
nisbat i hukmiya, jo un donon ke darmiyan ek wasta hai,
hoti hai. Pahle qaziye, yane kubra men, " apne nafa ke
gairon ka nuqsan takna," mauzu hai, aur " gunah,"
•waste

mahmul. Dusre qaziye yane sugra men, "jua" mauzu hai,

aur " apne nafa ke waste gairon ka nuqsan takna," mah
"
mul hai. Pichhle qaziye, yane natije men, " jM mauzu,
" mahmul hai.
aur " gunah,
Dekhne se malum hota hai, ki is qiyas men sirf tin
juz hain, pahle,
" apne nafa ke waste gairon ka nuqsan
takna," dusra " gunah," tisra
" jua." " Apne nafa ke
waste gairon ka nuqsan takna," hadd i ausat hai, jis se do
aur juz jo hain milae jate hain. Kubra men, " gunah"
akbar hai, aur men, " jua" asgar hai ; aur
sugra natije
men, "jua"jo asgar hai, mauzii hai, aur natije men
" gunah" jo akbar hai, mahmul hai, jaisa ki natije men
hamesha hona chahiye.

Qiyds.

Sab khuni wajib nl qatl hain.

Nana Eao khuni tha.
Pas, Nana Kao wajib ul qatl tha.

Dekho, yahdn tin qaziye hain, jin- men pahla kubra,

dusra sugra, aur tisra yane akhir ka, natija hai. Har
110 THE SYLLOGISM.

Each proposition has its subject and predicate, yet there

are only three terms in the syllogism ; first, the middle
term " murderer,
" " deserve
second, the major term
death," and third, the minor term " Nana sahib." The
minor and major terms, are the subject and predicate of
the conclusion.

SYLLOGI8M.

Avarice is a sin.
Sin leads to hell.
Therefore, Avarice leads to hell.

"
Sin " is the middle term, " avarice
"
is the minor
term, " leads to hell" is the major term.

Syllogism.

Middle term.

Every (doctrine tending to bring dishonor on God),

Major term.
(should be rejected.)

Minor term. Middle term.

The (doctrine of fate), (tends to bring dishonor on God.)

Minor term. Major term.

Therefore, the (doctrine of fate), (should be rejected.)

5. Let it that every valid argu

be remembered
ment may be reduced to a syllogism. It is not neces
sary that every argument be stated in this form in full,
but if an argument is correct, it may be put into this
form. Thus if one should deny that the world has an
intelligent Creator, one claiming that it has, would bring
forth a number of facts to prove that the world is full
of design, and the proof would be considered valid and
 QIYJTS KA' BAYAN. Ill
qaziye ka mauzu aur mahmul juda hai, magar taham
haqiqatan qiyas men faqat tin juz hote hain, jaisa ki is
misal zahir hai, — ki pahla hadd i aasat "khuni," dusra
se

akbar " wajib ul qatl," aur tisra asg.ar, " Nana Rao" hai.
Natija ka mauzu asg.ar hai, aur mahmul akbar hai.

Misdl tisri.

Tama gunali hai.

Gunah ka anjam dozakh hai.
Pas, Tama ka anjam dozakh hai.

Is misal men " gunah" hadd i ausat, aur

" tama" asgar,
aur " anjam dozakh," akbar hai.

Misdl chauthi.

Hadd i ausat. Akiir.

(Jis masle meg Khuda ki be-tazimi pai jati hai), (Radd karna
chahiye.)

Asgjxr. Hadd i ausat.

(Qismat ke masle men), (Khuda ki be-tazimi pai jati hai.)

Asgcir. Akbar.
Pas, (Q.ismat ke masle ko), (radd karna chahiye.)

V. Janna chahiye, ki har dalil ya hujjat, ba siirat i

qiyas ho sakti hai, magar kuchh zarur nahin ki jo dalil
bi ainihi isi surat par ki jae, to sahih ho, warna nahin ; lekin
yih. hai ki dalil agar sahih ho, to is siirat par bayan ho
sakti hai. Maslan koi inkar kare, ki khilqat ka Khaliq koi
nahin hai, aur ek kahe ki hai, aur dawa karnewala Khuda
ke wujud ki chand misalen is amr ki sihhat men pesh kare,
ki dunya men koi chiz khali az hikmat nahin hai. Pas yih
subut i kamil, aur dalil i sahih hai, halanki ba siirat i qiyas
112 THE SYLLOGISM.

the argument good, although one point is left out, namely

that whatever eontains design has an intelligent Creator.
Now this argument stated in full and reduced to a syl
logism would be —
Whatsoever contains design, has an intelligent Creator.
The world contains design.
Therefore, The world has an intelligent Creator.
The syllogism then, is a kind of touch-stone that
may be applied to all arguments to test their quality of
truth or falsity. Or it may be represented as a straight
edge, which applied to arguments, shows them to be
straight and truthful or crooked and erroneous.
6. The syllogism in the first figure, a term to be
explained hereafter, is founded on what is called Aris
totle's dictum. The dictum is —
Whatever is predicated of a universal term or class
may be predicated of any or all things contained in that
term or class.*
This may be stated more at length thus : If wo
predicate, i. e., affirm or deny that something belongs to
any term or class, and then show that something comes
under that term or class, we may likewise predicate, i. e.,
offirm or deny of it what is affirmed or denied of the term
or class. Thus if we show (predi
cate), that All X is contained in Y,
and then show (predicate) that Z is
contained in X, we may predicate
that Z is contained in Y, as seen in
the figure.

Nothing can be more simple and plain than this

law of thought. If we affirm or deny something of an
* This dictum as Hamilton, Mill, and other noted
logicians nave shown'
is not the sole law of syllogistic reasoning. Mill objects to the use of this
celebrated dictum, as savouring of realism, i. e„ as
implying that the class has
a real existence, separate from individuals.
 QIYAS KA BAY AN. 113

nahin ; kyunki ek bat rah gai, yane/wcAfe men hikmat pai

j&ti hai, us kd hakim zarur hogd.
Ab agar yih dalil puri bayan ki jawe, aur ba tartib i
qiyas likhi jawe, to yun hogi:

Jis chiz men kuchh hikmat pai j&ti hai, us ka hakim zarur
hoga.
Khilqat men tarah tarahki hikmat pai jati hai.
Pas dunya ka hakim zarur hoga.

Malum karna chahiye ki qiyas, dalil ke sidq o huh

ke parakhne ki kasairfi hai.
VI. Bina i qiyas Aristatalis ke qaul par hai, aur
wuh qaul yih hai, ki—
" Jo kuchh kisi.kulli ki nisbat kahd jdwe, us ke sab
afrdd
par bhi sddiq dtcegd.

•Is ka mufassil bayan yun hai, ki agar kisi kulli ya

jins ki nisbat kuchh kaha jae, khwah ijab ke sath y& salb
ke sath, aur yih dekha jawe, ki is kulli ya jins men fulani
fulani f ard dakhil hai, to is surat men jo kuchh is kulli ya
jins ki nisbat kaha gaya hai, wuh us chiz ya fard ki
nisbat jo us men dakhil hai, kaha jawe. Maslan agar koi
kahe, ki —

A. B. men dakhil
Sab hai, aur
malum kare, ki
Sab J. A. men dakhil hai to
wuh kah sakta hai, ki Sab J. B.
men shamil hai.

Garaz yih ki jo kuchh kisi kulli ki nisbat kaha jawe,

as ke bill afrad ki nisbat kaha jawe. Yih qanun bahut
114 RULES OF THE SYLLOGISM.

entire class of things, and then prove or assert that a

certain thing comes under this class, we may justly
affirm or deny the same of it. The term or class here
spoken of, is the
" middle term" of the syllogism.
Logical Axioms and Rules for the Syllogism.
7.
Every correct syllogism agrees with certain
rules. It was stated that every syllogism contains three
and only three terms, the major, the minor, and middle
with which the major and minor are compared.

Axioms.

(I.) If two terms agree with one and the same third
they agree with one another.
(2.) If one term agrees with, and another disagrees
with the same third, these two disagree with one another.
The third term, of these axioms, is the middle term
in a syllogism .

From these two axioms, several rules are drawn for

testing the validity of syllogisms.
Rule. — 1. If both premisses of a syllogism are affirm
ative, the conclusion must be affirmative.
This comes from the first axiom, because majorif the
premiss be affirmative, i. e., expresses the agreement of
the major term with the middle, and the minor premiss
also be affirmative, expressing the agreement of the minor
term with the middle, it is plain that the conclusion in
which these two terms are compared with each other
must be affirmative, i. e., it must express their agree
ment with each other, because they were affirmed to
agree each with the same third or middle term. Thus,
if we affirm that "All intelligent beings were made to
serve God," (major premiss) and also we affirm that
" Angels are intelligent beings," we (minor premiss)
must affirm in the conclusion that "
Angels were made
to serve God."
 QIYA'S KE QAWA1D. 115

saf o sail
hai. Agar ham kisi kulli ki nisbat kuchh bolen
phir bad is ke sabit karen, ki fulani chiz is kulli men
dakhil hai, to albatta us chiz ki nisbat bhi usi tarah kahnii
wajib hoga.
Khiyal rakhna ehahiye, ki yihi kulli, qiyas men hadd i
ausat hoti hai.
VII.
Har qiyas i sahih, muwafiq chand qawaid i
muqarrar ke hota hai. Yih bayan ho chuka hai, ki har
qiyas men tin juz hain, yane akbar, asgar, aur hadd i ausat,
jis se akbar aur asgar ko milate hain.
QjYAS KE QANUN I BADIHf.*

1. — Agar do jus kisi tisre juz he mutabiq lion, to dpas

men mutabiq hain.
2. — Agar ck juz
mutabiq, aur dusrd juz g.air-mittdbiq
ho kisi tisre juz ke, to yih down dpas men gair-mutdbiq hain.
Tisre juz se murad hadd i ausat hai.
In do qaniin i badihi se chand aise • qawaid nikalte
hain, jin se ki sihhat bakbdbi malum ho jati hai.
qiyas
Pahla qaida. — Jis qiyas men kubrd aur sugrd miijiba
hain, natija bhi miijiba hogd.
Yih
qaida pahle qanun se nikalta hai, kyiinki agar
kubra mujiba ho, yane akbar hadd i ausat se mutabiq ho,
aur sugra bhi mujiba ho, yane asgar mutabiq ho hadd i
ausat ke, to saf zahir hai, ki natija bhi jis ke donon juz ek
dusre ke muqabil hain, zariir mujiba hoga, yane donon juz
muwafiq honge, zeraki yih donon mutabiq ho chuke hain
tisre juz, yane hadd i ausat ke. Masal to maslan, agar
ham kahen, ki
" Sab zi-aql, Khuda ki itaat karneko paida hiie hain."
" Firishte zi-aql hain." {Kubrd.)
(Sugrd.)

Pas natije men yihi kahna parega, ki

" Firishte, Khuda ki itaat karne ko paidi hue hain. (Natija)

*
Badihi wuh hai, ki bagair fikr o taammul samajh men a jae.
116 RULES OF THE SYLLOGISM.
" angels, "
Here the two terms, " serve God," and
were found to agree with the same third, i. e.,
" intelli
gent beings," hence they were declared to agree in the
conclusion.

Rule. — 2. If
either of the premisses be affirmative
and the other negative, the conclusion must be negative.

This comes from the second axiom. is plain thatIt

if a term in one of the propositions agrees with, i. e.,
is affirmed of the middle term, and a term in another
proposition disagrees with, i. e., is denied of the middle
term, the two not agreeing with the same, cannot agree
with each other, hence a negative conclusion follows.
Thus-
Good men are not liars.
Those who go to heaven are good men.
Therefore, Those who go to heaven are not liars.

Here the major premiss is negative, i. e., the major

term "liars," does not agree with the middle term "good
men." The minor premiss is affirmative, i. e., the minor
term, "those who go to heaven," is affirmed of the mid
dle term, and hence these two terms agree and the con
clusion, "those who go to heaven are not liars," must be
negative according to this rule.

Rule. — 3 . If both premisses be negatives, we can draw

no conclusion. Thus—
" Zaid is not a diligent student."
" Amr is not a diligent student,"

X is Y.
not
Z is not Y.

A statement like this proves nothing.

No relation is established, as is seen in the figure.
 Q1YAS KE QAWJTID. 117

Ab yahdn par " Khuda kiitaat karne ko," aur "firish-

te," yih donon juz mutabiq tisre juz " zi-aql" ke hain, is
sabab se natije men mutabiq hain.
Dijsra qaida.. — Agar kubrd aur sugrd men ek sdliba
ho, to natija zarur sdliba hogd.
Yih qaida dusre qanun i badihi se nikalta hai. Yih
zdhir hai, ki kubra aur sugra men se kisi ka ek juz agar
hadd i ausat se muwafiqat rakhe, yane mansiib bil-ijab ho,
aur dusre ka ek juz hadd i
ausat ke gair- mutabiq ho, yane
mansub bis-salb ho, to is siirat men, yane jab ki ek mutabiq
aur dusra gair-mutabiq hadd i ausat ke hai, apas men bhi
kisi tarah mutabiqat na hogi: pas natija. saliba niklega,
jaisd misal se zahir hai.

Nek log, jhuth-bolnewale nahtn hain.

We jo bihisht ko jate hain, nek hote hain.
Pas, "We jo bihisht ko jate hain, jhuthe nahin hain.

misal men kubra saliba hai, yane juz i akbar

Is
"jhuth-bolnewale" mutabiqat nahin rakhta hai "nek log"
Be, jo hadd i ausat para hai. Sugra mujiba hai yane fiqra>
" we jo bihisht ko jate hain," jo juz i asgar hai, mutabiq
hai hadd i ausat ke, pas bamujib dusre qaide ke natija
saliba nikalta hai, yane "we jo bihisht ko jate, jhuthe
nahin hain."
Tisea qaida. — Agar kubrd aur sugrd donon sdlibe hon,
to kuchh natija na niklega. Maslan,

Zaid mihnati talib i ilm nahin hai.

Amr mihnati talib i ilm nahin.

Is se kuchh natija nahin nikalta.

Dusri misal : —
'
A. B. nahin.
J. B. nahin.
118 RULES OF THE SYLLOGISM.

Itis nothing to the point to say " Zaid is not Amr,"

for although it is true enough, this does not follow
from the premisses, but is simply a fact, not sustained
by these two propositions. We must keep in mind that
the syllogism is a form of expression in which two terms
are compared with each other by means of a middle
term ; now, at least one of the terms must agree with the
middle term or standai-d of comparison, or no comparison
can be effected between them. We are supposed to be
trying to find some relation between these terms, but we
can draw no comparison between them, unless at least
one of them agrees with the thing by which we propose
to measure or compare them. Thus, if we have before us
two large stones, and wish to compare them andjsay what
their weight is with reference to each other, we can con
clude nothing about them by having a weight put into our
hand by which neither of them can be weighed, i. e., with
which neither of them agrees. Thus, also if we say —

Zaid is not a diligent student.

Amr is not a diligent student.

We have learned nothing about Zaid and Amr as

compared with each other, or in other words, we have
failed to establish any relation between them. But if we
make one of the premisses affirmativeand say, —

A good boy is a diligent student.

Zaid is not a diligent student.

We can compare Zaid with "good boy'' and draw the

conclusion —

Zaid is not a good boy.

The conclusion thus states the relation between the

major and minor term, found out when both or one of
them agrees with the middle, the term of comparison.
 QITAS KE QAWA1D. 119

In donon ke darmiyan, yane "A" aur "J" ke, kuchh

nisbat nahin malum hoti hai ki natija nikle.
Pahli misal men yih kahne ka mauqa nahin, ki Zaid
Amr nahin, kyunki agarchi filwaqi yih saoh hai, magar
yahan kubra aur sugra se nahin nikalta, is sabab se, ki qiyas
ek aisa bayan hai, jis men do juz ba zaria hadd i ausat milae
jate hain aur kam az kam ek juz zarur hadd i ausat se
mutabiq hona chahiye, warna kisi tarah mutabiqat in donon
juzon ki na hogi. Hamen yih daryaft karna chahiye, ki
in donon, yane akbar aur asgar ke darmiyan kya nisbat
hai ; lekin akbar aur asgar ke darmiyan kuchh nisbat malum
nahin ho sakti hai, ta waqte ki in donon men se kam se kam
ek juz mutabiq hadd i ausat, jo un ko baham digar milane
ya napne ke liye ek paimana hai, na ho. Maslan agar do
patthar hon, aur ham daryaft karna chahen, ki yih donon
ba iatibar wazn ke kya nisbat apas men rakhte hain, aur us
waqt men koi bat aisa maujud na ho, jis se donon ko taul
saken, to un donon ke darmiyan kya nisbat malum hogi.
Pas agar ham kahen ki

Zaid mihnati talib i ilm nahin hai.

Amr mihnati talib i ilm nahhi hai.

to is surat men Zaid aur Amr ke darmiyan kuchh nisbat

malum nahin, yane yih nahin malum hai, ki Zaid Amr se
bara haiya aqlmand hai ya nahin, ya achchha hai ya bura.
Magar ek qaziya agar mujiba ho, maslan —
Zaid mihnati talib i ilm nahin hai.
Achchhe larke mihnati hote hain.

Yahan par chunki "Zaid" ki, " achchhe larke" ke sath

tarkib ho sakti hai, is jihat se natija yun. nikalta hai, —
" Zaid achchha larka nahin hai."

Garaz ki natija us nisbat ko zahir karta hai, jo akbar

aur asgar ke darmiyan hoti hai, aur yih nisbat hadd i
ausat ke wasile se malum hoti hai.
 120 RULES OF THE SYLLOGISM.

!Rur<E. — 4. The middle term must be univocal, i. e.,

have but one meaning in the premisses.

The reason is, that in the syllogism a comparison is

effected, as before stated and illustrated, between two
terms by means of a third; the syllogism then, as has been
shown, must have only three terms. Butif in any syllogism,
the middle term is ambiguous, i. e., has one meaning
in the major premiss and another meaning in the minor
premiss, there are in reality two middle terms, or four
terms in the syllogism. To draw a conclusion from such
premisses, would be like comparing the length of two
staffs, having measured one with a false and one with
a true measure, or like comparing the weight of two
stones, having weighed one with a false and the other
with a true weight.
The following is an example of an ambiguous middle.

Light is contrary to darkness.

Feathers are light.
Therefore, Feathers are contrary to darkness.

Here the word "light" is used in two senses.

This plain example is given simply as an illustration
of the ambiguous middle. No one could be misled by
such a glaring fallacy, but in many cases of error, the am
biguous middle is not so manifest. For instance, Christ
ians and Mohammedans in arguing about the Trinity,
attach different meanings to that word. Mohammedans
argue that Christians teach a plurality of Gods and hence
they are blasphemers. Their argument thrown into the
form of a syllogism would run thus —

The doctrine of the Trinity, implies a plurality of Gods.

Christians hold to the doctrine of the Trinity.
Therefore, Christians hold to a plurality of Gods.

Here the middle term " doctrine of the Trinity," is

ambiguous. As urged by the Mohammedans in the major
 Q17AS KE QAWA1D. 121

Chautha Qaida. — tLadd i ausat zartir mufrad hond

chdhiye, yqne kubrd aur sugrd men, us ke sirf ek hi mane hon.
Is ka sabab yih hai, ki ba wasile hadd i ausat ke, akbar
aur asgar ko milate hain, pas zarur hai, ki har qiyas
men sirf tin hi juz hon, lekin agar kisi qiyas men hadd i
ausat mushtarak ho, yane kubra men aur mane liye jawen,
aur sugra men aur, to is surat men dar haqiqat do hadd i
ausat, yane juz ek qiyas men ho jawenge, halanki
char
chahiye yih tha, ki sirf tin juz hon.
Aise muqaddamat se, jin men do hadd i ausat hon,
natija nikalna aisii hai, jaise do dandon men se ek ko pure
gaz se, aur dusre ko aise gaz se jo pura na ho, napkar
donon ke tul ko milana, yane yih daryaft karna, ki yih
donon ba iatibar tul ke kya nisbat apas men rakhte hain ;
ya jaise do pattharon men se ek ko pure bat se, diisre ko
kamtar bat se taubia, aur phir muqabala karna donon ka is
tarah par ki aya ek dusre se kitna bara ya chhotd hai ya
barabar.

Misal i auwal, hadd i ausat i mushtarika.

Til ek qism ka anaj hai.
Aksar admion ke niunh par til hota hai.
Pas, Aksar admion ke munh par anaj hota hai.

Is misal men lafz " til" ka, do manon par mustamal

Misal dusri : —
Bukhar ek bimari hai.
Talabon se bukhar uthta hai.
Fas, Talabon se bimari uthti hai.

In misalon men saf malum hota hai, ki hadd i ausat

mushtarak hai. Koi aisi surihi galation men na parega,
122 RVLES FOR TEE SYLLOGISM.

premiss, it means one thing, and as held by the Christians

in the minor premiss, it means another thing. Christiana
mean by the Trinity, three divine personalities or exist
ences in one God-head, constituting a Trinity in unity,
i. e.y one God with three personalities, the mode of which
they do not claim to understand.
The same ambiguity sometimes occurs in the word
faith. Christians argue that faith in God is pleasing to
him, and insures salvation. Hindus urge that they have
faith in God, and therefore will obtain salvation. Their
claim put in the form of a syllogism would run thus —

Faith in God procures salvation.

Hindus have faith in God.
Therefore, Hindus procure salvation.

Here the middle term " faith in God," is ambigu

ous, for, as used by Christians, it includes more than as
used by the Hindus. As used by one, it means a prop
er conception of God's character. trust in him, obe
dience to him j by the other it means simply a belief
in the existence of God. The meaning of the mid
dle term then, should be uniform in the premisses, i. e.,
it should have but one meaning in a syllogism.

Rule. — 5. The middle term must be distributed at

least once in the premisses.

The reason of this is, if the middle term be not

distributed at least once in the premisses, it does
not become a reliable medium of comparison between
the major and minor terms ; for if the middle term be
not distributed at least once, i. e., if one of the terms be
not compared with the whole of it, it might happen
that the major term was compared with one part of the,
middle and the minor term with a totally different
 QIYA'S KE QAWA'ID. 123

leMn bahut jagah aisa hota hai, jahan sai nahin malum
hota hai, ki hadd i ausat mushtarak hai ya nahin ? Maslan,
fsai am* Musalman bar waqt i mubahise taslis ke, mukh-
talif mane taslis ke lete hain. Musalman dawa karte hain,
ki fsai jamiat i Khuda ke qail hain, is sabab se kafir hain ;
pas ba iatibar us mane taslis ke, jo Musalman qarar dete
hain, agar dalil ba surat i qiyas, murattab ki jawe, to yun
hogi:—
Taslis se jamiat Khuda ki sabit hoti hai.
I'sai taslis ke qail haiu.
Pas, j'sai jamiat i Khuda ke qail hain.

Yahan par hadd i ausat, yane " taslis"

mushtarak hai ;
jo mane taslis ke kubra men Musalman qarar dete hain,
aur hain, aur jo mane taslis ke I'sai sugra men qarar dete
hain mm aur hain. fsaion ka aqida yih hai, ki taslis bi
tauhid hai, yane Khuda ki wahdaniyat men taslis hai.
Isi tarah lafz " iman" men kabhi kabhi shirkat manon.
ki hoti hai. Maslan I'saion ka dawa yih hai, ki jo shakhs
Khuda par iman lata hai, Khuda us se razi hota hai, aur us
ko najat deta hai. Hindu kahte hain, ki hamara iman Khuda
par hai is sabab se hamari najat hogi. Pas agar Hindiion
ka dawa ba siirat i qiyas bayan kiya jawe to yun. hoga : —

Klrada par iman lane se najat hasil hoti hai.

Hindu, Khuda par iman rakhte hain.
Pas, Hinddon ko najat hasil hogi.

Yahan par hadd ausat, " Khuda par iman lana,"

i
mushtarak hai, kyiinki I'saion ke yahan " iman" se yih murad
hai, ki Khuda ki zat o sifat ko pahchanna, aur us par bha-
rosa rakhna, aur us ki itaat karni ; aur Hindiion ke yahan
" iman " se murad
lane yih hai, ki sirf Khuda ke wujud ko
manna, aur bas. Garaz qiyas men yih zariir hai, ki hadd
i ausat ke ek hi mane rahen.
Paxchwan Qaida. — Kubra aur sug.rdmense,ek men to
hadd i ausat zarur kullihond chdhiye.

Is ka sabab yih hai, ki agar hadd i ausat, na kubra

men kulli ho, aur na sugra men, to akbar aur asgar ke mu--
qabala karne ka wasta kafi nahin hoga, kyiinki agar hadd i
ausat ek men bhi kulli na ho, yane akbar aur asgar men
se agar koi bhi us ke kull afrad se muqabala na kiya jae,
 124 RULES FOR TEE SYLLOGISM.

part of it. There would thus really be two middle

terms, i. e., the major and minor terms would not be
compared with the same thing. Hence the syllogism
would have in reality four terms.
This will be plain from a figure.

Some X is Y.

Some X is Z.

Therefore, Some Z is Y.

Here X is not distributed as is seen from the sign

" some," and from the figure it
. is plain that the conclusion does
not follow, although it might
happen that some Z is Y, as
seen in the figure.

The following are syllogisms violating rule 5th.

Some animals are sheep.
Some animals are horses.
Therefore, Some horses are sheep.
White is a color.
Black is a color.
Therefore, Black is white.
It is manifest that the middle term " color," is
only taken in part in both premisses, hence the error
in the . conclusion. The middle term then, must be
distributed at least once.
In the Byllogism : —
Some men are tyrants.
Some men are learned.
Therefore, Some learned men are tyrants.
—we have an example of a conclusion which is
correct though not following from this reasoning.
 QIYAS KE QAWA7D. 125

to shayad akbar hadd i ausat ke baz ek afrad se, jo bilkull

pahle se juda hain, muqabala kiya jawe, to is surat men do
hadd i ausat hue jate hain, yane akbar aur asgar ek hi juz
se muqabala nahin kiye jate, aur us qiyas men char juz hue
jate hain. Chunanchi shakl i mundarja i zail se zahir hai.

Baz A. B. hai.

Baz A. J. hai.

Fas, Baz J. B. hai.

misal men hadd i ausat "A" kulli nahin, chunanchi

Is
lafz " baz" se zahir hai, aur shakl se zahir hai ki kuehh
zariir nahin, ki natija yunhi nikle, agarehi ittifaqan yih
bhi sadiq awe, yane yih, ki

Baz J. B. hai.

Zail men ek misal isi tarah ke qiyas ki mundarij hai :

Baz jairwftr bheren hain.

Baz janwar ghore hain.
Pas, Baz ghore bheren hai.
Dusri misal :
Sufaidi ek rang hai.
Siyahi ek rang hai.
Pas, Siyahi Bufaidi hai.
"
Zahir hai, ki is misal men hadd i ausat rang" jo hai,
kubra sugra donon men juzi hai, isi jihat' se natija galat
nikalta hai. Pas zarur hai, ki hadd i ausat kam se kam
ek men kulli ho. Is qiyas men, ki—
Baz admi zalim hain.
Baz admi alim hain.
Isliye, Baz alim zalim hain.
misal aise natije ki hai jo sahih hai, magar tartib i qiyas
se yih natija nahin nikalta hai.
126 RULES FOR TEE SYLLOGISM.

Eule.— 6. A term must not be distributed in the

conclusion that was not distributed in the premisses.

is,
The reason that term be distributed, e.,

if

i.
a
taken entire in the conclusion, which was undistrib
uted or taken but in part in the premisses, things
would be compared in the conclusion which were not
compared in the premisses, and in reality fourth term

a
would be introduced into the syllogism, while three

is
the rule. We can only compare that part of term

a
with another in the conclusion that was compared
with the middle term in the premisses, but

if
only
part of term be compared in the premiss, and then
a
a

the whole of be compared in the conclusion, some

it

thing would be introduced that had not been compared

before.

figure will make this error plain.

A

All X. T.
is

No Z. X.
is

Therefore, No Z. Y.
is

Not true.

Or:—
All X. Y.
is

All X. Z.
is

Therefore All Z. Y.
is

Not true.
In the first of these examples, Y the major term,
is

not distributed in its premiss because the predicate of

an affirmative proposition, part only of Y taken,
is

e.,
i.

included in X. But in the conclusion

Y
is

as much as
is
 QITA'S RE QAWA1D. 127

Chhathwan Qajda. — Agar Muqaddamdt men akbar

yd asgarjuzi ho, to natije men bhi juzi hond chdhiye.

Sabab is ka yih hai, ki agar akbar ya asgar natije men

kulli ho, jab kubra aur sugra men juzi hai, to aisa hoga,
ki baz afrad, jo kubra aur sugra men muqabala karne ko
rah gae the, natije men akar muqabala kiye jate hain, pas
is surat men char juz qiyas men ho jaenge halanki tin
hona chahiye. Natije men ek juz ke sirf unhin afrad ka
diisre juz se muqabala ho sakta hai, jo kubra o sugra men
hadd i ausat se muqabala kiye gae the ; lekin agar kubra
aur sugra men usi juz ke sirf baz afrad ka muqabala kiya
gaya ho, aur natije men akar kull afrad us ke muqabala
kiye jaen, to baz aur afrad, jo peshtar muqabil nahin the,
ab a jaenge.
Shakl i zail se yih galati saf zahir hai :

Sab A. B. hai.

Eoi J. A. nahin hai.

Pas, Koi J. B. nahin hai.

Halanki haqiqat men J. B. men hai

Dusri misal:

Sab A. B. hai.

Sab A. J. hai.

Pas, Sab J. B. hai.

bhi galat hai, kyunki sab J. B. men nahin hai.

Yih
Pahli misal men B. jo akbar hai juzi hai, is sabab se ki
mahmiil para hai qaziya i mujibe ka, yane jitna hissa B.
ka A. men dakhil hai, utna hi le liya hai, na yih ki kull
128 RULES FOR THE SYLLOGISM.

distributed because it . is the predicate of negative

a
proposition, i. e., the whole of Y is taken and hence the
mistake of saying that no part of Z corresponds with Y,
In the second of these examples the minor term Z is
not distributed, i. e., it is taken but in part, because the
predicate of an affirmative proposition ; but in the con
clusion being the subject of a universal, it is distributed ;

hence the error.

The first example is the same as saying, —

All
quadrupeds ere animals.
No bird is a quadruped.
Therefore, No bird is an animal.

The second example is, —

All men are sinners.
All men are animate beings.
Therefore, All animate beings are sinners.

Neither of these can be true. If the major term be un

duly distributed, it is called " illicit process" of the
major, if the minor be unduly distributed it is called
" illicit process" of the minor.

Rule. — 7. If both premisses are particular, no

conclusion can be drawn.

This rule follow from rules 5th and 6th. The reason
is plain. We are left without any medium of compari
son. Thus a conclusion from particular premisses, would
be either a case of "undistributed middle," or "illicit
process." For instance to say,

Some men are wise.

Some men are foolish,
 QIYA'S EE QAWAID. 129

B. Lekin natije men B. kulli hai, is sabab se ki mahmul

hai qaziya i salibe ka, yane ktJl B. liya jata hai, pas yih
kahna galat thaharta hai, ki J. kull B. men nahin.
Dusri misal men asgar J. juzi hai, yane tamam A.
par nahin aya hai, is sabab se ki mahmul para hai qaziya
i mxijiba ka, magar natije men ba bajs mauzii hone qaziya i
kulliya ke, kulli hai, aur yihi bajs galati ka hai.
Pahli misal men aisi galati hai, goya koi kahe, ki —
Sab chaupae haiwan hain.
Kol parand chaupaya nahin hai.
Pas, Koi parand haiwan nahin hain.

Dusri misal men is tarah ki galati hai, jaise koi kahe,

Sab insan gunahgar hain.

Sab insan haiwan hain.
Pas, Sab haiwan gunahgar hain.

Jo akbar ki kubra men ya asgar ki sugra men juzi

aur natije men akar kulli ho jae, us ko " kulliyat i
ho,
nd-jdiz" kahte hain, pas agar akbar natije men kulli ho
jae, jis Ml men ki kubra men juzi tha, us ko "kulliyat i
nd-jdiz akbar ki"
kahte hain, aur jo asgar, ki sugra men.
"
juzi tha, aur natije men. kulli ho jae, us ko kulliyat i nd-
jdiz asgxir ki" kahte hain.
Satwan Qajda. — Agar kubra aur sug.rd donon juzi
hain to natija kuchh nahin niklegd.

Yih aur chhathwen qaida se nikalta

qaida panclrsven
hai. Yih zahir hai, ki jab donon juzi hon, to koi wasta i
kamila, akbar aur asgar ke muqabala karne ka na hoga.
Do qaziye juzion se natija nikalna, do galation se
khali na hoga, ya hadd i ausat juzi hogi, ya kulliyat i
na-jaiz akbar ya asgar ki pai jaegi. Maslan koi kahe,
Baz admi aqlmand hain.
Baz admi bewaquf hain.
130 RULES FOR THE SYLLOGISM.

proves nothing, for we have an undistributed middle

and are not justified in saying, —
Therefore, Some foolish persons are wise.
This is the same as to say : —

Some X is Y.
Some X is Z.
Therefore, Some Z is Y.

which is not true.

Again, if we make one of the premisses negative
and say, —
Some animals are sagacious.
Some quadrupeds are not sagacious,
we would have an " illicit process" to infer that-
Some quadrupeds are not animals.

The same as to say —

Some X is T.
Some Z is not X.
Therefore, Some Z is not X.

There may be exceptions to this rule about parti

cular premisses, in the' case of affirmatives that distri
bute the predicate, as mentioned on page 78; e. g, —
Some animals are men.
Some men are wise.
Therefore, Some wise (beings) are animals.
Here the conclusion
is correct, and the middle
term, although the predicate of an affirmative proposi
tion, is distributed because the " some animals" men
tioned, includes all men, so that " men," in fact is
distributed.
Rule. — 8. If one premiss he particular, the con-
elusion must be particular.
 Q1YAS KE QAWAW. 131

Is kuchh natija nahin nikalta hai, is sabab se ki

se
haddiausat juzi hai, aur bilfarz agar nikala bhi jae to
yun hoga, ki
" Baz bewaquf admi aqlmand hain," aiir yih
kahna sahih nahin, balki aisa hai jaise koi kahe, ki

Baz A. B. hai.
/"~?\A
Baz A. J. hai.

Pas, Baz J. B. hai.

Aur agar kubra aur sugra men ek saliba ho, to misal yun
hogi:
Baz haiwan hoshiyar hain.
Baz chaupae hoshiyar nahin hain.

pas natija nikalna in men se is tarah par, ki

" Baz chaupae haiwan nahin,"

kuUiyat na-jaiz akbar ki hai.

Yih bhi kahna aisa hi hai, ki

Baz A. B. hai.

Baz J. B. nahin hai.

Pas, Baz J. A. nahin hai.

Is8wen qaide se,hasb i bayan mundarja safhae 79,

bar siiraten mustasna bhi hain.

Maslan,
Baz haiwan, admi hain.
Baz admi aqlmand hain.
Pas, Baz aqlmand, haiwan hain.

Yahan natija sahih hai, aur hadd i ausat, halanki qazie

raujibe kamahmul waqe huihai, magar
kulli hai, kyunki
" baz haiwan" se maqsud kull afrad i insan hain, aur fil-
haqiqat
" admi" kulli para hai.

Athwan qaida. — Agar ek muqaddama juziya ho to natija

zarurjuziya hoga.
132 RULES FOR THE SYLLOGISM.

The proof of this rule may be thus stated : —

The premiss must be either a particular affirmative, or
particular negative.
First case. —
Suppose it to be a particular affirma
tive. Now, as we cannot have two particular premisses

7),
in a syllogism (Rule the other premiss must be a
universal affirmative or universal negative. Suppose
to be universal affirmative then as this distributes
it

;
only one term, must be the middle, otherwise this
it
term will not be distributed in the premisses, since the
particular affirmative supposed, distributes neither term,
From this reasoning follows that the major

it
5)

(Rule .

and minor terms, not having been distributed in the

premisses, cannot be in the conclusion (Rule and

6)
;
this requirement can only be met in particular affirma

a
tive.
But suppose this
universal to be negative, then
with a negative premiss there must be a negative con
clusion (Rule 2), and as the premisses are by this
supposition a particular affirmative, distributing neither
term, and a universal negative distributing either the
major or minor term, but one term remains that may
be distributed in the conclusion (Rule hence can
it
6)
;

only be particular negative as stated in Rule 8th.

a

Second case. — Having exhausted the case of parti

a

cular affirmative, take the other alternative — particular

a

negative. Now, the other premiss must be affirmative

and universal (Rule 7), must be uni
it

(Rule e.,
3)

i.

versal affirmative. In thi3 second case, then, the

premisses must be universal affirmative and particular
a

negative. These distribute but two of the three terms

contained (major, minor, middle) and as one of these
must be the middle (Rule 6), but one term left that
is

may be distributed in the conclusion, which must be

 QAYAS RE QAWAW. 133

Subut is ka is tarah par hai, ki wuh muqaddama juziya,

ya mujiba hoga ya saliba. Farz karo, ki mujiba juziya
ho. To chunki ek qiyas men (qaida 7) donon muqaddame
juziye nahin rakh sakte hain, is waste dusra muqaddama
zurur mujiba kulliya ya saliba kulliya hoga. Farz karo,
ki mujiba kulliya ho, to us men faqat ek juz kulli hoga, aur
wuh juz zurur hadd i ausat hona chahiye. Warna kisi
muqaddame men hadd-i-ausat kulli na rahega, kyunki
mujiba juziya mafruza kisi juz ki kulliyat nahin zahir
karega. (Qaida 5.) Is bahs se yih natija nikalta hai, ki
akbar o asgar donon muqaddamon men kulli waqi na hone
se natije men kulli nahin a sakenge. (Qaida 6.) Yih bat
faqat mujibe juziye men, yane jab ki natija mujiba juziya ho,
pai jati hai. Lekin farz karo, ki wuh qaziya saliba kulliya
ho, to muqaddame salibe se natija zurur saliba niklega.

(Qaida 2.) Chunki surat i mazkura men do muqaddamat

men se ek yane mujibe juziye men koi juz kulli na hoga,
aur dusre yane saliba kulliye men ek kulli hoga, khwah
akbar ho ya asgar, to faqat ek juz rah gaya jo natije men
kulli ho. (Qaida 6.) Is waste wuh qaziya faqat saliba
juziya hi ho sakta hai, jaisa ki qaide 8 men mazkur hua.

Busri surat. — Yane agar muqaddama mujiba juziya

nahin hai, to saliba juziya farz karo. Aur j ab ek saliba juziya
hai to dusra muqaddama zurur mujiba (qfiida 3) aur kulliya
(qaida 7) yane mujiba kulliya hona chahiye. Donon
muqaddamat men ek mujiba kulliya aur dusra saliba
juziya zurur hoga, to donon muqaddame ke tin juzon (yane
akbar o asgar o hadd-i-ausat) men se faqat do ki kulliyat
zahir hogi. Aur chunki ek in men se zurur hadd i ausat
hona chahiye, (qaida 6) to faqat ek juz rah gaya, jo natije
men kulli ho, aur natija zurur saliba hoga, kyunki ek
muqaddama saliba hai; aur natija juziya hoga is sabab seki us
134 RULES FOR THE SYLLOGISM.

negative because of a negative premiss, and particular,

to secure the distribution of but one term. Hence in
every case we get Rule 8th as above.*
These eight Rules are for testing the validity of
syllogisms. If they are violated by any syllogism, save
in the exceptional cases mentioned, we may be sure
that it involves an error. Although we cannot point
it out clearly at the time, the syllogism may be rejected
as faulty. We may not always be able to demonstrate
the truth of each rule, just as one may forget the proof
of a rule in arithmetic, but the rules should be well
committed to memory for ready use in testing every
syllogism.
Recapitulation.

Every syllogism contains three and only three

propositions, called the —
1 Major premiss.
2 Minor premiss.
3 Conclusion.
Every syllogism contains three and ©nly three
terms, the —
1 Major.
2 Minor.
3 Middle.
Axioms.

1. If two terms agree with one and the same third,

they agree with one another.
2. If one term agrees with, and another term
disagrees with the same third, these two will disagree
with one another.

*Xole. — It
may be noted that exceptions to this Rule may occur from
affirmatives that distribute the predicate as undir Rule 7th. Sec page 78.
 qiYAS KE QA WA1D. 135

men faqat ek juz juzi hona chahiye. Is waste bahar siirat

athwan qaida bihasb i sadr, musallam hai.
Is athwen qaide ke mustasniyat bhi un mujibat ke
sabab se hote hain, jo bihasb qaida-e 7, mahmul kulliyat
bayan karte hain. (Dekho safha. 79.)
Yih athon qawaid waste daryaft karne sihhat qiyas
ke hain ; agar koi qiyas siwae baz mustasniyat mazkure
qiyas ke, in qawaid ke bamujib na ho, to beshakk galat
hoga ; agarchi sarihi na malum ho, ki fulani galati hai,
magar taham galat samajhna chahiye. Agar subut in
qawaid ka har waqt yad na rahe to khair ; lekin qawaid ko
bakhubi zihn-nishin karna chahiye.

MUJMAL BAYAX.

1. — Har qiyas men sii-f tin hi qaziye hote hain, yane

Jcubrd, sugrd aur nat/ja.
2. — Har qiyas men sirf tin hi juz hote hain, yane
akbar, aeg.ar aur hadd i aicsat.

Qiyas ke Qa"nun i Badihi.

Pahle. — Agar do juz kisi tisre juz ke mutabiq hon,
to apas men bhi mutabiq honge.
Dusre. — Agar ek juz mutabiq ho, aur dusra gair- mu
tabiq ho kisi tisre juz ko, to yih donon apas men gair-
mutabiq honge.
136 RULES FOR THE SYLLOGISM.

Kules foe Syllogisms.

1 . If
both premisses of a syllogism are affirmative,
the conclusion must be affirmative.
2. If either of the premisses be negative, the con
clusion must be negative.
3. If both premisses be negative, we can draw no
conclusion.
4. The middle term must be univocal, i. e., have
but one meaning in the premisses.
5. The middle term must be distributed at least
once in the premisses.
6. A term must not be distributed in the conclu
sion that was not distributed in its premiss.
7. If both premisses are particular, no conclusion
can be drawn.
8. If one premiss be particular, the conclusion
must be particular.
 Q1YAS KE QAWA'ID. 137

QlTAS KE QAWAID.

Pahid qdida. — Jis qiyas men kubra aur sugra mujiba

ion, to natija bhi mujiba hoga.
Dusrd. — Agar kubra aur sugra men ek mujiba, aux
ek saliba ho, to natija zurur saliba hoga.
Thrd. — Agar kubra aur sugra donon salibe hon, to
kuchh natija na niklega.
Ghauthd. — Hadd i
ausat zurur mufrad hona chahiye,
yane kubra aur sugra men us ke sirf ek hi mane hon.
Pdnchwdn. — Kubra aur sugra men se ek men hadd i
ausat kulli hona chahiye.
Chhathivdn. — Agar kubra ya sugra men akbar ya asgar
juzi hon, to natije men bhi juzi hona chahiye.
Sdtwdn. — Agar kubra aur sugra donon juziye hon, to
kuehh natija na niklega.
A'tkwdn.—Agax ek muqaddama juziya ho, to natija
zurur juziya hoga.
 SECTION II.

Figure.

I. — Special attention has not yet been called to tLe

fact, that syllogism may have a variety of forms,
the
according to the position of the middle term. Some
times it may seem best and most natural to make the
middle term the subject of the major premiss and the
predicate of the minor, sometimes the predicate of both
premisses, &c. It is not required to be in any particular
position, but may take its place in the premisses accord
ing to the way the argument strikes the mind of the
reasoner. Thus, take the syllogism, —

Good men do not go to hell.

Liars go to hell.
Therefore, Liars are not good men.

This may be stated thus : —

None that go to hell, are good men.
Liars go to hell.
Therefore, Liars are not good men.

In these two syllogisms, the middle term

go to
"
"
hell, is the predicate of both premisses in the first ex
ample; — in the second example it is the subject of the
major and the predicate of tho minor premiss.
Figure, is the ivord used to denote the different positions
of the middle term in syllogisms. The subject of figure
may seem difficult to the learner, but by a little applica
tion it will become plain. It is important to be familiar
with it in order to deal readily with the various forma
taken by syllogisms.
 FASL II.

Shakl.

I. —Abhi tak is bat ka kuchh liliaz na tha, ki bamiijib

mauqa, aur mahal hadd i ausat ke, qiyas ki kai suraten
hoti hain. Baz mauqa aisa hai, ki hadd i ausat ko mauzii
gardanna kubra men, aur mahmul sugra men sab se achchha
malum hota hai, aur baz mauqa aisa akar parta hai, ki
badd i ausat kubra am' sugra donon men mahmul bota hai.
Koi jagah khass hadd i ausat ke hone ki muaiyan nahin
hai, balki jis ja par us ka lana dalil karnowale ke dil ko
pasand awe, wahin par lawega. Maslan ek qiyas hai,. ki

Nek log dozakh ko naWg j'iwc.jge.

Jhuthe, dozakh ko jawenge.
Pas, Jhuthe, nek log nahin hote hain.

Aur yun bhi ho sakta hai, ki

Jo log dozakh ko jate, nek nahin hain.

Jhuthe, dozakh ko jate hain.
Pas, Jhuthe, nek log nanig hain.

In do qiyas men, hadd i ausat "dozakh ko jana," pahli

misal men, kubra aur sugra donon men mahmul para hai.
Dusri misal men, kubra men mauzii, aur sugra men mahmul
para hai.
Shakl se murdd mauqa, aur mahal wdqi hone hadd i
ausat kd hai. Agarehi auwal, mubtadi ko shakl ka bayan
zara mushkil maliim hoga magar thore hi mashq men
bakhubi saf ho jawega. Is kaifiyat se agah hona nihayat
pur-zurur hai, taki mukhtalif suraten qiyas ki, ba-asani
tamam istiamal men awen.
140 FIGURE.

II. — It is plain that the middle term can have bub

four different positions in the syllogism.
1. It may be the subject of the major premiss and
the predicate of the minor, which constitutes the first
figure.
2. It may be the predicate of both premisses, which
constitutes the second figure.
3. It may be the subject of both premisses, which
constitutes the third figure.
4. It may be tbe predicate of the major premiss
and the subject of the minor, which is the fourth figure.
Now, let M represent the middle term, and P the
major term, (being the predicate of the conclusion) and
S the minor term, (being the subject of the conclusion),
and we may represent the four figures thus, —

First Figure. Second Figure. | Third Figure. Fourth Figure.

M isP P is M M is P P isM
S isM S is M i M is S Mis S
S isP S is P S is P Sis P.

A syllogism, illustrating each figure, may make

this subject plainer. The middle term is enclosed in
brackets.
First Figure.
Every (desire to gain by another's loss), is sin.
All gaming, is a (desire to gain by another's loss.)
Therefore, All gaming is sin.

Second Figure.

All
intelligent men, are (friends to education.)
Some wealthy men, are not (friends to education.)
Therefore, Some wealthy men, are not intelligent men.

Third Figure.

Some (good men), are not learned.

All (good men), are worthy of admiration.
Therefore, Some who are worthy of admiration, are not learned.
 SHAKL. 141

II. — Yih zahir hai, ki hadd i ausat char mauqa par a

sakti hai.
Pahle. — Agar hadd i ausat mauzii ho kuhra men, atir
mahmul ho sugra men, to shakl i auwal hogi.
Dusre. — Agar hadd i
ausat kuhra aur sugra donon
men mahmul waqi ho, to shakl i doyum hogi.
Tisre. — Agar hadd i ausat donoii men mauzu ho, to
shakl i seyum kaheiige.
Chautlie. — Agar hadd i ausat kuhra men mahmul ho,
aur sugra men mauzii ho, to shakl i chaharum hogi.
Ah farz karo, ki H. hadd i ausat, aur A. akhar, aur
S. asgar ho, to char shaklen is tarah par hongi.

1 Shakl. 2 Shakl 3 Shakl. 4 Shakl.

H. A. hai, A. H. hai, H. A. hai, A. H. hai.
S. H. hai, S. H. hai, H. S. hai, H. S. hai.
S. A. hai, S. A. hai, S. A. hai, S. A. hai

men ek misal di jati hai, taki kaifiyat i

Har shakl
kulli us ki khul jawe. Hadd i ausat do lakiron ke hich
men hai.

Shakl i auwal.

(Auron ke nuqsan se apna nafa takna), gunah hai.

(Jua auron ke nuqsan se, apna nafa takna), hai.
Pas, Jua gunah hai.

Shakl i doyum.
Sah aqlmand admi, (ilm ko aziz jante hain.)
Baze daulatmand, (ilm ko aziz nahin jante
hain.)
Pas, Baze daulatmand admi, aqlmand nahin hain.

Shakl i seyum.
(Baz nek admi), alim nahin hote haiu.
(Kull nek admi),'qabil i tahsin hote "hain.
Pas, Baz admi jo qabil i tahsin hain, alim nahin hote hain.
142 THE FIRST FIGURE.

Fourth Figure.
No act of tyranny. is (beneficial to the state.)
Some (things beneficial to the state), are unsuccessful.
Therefore, Some unsuccessful things, are not tyranny.
III. — Thesefour figures must be examined in order,
and special rules for them deduced.
First Fiqdee.
It
wiil be seen that the First Figure is in the form
in which Aristotle's dictum applies to it directly, i. e.
Of is predicated.
a whole class. something
in that whole class.
Something else is included
Hence, Of this something else, the same is predicated.

By using the four categorical propositions according

to their quantity and quality, it will be found that there
can be but four variations of the syllogism in the first
figure.
First Figure. Second Figure. Third Figure. i Fourth Figure.
All M is ?. All M is P No M is P No M is P
All S is M '
Some S is XI All S is M Some S is M
All S is P Some S is l1 No S is 1' ! Some S is not P.

Now, the first figure being in the form of "Aristot

le's dictum^' we affirm or deny the predicate of the
whole class which is the subject. Hence it is manifest
that in the first figure, the major premiss is always a
universal, consequently any syllogism in this figure with
a particular major will be invalid.
Since the minor premiss, according to Aristotle's
dictum, always affirms that something belongs to the
given class, it is plain that in the first figure the minor
premiss must always be affirmative, consequently any
syllogism in this figure with a negative minor premiss
will be invalid.
Thus, two rules have been obtained for the first
figure, i. e. —
1 . The major premiss must always be universal.
2. The minor premiss must always be affirmative.
 SIIAKL I AVWAL. 143

Skald i chahnrum.
Koi kam zulin ka. kisi amaldari men nafa i khalaiq nahin.
Baz kam nafa i khalaiq ke jo hain, nahin chalte huig.
Pas, Baz kam jo nahin chalte hain, zulm nahin hain.

III. — Ab
in char shaklon par ba tartib gaur karna,
aur un ke khass qaide nikalna chahiye.

BAY AN SHAKL I AVWAL.

Zahir hai, ki pahli shakl ki aisi surat hai, ki Arastata

lis ke qaul se fauran parkhi jae. Maslan, pahli shakl ki
aisi surat hai, ki us men —

Kulli ki
nisbat knehh kaha jata liai.
Baz chizen us kulli men sliamil ki jati hain.
Pas, In baz chizon ki nisbat blii wuh bat kahi jati bai.

Aur yihi surat Arastatalis ke qaul ki hai.

Qaziya i hamliya ki charon suraton ko kulliyat o juzi-
yat, aur ijab o salbke bamujib banane se malum hota hai,
ki shakl i auwal men qiyas ki sirf char suraten ho sakti
hain.

1. 2. 3. 4.
Sab II. A. hai, SabH. A. hai, Koi II. A. nahin, ]
Koi'H. A. nahin.
Sab S. H. hai, Baz S. H. hai. Sab S. II. hain." Baz' S. H. hain"
Sab S. A. hai, Ba* S. A. hai, Koi S. A. nahin, | Baz S. A. liahfij.

waste ki shakl i auwal, bamujib qaul i Arastatalis

Is
hai, to mauzu ke kull afrad par mahmul ka dawa hoga.
Pas zahir hai, ki shakl i auwal men kubra hamesha kulliya
hota hai, isi sabab se agar shakl i auwal men koi aisa qiyas
ho, ki jis men kubra juziya ho, to qiyas batil hoga.
Chunki bamujib i qaul i Arastatalis, sugra men
dawa is bat ka hota hai, ki mauzu us ka, kubra ke mauzii
zahir hai, ki shakl i auwal men
men shamil hai, is sabab se
sugni mujiba hona chahiye. Pas is shakl men koi qiyas
kyun na ho, agar us ka sugra saliba hai, to wuh galat
hoga.
Chunanchi is bayan ke bamujib pahli shakl ke waste
do qaide hain : (Safha. 145.)
 144 THE SECOND FIGURE.

Hence there can be but four forms of syllogism in

this figure. The other figures, not being in the form to
which Aristotle's dictum applies, must be tested by the
axioms and rules for syllogisms.

Second Figure.

Taking up the second figure, it is found that the con

clusion of syllogisms in it must always be negative, be
cause the middle term is the predicate of both premisses,
and as it must be distributed in at least one of the
premisses, this requires that one of the premisses be
negative, since only negatives distribute the predicate.
If, then, one of the premisses be negative the conclusion
also must be negative according to rule. [p. 116, r.

2.]
We may observe further, the conclusion be negative
if
distributes its predicate, which in this figure the

is
it

subject of the major premiss hence the major premiss

;

with subject distributed, will be universal.

a
a

Three special rules are thus obtained for the second

figure, viz.

. The major premiss must be universal.

1

2. One the premisses must be negative.

of

3. The conclusion must be negative.

Any syllogism in this figure, which violates these

rules invalid.
is

Third Fkjure.

This figure of the form, M

is is is
S P
is

M
P.
S

The syllogism as varied by quantity and quality, may

have greater variety of form in this figure than in any
a
 S1IAKL I DO YUM. 145

1. — Kubra kd kulliya hond zarur chdhiye.

2. — Sug.rd kd mdjiba hond zarur chdhiye.
Garaz ki is shakl men qiyas ki sirf char siiraten hain,
jin ki sihhat Arastatalis ke qaul se malum hoti hai ; magar
aur shaklen chunki ba surat i qaul i Arastatalis nahin hain,
is jihat se zarur hai, ki jo qawanin i badihi aur qawaid waste
sihhat aqsam qiyas ke, omqarrar hain, un se un ki sihhat
daryaft ki jawe.

Bayan Shakl i doyum.

Malum hota hai, ki shakl i doyum men natija qiyason

ka zarur saliba hona chahiye, is sabab se, ki sugra aur
kubra donon men hadd i ausat mahmul waqi hota hai, aur
agar kubra o sugrd donon miijibe hon, donon men hadd i
ausat juzi hoga, haMnki chahiye yih tha, Id ek men Uulli
ho. Is waste zartir hai, ki ek qaziya saliba ho, kyunki
salibon ka mahmul kulli hai. Pas agar kubra aur sugra
men se ek saliba ho, to natija bhi bamujib qaida i mazkura,
zarur saliba hoga. [Saf. 117; Q. 2.]
Aur alawa is ke agar natija saliba ho, to us ka mahmul
jo is shakl men kubra ka mauzii waqi hiia tha, kulli hoga.
Pas kubra kulliya hoga. Lihaza bamujib bayan i mazkura
e bala, dusri shakl ke liye tin qaide nikalte hain, yane —

1. — Kubra zarur kulliya hond chdhiye.

2. — Ktibrd sugrd men se ek zarur sdliba hond chdhiye.
3. —Natija zarur sdliba hond chdhiye.
Jo koi qiyas is shakl ka qawajd mazkura e bala ke
khilaf hogd, galat hoga.

Bayan Shakl i seytjm.

(H. A. hai.
Misil is shakl ki \
{ H. 8. hai-
i

(8. A. h*i.
I

Auron ki banisbat is shakl U kai siiraten hain. Is ke

liye tin q&ide hain. Anw*^, natija juziya hoga, jaisa ki
146 THE THIRD FIGURE.

other. Three rules arc formed for it. First, the conclu
sion must always be particular., as will be seen by trying
the syllogism in every form. Thus if both premisses be
affirmative and we draw a universal conclusion, the minor
term which is its subject, would be distributed ; but, as
the predicate of an affirmative minor premiss, it is not
distributed, hence we would have an " illicit process"
of the minor. The other possible cases are where
one of the premisses is negative, as two negative pre
misses are not allowable according to the rule. Let
the major premiss be negative, then the minor premiss
being affirmative, does not distribute its predicate —
the minor term — hence the conclusion of which it is
the subject, cannot be universal, else we would have
here also an illicit process of the minor. If the minor
premiss be negative, the major must be affirmative and
the conclusion negative, according to rule ; hence if wo
draw a universal negative, the major term, which as pre
dicate of an affirmative proposition was not distributed,
would be distributed as the predicate of a negative con
clusion, being an ''illicit process" of the major. Thus the
conclusion in every case in this figure must be particular.
Second, the minor premiss must always be affirmative,
for it has just been proven that the conclusion in tkis
figure must always be particular ; but if the minor
premiss be negative its predicate, the minor term,
would be distributed, and hence would require a uni
versal conclusion to avoid an " i'.lcit process," and we
have just seen that the conclusion cannot be universal
in this figure.
Third, one
of the premisses must be universal, because
in this figure the middle term is the subject of both
premisses, hence iii order to secure its distribution
-(Rule 5, p. 122) one of the premisses must be universal.
Hence the three rules: — (j«.ge 148.)
 SIIAKL I SEYUM. 147

is shakl ki suraton se zahir ho jaega. Maslan agar kubra

aur sugra donor? mujiba hog, aur natija kulliya nikala
jawe, to asgar, jo us ka mauzii hai, kulli hoga ; lekin
chunki yihi asgar ba bais waqi hone mahmul sugra mujiba
ke, kulli nahin hai, is jihat se agar natija men akar kulli
ho jae, to yih " kulliyat na-jaiz asgar ki" hogi. Aur agar
yun farz kiya jae, ki kubra aur sugra men se ek saliba ho,
kyunki donon ka saliba hona to hasb qaida i mazkura ke,
kisi tarah jaiz hi nahin hai, \_Saf. 117. Q. 3.] to aitical, farz
karo, ki kubra saliba ho, aur is surat men sugra chunki
mujiba hoga, is bais se us ka mahmul asgar, juzi hoga.
Pas natija, jis ka mauzii wuhi asgar waqi ho, jo juzi tha
sugra men, kyunkar kulliya ho sakta hai ? Doyum, farz
karo, ki sugra saliba ho, to is surat men, bamujib qaidon
mazkura ke, kubra zariir mujiba, aur natija saliba hoga.
Pas agar natija saliba i kulliya nikala jae, to akbar ba
bais waqi hone mahmul qaziya i
mujiba ke, juzi hoga, aur
yihi akbar, jo juzi hoga qaziya i mujibe men, natija
saliba ka bhi mahmul waqi hoga. Pas agar yahan kulli
qarar diya jae, to kaise ho sakta hai, kyunki " kulliyat
na-jaiz akbar ki" thaharti hai. Garaz ki bahar surat natija
is shakl ka juziya thaharta hai.
Doyum, mgrd kd- mujiba hona hamesha eartir hai. Zera
ki abhi sabit ho chuka hai, ki natija is shakl ka hamesha
juziya hota hai, lekin agar sugra saliba ho, to mahmul us
ka asgar i kulli waqi hoga, aur is surat men taki mahfuz
rahen, " kulliyat na-jaiz" se, natija kulliya nikalna parega ;

halanki abhi bayan ho chuka hai, ki natija is shakl ka

kulhya kisi tarah nabin ata hai.
Tisre, muqaddamdt men, ek kulliya hona chdhiye, kyunki
is shakl men hadd i ausat donon muqaddamon ka mauzii
hota hai. Pas is liye ki us ki kulliyat qaim rahe, ek muqad-
dama kulliya zarur hoga. Pas bayan i mazkura se tin
qaide nikalte hain : — (Suf. 149.)
148 THE FOURTH FIGURE.

1. — The minor premiss must be affirmative.

2. — One of the premisses must be universal.
3. — The conclusion must be particular.

Fourth Figure.

The fourth figure is of the form,

P isM.
M is S.
S is P.
This figure is an inversion of the first figure. It
was not used by Aristotle but has been adopted by
some logicians in later days.* By some the fourth
figure is rejected because it is supposed to be contrary
to our natural order of thought. As, however, by some
awkwardness of expression, an argument or syllogism may
take this form, it is well to understand it and the rules
according to which the fourth figure might be used.
All the categorical propositions, except a universal
affirmative, may be drawn as conclusions in this figure.
It is observed in this figure, that if the major premiss
be affirmative the minor must be universal. The reason
is, that the middle term, which in this figure is the pre
dicate of the major premiss and the subject of the
minor, would not be distributed at all if the premisses
violate this rule, while it must be distributed at least
once. [Rule 5, p. 122]. Thus, if the major premisa is
affirmative, its predicate, which is the middle term, is
not distributed ; hence the minor premiss of which it is
the subject, must be universal to secure its distribution
once.
Again, if theminor premiss be affirmative the con
clusion must be particular; otherwise we would have
* The introduction of this figure, is attributed by the Moslem author
Ayerroes, to Galen.
 SHAKL-I-CIIAIURUM. 14?

1. — Sugrd zartir mujibd hond chdhiye.

2. — Kubrd sugrd men se ek kulliyd hond chdhiye.
3. — Natija zarur juziya hond chdhiye.

B.A.YAN SHAKL I CHAHARUM.

Chauthi shakl ki surat yih hai,

A. II.
hai.
H. S. hai.
S. A. hai.

Yih shakl, pahli shakl ka ulta hai, yane us shakl men

hadd i ausat akhar ka mauy.il, aur is men mahmiil hai, pahle
men hadd i ausat asgar ka mahraul hai, aur is men mauzu.
Arastatalis ne isshakl ka istiam&l nahin kiya ; lekin aur
Mantiqin i mutaakhkhirin no is ko ikhtiyar kiya. Ek
Musalman dlim, Ab-ul-walid, sakin i Hispania ne likha
aai, ki is shakl ka ijad, Galen se hai, jo Eshia e Kuchak
men San 130 fswi men paida hua. Baz is shakl ko nahin
mar.te hain kyiinki wuh samajhte hain ki yih shakl khilaf i
aql ke hai ; lekin chunki ihtimal hai ki kahin par ba bais
be-tarti\)i iharat ke, kisi dalil ya qiyas men yih surat waqi
ho, is hais se is ka aur un qaidon ka, jin ki ru se yih shakl
i chaharuniistiarnal men ati hai, samajhna hihtar hai.
Siwa mujibe kulliye ke, aur sab qaziye hamliye, natija
is shakl ka hua karte hain. Mujiba i kulliya sirf shakl i
auwal ka natija waqi hota hai. Is shakl par gaur karne
se malum hota hai, ki Agar kubrd mujiba ho, to mgrd zarur
kulliya hogd. Wajh is ki yih hai, ki agar kubra aur sugra
khilaf is qanun ke hote, to hadd i ausat, jo is Bhakl men
raahmnl waqi hua hai kubra ka> aur mauzti sugra ka,
mutlaq kulli na hota, halanki yih chahiye hai, ki donon
men se ek men to kulli ho, [Saf. 123. Q. 5.] Garaz, agar
kubra mujiba ho, to mahmul us ka, jo hadd i ausat hai
juzi hoga, is liye kubra, jis ka wuhi hadd i ausat mauzii
para hai, zarur kulli hona chdhiye, taki us ki kulliyat ek
men to zariir ho jae.
Agar &ugrd mujiba ho, to natija zurur juziya hogd.
Agar aisa na ho to " kulhyat na-jaiz asgar ki," thahregi ;
 150 USE OF EACH FIGURE.

an " illicit process" of tho minor, as a moment's reflec

tion will show.
Again, if either premiss be negative the conclusion
also must be negative [Rule 2, p. 116], hence its predicate
which is the major term, would be distributed [Rule
4, p. 80], and this term being the subject of the major
premiss, requires this to be universal, otherwise the
major term would be distributed in the conclusion but
not in the premiss, involving, as said, an " illicit pro
cess.'' From this reasoning, we infer a third rule as
given below Thus, there are three rules to which syllo
gisms in this figure must conform, viz : —
1. — // the major premiss be affirmative, the minor
must be universal.
2. — If the minor premiss be affirmative, the C07ichtsicn
must be particular.
3. — If
either of the premisses be negative, the major
must be universal.
These rules of the four figures should be well stored
in the memory for ready application.
IV. — It is worthy of note that each figure, except
ing the fourth, which is merely an irregular or awkward
form of argument into which the mind may accidentally
stumble, has its own special use or fitness in certain
cases or forms of argument. Thus, the first figure is
that to which Aristotle's dictum applies directly, hence
it is specially adapted for drawing conclusions from
admitted universal or general principles or statements.
For instance, if it be admitted as a general principle,
that " All desire to gain by another's loss is sin," we
may then go on to show that gaming is such a desire,
and hence draw the just conclusion that all gaming is
sin.
The second figure is specially adapted to disprove
something that is maintained or believed to be true, or
is likely to be accepted, although false and injurious. It
 SB A KLOS KA' KSASS HA UQA. 151

kyiinki agar sugra mujiba ho, to us ka mahmul asgar, juzi

hoga, aur wuhi asgar ba bais waqi hone mauzu natija ke
zurur juzi hona chahiye, taki " kulkyat na-jaiz" na ho.
Agar kubrd aur sug.rd men so ek sdliba ho, to zurur hai,
ki kubrd kulliya ho, warna " kullij'at na-jaiz akbar ki" thahre-
gi. Maslan in donon men se agar ek saliba ho, to natija
bhi zarur saliba hoga, [Sqf. 117. Q. 2,] aur us ka mahmul,
jo akbar hai kulli hoga, [Saf. 81. Q. 4,] aur yihi mahmul
natije ka, kubra men mauzii hai, pas zurur hai, ki -wahan
bhi kulli ho, warna yih akbar natije men kulli hoga, aur
kubra men nahin, — aur yih khilaf i qaida hai.
Pas tin qaide hain, jin ke bamujib is shakl ke qiyas
lnia karte hain : —
1. — Agar kubrd mujiba ho, to sugrd zarur kulliyd hoga,
2. — Agar sug.rd mujiba ho, to
natija zurur juziya hogd.
3. — Agar kubrd aur sug.rd men se ek sdliba ho, to zurur

hai, ki kubrd kulliya hoice.

In charon shaklon ke qaidon ko khub zihn-nashin kar
lena chahiye, taki jis waqt mauqa pare, kam men awen.
IV. — Gaur karna chahiye, ki bajuz shakl chaharum
ke, jo ittifaqiya dalil i be-tartib ki siirat men a parti hai, baqi
tinon shaklen apne apne mauqa par istiamal men ati hain.
Maslan shakl i
auwal bi-ainhi mutabiq qaul i Axas-
tatalis hai, is jihat se is laiq hai, ki jahan kaMn kuliiyat
i musallama, yane taslim ki hui se, ya dmm baton se natija
nikalna chahen, so nikalen. Maslan agar koi is iimm bat ko
mane; ki " auron ke nuqsan se apna nafa takna gunah
hai," to agar ham sabit karen, ki jua khelna aisa fial hai,
men auron ke nuqsan se nafa takna hai, pas yihi natija
jis

niklega, ki jua khelna kaisa hi kyun na ho, gunah hai.

Diisri shakl, apna dawa qaim karne ke liye itni kara-
mad nahin hai, jitna ki diisre ki bat ko katne ke liye.
MM shakl auwal ki, shakl ka kubra, qaziya kulliya
is
i
152 USE OF EACH FIGURE.

is thus useful in attacking and destroying the position

of an opponent, rather than in building up one of our
own. In this figure, just as in the first, the major pre
miss is a universal proposition, or contains a class to
which the consent of an opponent has been gained.
Then it is proved that the proposition advanced by him,
cannot be true, because it either wants something that
belongs to this admitted class, or has something of which
that class is destitute, and hence can not be accepted.
Thus, suppose it is maintained, or is likely to be believ
ed, that
" Jesus was an impostor, seeking to form a
party for some selfish end." Now, we may set about
refuting this by laying down the proposition that : —
No impostor seeking to form a party for selfish ends, would
warn his followers that they would have to endnre great
persecutions.
We may then show that : —
Jesus did so warn his followers.
Hence, Jesus was not an impostor.
Suppose that some one is disposed to believe the
Bible to be merely a human production, because many
things in it appear merely human, or seem to be mixed
up with human error. Now, perhaps the consent of no
one would be withheld from a proposition like this : —
Any book containing a spirit and character superhuman, how
ever hedged in by difficulties, must be divine.
We may incorporate this in a syllogism and com
plete the reasoning thus : —
The Bible appears to be just such a book.
Hence, The Bible must be divine.
The third figure is specially applicable for argu
ments in two cases. First where the middle term, is a
proper name. A proper name, is not used as a predi
cate; hence in this figure, as the middle term is the
Bubject of both premisses, a proper name, may be used.
Thus:--
Caesar was a tyrant.
Csesar was a conqueror.
Therefore, Some conquerors are tyrants.
 SRAKLON KJT KB ASS MAUQA. 153

hota hai, jis ko fariq i sani, ki jae, taelim kar

jis
se bahs
lewe. Phil- yih sabit kiya jata hai, ki dawa fariq Ban! ka

i
sahih nahin ho sakta hai, sabab se ki ya to us ke dawe

is
men ek bat nahin pai jati hai, kulliya musallama

jo
qaziya

i
men hai, ya yih, ki us dawe men pai jati hai, magar qaziya

i
musallama men nahin hai pas us ka dawa qabil taalim

i
;
nahin hai.

Maslan koi kahe, ki Khudawand Isa Masili dagabaa

tha, waste ki apne liye ek guroh ko mutia karna chahta
is

tha, aur un ki bihtari se kuchh sarokar na tha, to ham

is
ke radd men yih qaziya kulliya lawen, ki "Jo dagabaz
i

apne matlab ke waste ek guroh ko mutia karta hai, ami

is
ki ittila us guroh ko na deta ki tumhare upar mere mutia
hone ke sabab se bari bari musibaten awengi." Jab ham
donon ko taslim karen, to sabit karna chahiye, ki Khuda
is

wand fsa Masih ne apne shagirdon ko tarah ki ittild di

is

;
pas natija yih niklega, ki wuh dagabaz na tha.

Dusrt misdl. — Farz karo, koi kahe ki Baibal insan ki

banai hui hai, kyunki bahut baten us men insan ki maliim
hoti hain, ya yih, ki bahut baten us men aisi hain, jin men
insan ki galati malum hoti hai, to surat men shayad
is

har koi qaziya kulliya ko taslim karega, ki

is

Koi kitiib, ki talim aur khaasiyat aisi ho, ki insan ki

jis

taqat se bahar ho, go ki baz iuaqamat men kaisi hi

mushkil baten hog, zurur ilhami hogi.

Jab ham qaziye ko qiyas men milawen, to

is

tarah
is

puri dalil bana sakte hain —

:

Baibal dar haqiqat aisi kitab malum hott hai.

Fas, Baibal zurur ilhami hai.
104 USE OF EACH FIGURE.

An argument must thus sometimes take the form

of the third figure. Secondly, this figure is useful when
we wish to offer and maintain an objection to an
opponent's premiss, when he reasons from a particular
premiss, while that premiss should be universal, in a
valid argument. We then show that the argument in
its legitimate form proves too much. Suppose one
contend, that "a certain doctrine ought not to be
believed because it cannot be explained or comprehend
ed." His argument stated in full would be,-— •
Some doctrines that cannot be explained and
comprehended, ought not to be believed.
The doctrine in question, can not be explained
or comprehended.
Therefore, It is not to be believed. .

This put in symbols —

is,

X not Y.
is is is

Some
X.
Z Z

Therefore, not Y.

which plainly contains an undistributed middle. Tie

argument to be legitimate should be, —

Every doctrine that cannot be explained and comprehended,

ought not to be believed.
 SUA KLON KA' KHASS MA UQA. 155

Shakl i seyum, khass karke do mauqa par dalil karne

ke waste istianml Auwal, jahan hadd 1 ausat.
ki 'jati hai.
ism i khass, yane ism i marifa hota hai, kyunki dar haqi-
hai, aur ehunki is
qat ism i marifa mahmul nahin hota
hai
shakl men hadd i ausat mahmul nahin waqi hota
balki kuhra sugra donon men roauzii waqi hota hai, is jihat
seagar hadd i ausat ism i marifa ho, to kuchh muzayaqa
nahin . — Maslan,
Qaisar zalim tha.
Qaisar baia nimwar tha.
Pas, Baz namwar, zalim bote haig.
' i
Pas is tarah par kahhikabhi ek dalil ya qiyas, shakl
seyum ki surat men banana parta hai.
Doyum, yih shakl us mauqa par istiamal ki jati hai„
jahan kisi ke dawe par iatiraz pesh karna ehahen, jab
ki
wuh, qaziye juziye se bahs kare, jis halat men, ki qaziya i
i
kulliya se bah? karna chahiye. To aisi jagah par ham
sabit karenge, ki agar yih dalil ba sihhat likhi jawe, to
fariq i sani ke matlab se bhi barhkar sabit hota hai, yane
khud us ke' upar iatiraz warid hota hai. Farz karo, koi
shakhs kahe, ki fulani bat nahin manni chahiye, kyunki
samajh men nahin ati, aur koi use samjha nahin sakta hai.
Agar yih dawa ba tartib qiyas ke likha jawe, to yun
hoga, ki —
Baz baton, jo samajh men nahin atin, nn ko na
manna chahiye.
Fulani bat, samajh men nahin ati.
Pas, Us ko na manna chahiye.

Aur yih misal ba zaria huruf ke yiin hogi ki —

Baz A. B. hai.
J. A. hai.
Pas, J. B. hai.

Is misal se saf zahir hota hai, ki is qiyas ka hadd i

ausat juzi hai, is sabab se yih dalil sahih nahin hai. Agar
sahih taur par likhi jawe, to yun hogi : —
156 USE OF EACH FIGURE.

The doctrine in question, cannot be explained or

comprehended.
Therefore, It is not to be believed.

Now, the argument founded on this universal major

premiss, proves too much, and we may urge an objection
to it in the third figure, thus, —

The connection of soul and body, cannot be explained and

comprehended.
The connection of soul and body must be believed.
Therefore, Some things that cannot be explained, must be believed.

From this it is seen, that the premiss of the op

ponent involves an error On tho question of the spe
cial fitness of one mood over another in certain cases,
we may note that it is a more natural order of thought,
to predicate the more extensive of the less extensive
term, the genus of the species; thus we do not say " wise
is James," " an animal i3 a horse," but " James is wise,"
" a horse is an animal." Hence, where the middle term
would be the more extensive term in the premisses, it
is natural to form the syllogism in the second figure,
because it will then be predicate. But if the middle term
be the less extensive term, it would naturally be the
subject, and the syllogism would fall in the third figure.
The subject of Figure, and its rules, being well un
derstood, we turn to another matter connected with syl
logisms, viz., Mood.
 SHAKLON KA' KHA'SS MAUQA. 157

Har ek bat, jo samajh men nahin ati, us ko nahin

manna- chahiye.
Fulani bat samajli men nahin ati.
Pas, Us ko nahin manna chahiye.

Yahan par kubra kulliya se, jo dalil nikalti hai, us

dalil se, us se bhi barhkar sabit hota hai, jitna ki fariq sani
ko manzur tha, yane khud us ke upar tisri shakl ki ru se,
iatiraz warid hota hai, Maslan : —

Ruh aur jism ke darmiyan ilaqa jo hai, samajh men nahin ata,
Rub. aur jism ke darmiyan jlaqa jo hai, ham us ko mante hain,
Pas, Baz baten, jo samajh men nahin ati haig, ham mante hain.

Is qiyas se alaniya sabit hai, ki a.rjar dawa fariq sani

ka ba sihhat likha jae, to kubra galat thaharta hai. Aur
is bab men ki khass mauqaon par ek zarb ko dusri par
tarjih hai, yih lihaz rakhna chahiye, ki flkr yih chahti hai,
ki wasia lafz kam wasia ka, aur jins nau ka, mahmul
" Haiwan
waqi ho. Maslan ham yun nahin bolte hain ki
" Ghora haiwan hai," ya " aqlmand Zaid
ghora hai," balki
hai," balki
" Zaid aqlmand hai." Isi waste jahan kahin
muqaddamat men hadd i ausat ziyada wasia ul mane ho, to
tartib i qiyas dusri shakl men achchhi malum hoti hai,
kvunki usi surat men mahmul parti hai. Lekin hadd i
ausat agar kam wasia ho, to use mauzii dalna achchha ma
i
qiyas tisri shakl men ho jati hai
lum hota hai, aur tartib
Bayan shaklon aur un ke qawaid ka ho chuka. Ab
ham ek aur bayan mutaalliq i qiyas, yane zarb ka bayan
shurii karte hain.
 SECTION III.

Mood.

1 By the of a syllogism is meant, the designa

mood
tion by symbols, of the quantity and quality of its three
propositions in their order. It will be remembered thatthe
I
four vowels A E 0, were used to designate the quantity
and quality of all propositions, viz., universal affirmative,
universal negative, particular affirmative, particular
negative. For example take the syllogism, —
Every desire to gain by another's loss, is sin. (A.)
Gaming, is a desire to gain by another's loss. (A.)
Therefore, All gaming is sin. (A.)

The three propositions of this syllogism, are all

universal affirmatives, hence the mood of the syllogism as
indicated by the appropriate symbols is A A A.
Now, it is manifest that the four categorical proposi
tions A E I
0, can be arranged in 64 combinations or
moods, by the law of permutation. There are three prop
ositions in the syllogism, and each of these may be varied
I
in four different ways, as A E 0. Each of these sym
bols may be a major premiss, and each of these four
majors may have in turn all the four categorical proposi
tions as minors, giving sixteen sets, and to each of these
sixteen sets, the four categoricals may be used as con
clusions, making the 64 combinations of syllogism.
 FASL III.

Bayan Zarb ka.

1. —Zarb se murad hai, tinon qazion qiyas ki kulliyat o

"
juziyat, aur ijab o salb, yane kam o knif."
Yad rakhna chahiye, ki char alamaten, sab qazion ki
kulliyat o juziyat, aur ijab o salb ke malum karne ke waste
muqarrar ki gai hain, yane Mk. waste miijiba i kulliya
ke; Sk. waste saliba i kulbya ke; Mj. waste miijiba
i juziya ke ; Sj. waste saliba i juziya ke. Har qiyas ki
zarb, in cKaron alamaton se likhte hain. Maslan, ek qiyas
hai, ki

Mk. Jis fial men ki auron ke nuqsan se apna nafa ho, gunah hai.
21k. Jua aisa fial hai, jis men auron ke nuqsan se apna nafahotahai,
Mk. Pas. Jua khelna gunah. hai.

Tinon qaziye is qiyas ke, mujibe kulliye hain, pas

zarb is qiyas ki, jis se murad hai batlana " kam o kaif"
ka, ba zaria alamaton muaiyana ke yih hai, Mk. Mk. Mk.
Wazih ho, jahan kahin aisi alamaten waqi hon, auwal ala-
mat se murad hubrd ; doyum se sugra ; seyum se natija
hogi. Zahir hai, ki charon qazaya e hamliya, yane Mk.
Sk. Mj. Sj. ki, iwaz mudwize ke qaide se, chaunsath zarben
ho sakti hain. Maslan, yih malum hai, ki qiyas ke tin
qaziye hote hain., aur har qaziye ki char suraten ho sakti
hain, yane Mk. ya Sk., Mj. ya Sj. Ab gaur karna chahi
ye, ki kubra in charon men a sakta hai, aur har ek kubra
ke sath sugra ki char suraten a sakti hain, yane Mk. Sk.
Mj. Sj. ; pas kubra aur sugra ke solah jor hue, aur phir
har jor l<a natija bhi inhin char suraton par a sakta hai,
to is tarah chaunsath zarben niklengi : —
160

Majors,
I 0.
Minors, AEIO. ditto ditto ditto.

Conclusions, AEIO.
This operation may be gone
through with for each
of the letters, and sixty-four
moods, or forms of syllogism
will be the result.
Now many of these moods are not allowable
because
they violate the rules laid down for syllogisms,
and for
the figures. Thus all moods having affirmative
pre
misses with a negative conclusion, as A
A E, A 0, I
are inadmissable because they violate the
first axiom!
All moods with negative premisses as E E, 0 0,—
E 0, &c„ cannot be used because they violate a rule
[p. 116, r. 3.] All moods with particular premisses are
not allowable, as they violate a rule [p. 128, r. Some 7.]
of the moods as I E 0, must be rejected for an illicit
process. Twenty-eight of the sixty-four moods, are
rejected on account of negative and particular premisses
alone. It will be found that out of the entire sixty-four
moods, only eleven are allowable as not violating the
rules for syllogism, viz.

Four affirmatives. Seven negatives

AAA. E AE.
All.
A A
AEE.
I. E AO.
I A I. A 0 0.
0 AO.
E I 0.
AEO.
2. As there are four figures, it might seem that
by applying these eleven moods to all the figures, we
would have forty-four in all, but some of the moods
which are valid in one figure are not in an other, be
cause they violate the rules against the " undistributed
 ZARB KE BAYAN MEN. 161

4 Kubre, Mk. Sk. Mj. Sj.

16 Sugre, Mk. Sk. Mj. Sj. Aizan, Aizan, Aizan.

0 S

64 Nati je Mk. ML Mj. Mj.

In chaunsath zarbon men bahut nadurust hain, is sabab
se ki khilaf hain un qaidon ke, jo mazkiir ho chuke hain,
waste qiyas aur shaklon ke. Maslan jo zarb, ki jis ka
kubra aur sugra mujiba ho, aur natija saliba ho, jaise Mk.
Mk. Sk. aur Mk. Mj. Sj. sahlh nahin, is waste ki wuh khilaf
pahle qaniin ke hogi, [Saf. 115. Q. 1.] Kull zarben, jin
ka kubra aur sugra saliba hon, maslan Sk. Sk., aur Sj. Sj.,
aur Sk. Sj. qanun ke khilaf hain, [Saf. 117. Q. 3.] Jin zarbon
ke kubra o sugra juziya hote hain, wuh zarben bhi ba-bais
khilaf i qaida hone ke gir jati hain, \_Saf. 129. Q. 7.]
Chand zarben, jaise Mj. Sk. Sj., ba sabab " kulliyat najaiz"
hone ke gir jati hain, [Saf. 127, Q. 6.] Chaunsath men
athais zarben to sirf ba sabab saliba aur juziya hone kubra
o sugra ke, gir jati hain. Garaz yih ki sirf gyarah sahih
rahti hain ; yane, —

Chdr M&jibe, Sat Sdlibe.

Mk. Mk. Mk. aur Sk. Mk. Sk.
Mk. Mj. Mj. Mk. Sk. Sk.
Mk. Mk. Mj. Sk. Mk. Sj.
Mj. Mk. Mj. Mk. Sj. Sj.
Sj. Mk. Sj.
Sk. Mj. Sj.
Mk. Sk. Sj.

2. —Agar charon, shaklon mengyarah gyarah zarben

istiamal ki jatin, to kull ehaualis zarben hotin, lekin yih
bat nahin hai, balki baz zarben, jo ek shakl men sahih
hain dusri men galat, ba bais mukhalif hone un qawaid ke,
jo dar bab na hone "juziyat hadd i ausat," aur "kulliyat
162 MOOD.

middle'' and " illicit process." Thus the mood A I, I

-which is valid in tha third figure, cannot be used in the
first figure, because it would involve an undistributed
middle. Again A E B, is a valid mood in the second
figure, but in the first it would have an illicit process
of the major term. By thus testing these eleven mocds
in the four figures, it is found that there would be six
in each figure, that Now of these

is,
twenty-four in all.
twenty-four moods, five, though valid, are thrown aside
as useless, giving a- particular conclusion when univer

a
sal might have been drawn. For example, A A

of
I,
the first figure A allowable and

A
useless, as
is

is
really contains it. Thus.

All humanbeings are mortal.

All Hindus are human beings.
Iherei'ore, some Hindus are mortal.

This valid enough syllogism, but

it
useleas

is
is
a

because we might draw here the universal conclusion.

All Hindus are mortal.

There will remain then nineteen moods in all, viz.

four in the first figure, four in the second, six in the
third, and five in the fourth. They may be arranged as
follows —
:

E,

Fig. A, 0.
I, I, 0, I,
AAE A

AE A

E E E
E
AA AA
4, 3. 2, 1.

A0 I
I I

Fig. E, AEE, A 0.
0, 0,

Fig. 0.
0,
E 0
A
I, I,

E
A
I.

I
I

Ftg. AEE, A O.
A

I
I

These symbols simply exhibit in order, the nineteen

moods, and for greater facility in remembering there,
and at the same time to aid in the reduction of the
moods, a subject to be noticed hereafter, they have been
worked up into mnemotechnic lines in Latin measure
as below —
.
:
 ZARB KE BAYAN MEN. 163

najaiz" ke bayan ho chuke hain. Pas yihi zarb Mj. Mk.

Mj. jo hai, shakl i seyum men sahih hai; magar auwal
men nahin kyiinki wahan hadd i ausat juzi ho jaegi. Isi
tarah Mk. S/c. Sk. ki zarb, shakl i doyum men sahih hai,
lekin auwal men nahin kyunki agarwaharj istiamal men ati,
;

to kulliyat najaiz akbar ki hoti. Garaz ki is hi tarah par in

gyarah zarbon ko charon shaklon men janeho, to malum
hoga, ki har shakl men chha zarben, yane kull chaubis
sahih rahti hain. Magar in chaubis men. se bhl panch agar-
chi sahih hain, lekin ba bais dene natija juziya ke, jis hal
men ki natija kulliya nikal sakta hai, bekar hain. Maslan
zarb Mk. Mk, Mj. ki shakl bekar hai; zera ki zarb Mk.
Mk. Mk. ki bhi nikal sakti hai, jis men natija zarb i auwal
dakb.il hai. Maslan: —

Kull insan fiini hain.

Kall Hindu insan hain.
Pas, Baz Hindu fani hain.

Tih zarb bilkull sahih hai, lekin jis hal men ki

natija kulliya, yane "Kull Hindu fani hain," nikal sakta
hai, to yih kis kam ka hai. Garaz ki is tarah par kull
unnis zarben 16,' A rahti hain; char shakl i auwal ki; char
doyum ki ; chha seyum ki ; panch chaharum ki. Chunan-
chi sab zarben ba tartib, zail men mundarij hain :—

Shakl Mk. Mk. Mk.,— Sk. Mk. Sk..— Mk. Mj. Mj.—Sk. Mj. Sj.
1.

Shall 2. Bs. Mk. Sk.— Mk. Sk. Sk.-Sk. Mj. Sj — Mk. Sj. Sj.
Shall 3. Mk. Mk. Mj.-Mj. Mk. Mj.— Mk.Mj. Mj.—Sk. Mk. Sj.—
Sj. Mk. Sj.— Sk. Mj Sj.
Shakl i. Mk. Mk. Mj.— Mk. Sk. Sk.—Mj. Mk. Mj.—Sk. Mk. Sj.—
Sk. Mj. Sj.
164 REDUCTION.

Fig. 1, bArbArA, cElArEnt, dArll, fErlOque, prioris.

Fi'q. 2, cEsArE cAmEstrEs, fEstlnO, bArOkO. secundae.
Fig. 3, tertia. dArAptl, dlsAmls, dAtlsI, fElAptOn, bOkArdO,
f ErlsO, habet : quarta insuper addit.
Fig. 4, brAmAntlp, cAmEnEs, dlmArls, fEsApO, frEsIsOn.

It
must be noted that in these lines the moods are
represented by the large vowels. The consonants have
a use to be explained when treating of reduction. The
Latin words have nothing to do with these subjects, but
make up the verses.
Perhaps these lines will be much more easily com
mitted to memory by most students, if put in a uniform
type without the Latin additions, thus : —
Barbara, celarent, darii, ferio.
Cesare, camestres, festino, baroko.
Uarapti, disamis, datisi, felapton, bokardo, ferison.
Bramantip, camenes, dimaris, fesapo, fresison.

These are tl-.e only valid moods, and any syllogism

not found in the moods of this table is to be rejected.
If the table be committed to memory, the validity of
any syllogism proposed in an argument, may be found
at once.
By looking at this table of moods it will be seen, that
a universal affirmative can be proved only in the first
figure, in which every other proposition may be proved
also. In the second figure negatives only can be proved,
in the third, particulars only.
3.Reduction. — The moods of the first figure have
been called perfect moods, because Aristotle's dictum,
the law on which alone some have claimed that the syl
logism is founded, can be applied directly to any syllo
gism in this figure. The moods of the other three figures,
can all be reduced to the first figure, by what is called
" reduction" so that we can prove the same conclusion,
in the figure to which Aristotle's dictum immediately
applies.
 KHULF. 1(35

Sirf yihi zarben sahib- hain, aur jo qiyas zurub i mun-

darja e naqsha i bala khilaf hoga, najaiz hoga. Agar
ke

naqsha zurub ka bakhubi yad kar liya jae, to jo koi qiyas

kisi bahs men pesh kiya jawe, us ki sihhat fauran malum
ho jawegi.
Naqsha e zurub ke dekhne se malum hota hai, ki
mujiba e kulliya rsirf shakl i auwal hi
natija waqi hota
l<a

hai, aur baqi aur qaziye bhi is ke natije hote hairi. Shakl i
doyum ka natija sirf saliba ata hai, aur seyum ka sirf
juziya,
3. — Khulf. Baz mantiqin shakl i auwal ki zarbon ko
zurub i baiyana aur kamila kahte hain. Is ki wajh yih
hai, ki qaul i Aristatalis yane wuh qanun, jis par bina
qiyas ki hai, is shakl ke jitne qiyas hain, un sab par bil
mutabaqat sahih ata hai. Tin aur shaklen jo rahin, un ki
zarben bamujib qaniin " khulf" ke, shakl i auwal men late
hain, yahan tak ki wuhi natija is shakl men bhi nikal ata
hai. Khulf, kisi zarb ki tartib ke badalne aur pahili shakl
men lane ko kahte hain. Aur yih do tarah par hai : —
166 REDUCTION.

Reduction consists in, eifcber changing, by conversion

and transposition, the form of the syllogism in the 2nd,
3rd, and 4th figure, into a mood of the first figure, so that
the same conclusion can be drawn, or a conclusion which
becomes the same by conversion, as we had in the mood
from which the change was made ; which is called " osten-
sive reduction;" or the conclusion of a syllogism in
the second, third, or fourth figure may be shown to be
correct by proving in the first figure that its contradic
tory is false. If we thus prove in the first figure that
the contradictory is false, of course the original conclu
sion must be true. This is called, " reductio ad impos-
sibile."

Some writers on logic, proceed at length to show how

the truth of a conclusion in a syllogism of any of the last
three figures, can be proved by " reduction" of the syllo
gism to the first figure, but the subject hardly repays the
since the rules given for testing the
it,

labour of mastering
validity of syllogisms, are sufficient for all practical pur
poses. Lambert claimed that the reduction of syllogisms
in the last three figures to the first, " strained and
is

unnatural." Some of the ablest modern writers as

Thomson, discard the whole subject as useless. Each
figure has its own sufficient tests. An advantage claimed
for the Hamiltonian system that the quantifying of
is

the predicate, dispenses with reduction.

But for the satisfaction of those who may be desirous

to study this subject, brief account with illustrations
a

of it, given. As has been mentioned, there are two

is

kinds of reduction.

First, we may notice " ostensive'' or direct reduction.

A scheme of symbols will illustrate the reduction of
moods in the last three figures to the first figure.
 KHULF. 167

Ekto yih, ki lana kisi qiyas ka, bamiijib qaida i aks

ke [aur kabhi kubra ko sugra aur sugra ko kubra
karn&,] shakl i auwal ki kisi zarb ki surat men taki wuhi
natija nikal awe, jo us qiyas men nikla tha. Ya aisa natija
nikle, ki aks karne se wuhi hojae, jo us qiyas men tha.
Dusre yih, ki shakl i doyum, ya seyum, ya chaharum
ka koi qiyas ho, us ke natije ki sihhat shakl i auwal men
jakar is tarah par sabit karna, ki naqiz is natije ki galat
hai. Pas agar shakl se sabit ho jawe, ki naqiz is natije Id
galat hai, to albatta wuh natija sahih hoga.
Pas malum hota hai, ki tin aur shaklon ki zarben jo
rahin, un ke natijon ki sihhat, shakl i auwal se bhi daryal't
ho jati hai.
Baz mantiqm is Khulf ka bahut tul tawil bayan karte
hain ; lekin yih mihnat fuzul hai, jis hal men, ki har qiyas
ki sihhat daryaft karne ke waste, qawaid i kafi maujud
hain.
Lambert sahib ka dawa yih hai ki khulf ke qaide se,
akhir ki tin shaklon ke qiyasat ko, shakl i auwal men lana
fuzul hai. Baze Ml ke bare laiq maquli jaise Thomson
sahib hain, is kull bahs ko bekar jante hain. "Wuh kahte
hain ki khulf ki kuchh zarurat nahin. Har shakl ke liye
alahda alahda sihhat o adam sihhat ke daryaft ke qaide
kafi maujud hain. Aur yih bhi kaha jata hai ki Hamilton
sahib ke qaida e kamiyat i mahmul se, khulf ki kuchh
zarurat nahin rahti.
Lekin jo log is bab men kuchh waqifiyat hasil karna
chahte hain, unki taskin ke waste mukhtasar bayan maa
misal kiya jata hai. Jaisa ki upar zikr a chuka hai, dalil i
khulf ki do qismen hain.
Qism i auwal khulf kf yih hai ki sugra ko aks i mus-
tawi ke qaide se badalkar kubra ki jagah rakhen. Zail
ee malum hota hai ki akhir ki tin shaklon ki zurub ko, isi

qism ke khulf se kis tarah ba shakl i auwal badla hai.

 REDUCTION.

Reduced to fig. 1

Z.
no (By simple conversion.)

is
all X Y.

is
no X
E

is

X
no

Z
Z.

is
no X. (By simple conversion.)

is
Z
Mood fig. 3 Reduced to fig.

1
I some Y is X
^ all

Y
Z.

is
^<

"-.
A all is X Y. (By
Y
Z

is
some simple conversion.)
X
is
some soraeX
Z

Z.
I

is is
some X. (By simple conversion.)

Z
Mood fig. Reduced to
4

fig.

1
no XisY Y X. (By simple conversion.)
E

no

is
A all Y.
Y
is is

someZis
Z

(Conversion by limitation.)
not X net X.
0

is
some some
Z

Z
The cross lines show that the premisses are trans
x

posed in forming the new syllogism. single illustra

E A
tion by piopositions, of the mcod A given above,
must suffice. It will be a good exercise for the student
E
to work out some illustrations for himself. Example: —

Every covetous man uiscontented.

is

No happy man discontented.

is

Hence, no happy man covetous man.

is
a

This syllogism may be reduced to the mood

A
E
E

of the first figure by converting the minor premiss

by

simple conversion and then transposing to the place

it

of the major premiss, thus —

:

No discontented man happy man.

is is
a a

Every covetous man discoctented man.

Hence, no covetous man happy man.
is
a

This conclusion becomes by simple conversion, " No

happy man covetous man," the same as
is

before
a

reduction.
 KHULF. 169

Shakl i duwam. Shakl i auwal.

Uk. kull A. B. koi B. J. nahin. Aks i mus-
tawi se.
Sk. koi J. B. nahin kull A. B. hai.
Sk. koi J. A. nahin koi A. J. nahin.
Shakl i suwam.
Mj. baz B. [A. hai kull B. J. hai.

ilk. kull B. J. hai baz A. B. hai. Aks i mustawi se

Mj. baz J. A. hai baz A. J. hai.

baz J. A. hai. Aks i mustawi se

Shakl i chahdrum.
Sk. koi A. B. nahin koi B . A . nahin. A ks i mustawi se

ilk. kull B. J. hai baz J. B. hai. Aks i mustawi se

Mj. baz J. A. nahin baz J. A. nahin.

Terhe khutut se x malum hota hai ki muqaddamat

badalkar nai surat i qiyas men ho gae hain. Ek misal
ibarati, shakl i duwam ki zarb (M~k. 8k. Sk.) maz-
kurae sadr ko kafi hogi. Talib i dm ko achchha mashq hol
jaega, agar apni taraf se chand misalen tajwiz karke isi
tarah amal kare.

Misal—
liar tame, be-sabr hota hai.
Nek log, be-sabr nahin hote.
Is liye, Nek admi, tame nahin hote.

Is qiyas i
auwal ki zarb (sk. mk. sk.) ki surat
ko, shakl
men is tarah badal sakte hain ki sugra ko aks i mustawi
se badalkar kubra ki jagah rakhen : —

Maslan —
Koi be-sabr, nek nahin.
Har tame, be-sabr hai.
Is liye, Koi tame, nek admi nahin.

Is natije ka aks yih hai ki, " nek admi tame nahin hai,
jaisa pahile hua.
170 REDUCTIOK.

Second, it
remains to illustrate the redudio ad impos-
sibile, or indirect reduction. By this mode of reduction,
we prove that our conclusion is true, because when the
contrary of this conclusion is inserted as a premiss in a
syllogism of the first figure, a conclusion manifestly false
is drawn. Take the mood A 0 0, of the 2nd figure ; —
All
good men are contented.
Some rich men are not contented.
Therefore, Some rich men are not good men.

Now if
this conclusion is not true, then substitute
the contrary of it as a premiss in a syllogism of the first
figure thus: —
AH good men are contented.
All rich men are good men.
Therefore, All rich men are contented.

Now this conclusion is not only manifestly false, but

it is untrue because it is contrary to the minor premiss
of the original syllogism in which the premisses are sup
posed to be true. Hence one of the premisses in this
syllogism must be false, or the fault must be in the form
of the syllogism. But the reasoning or form of the syl
logism being in the first figure, we know to be correct,
hence one of the premisses must be false, and it is the
minor, because the major is granted in the original syl
logism.
We may work this out in symbols thus : —
All X is T.
All Z is not Y.
Therefore. Some Z is not X.
This conclusion must be true, but if it
is claimed
that it is not, then its contradictory must be, true i. e.,
all " Z is X.". By using this as a premiss, we may form
a syllogism in the first figure thus :
—
AllXisY.
AllZisX.
Therefore, All Z is Y.
 $HULF. 171

Diisri qism i khulf se, yih sabit kiya jata hai ki natija
sahih hai, kyunki jab naqiz i natija, shakl i auwal ke qiyas ka
ek muqaddama banakar rakha jata hai, to natija sarin galat
nikalta hai. Maslan dusri shakl ki zarb Mk. Sj. Sj. ko lo : —

Tamam nek, qanj haiq.

Baz daulatmand, qani nahin.
Pas, Baz daulatmand, nek nahin.

Farz karo ki agar yih natija sahih nahin hai, to naqiz

i natija ko, shakl i auwal ke qiyas ka ek muqaddama
banao is tarah par ki —

Tamam nek, qani hain.

Kull daulatmand, nek haig.
Is liye, Kull daulatmand, qani haig.

Yih natija na faqat sarih galat hai, halki khilaf i

•waqi hai kyunki asl-qiyas jiske muqaddamat sahih f arz kiye
hain sugra is qiyas ka uske mukhalif hai. Is waste qiyas
ke muqaddamat men se ek zurur galat hoga, ya tartih i
qiyas men kuehh qusur hoga. Lekin chunki yih dalil yane
tartib i qiyas ba-shakl i auwal hai, ham jante hain ki sahih
hai. Is waste ek muqaddama zurur galat hoga aur wuh
muqaddama sugra hai, kyunki kuhra asl qiyas se sahih
farz kar Hya gaya hai. Huruf i Hija se is ki misal is
tarah hai

Kull A. B. hai.
Kull J. B. nahin.
Baz J. A. nahin.

Yih natija zurur sahih hai. Agar na ho, to naqiz iski

sahih hogi yane kull J. A hai. Is qaziye ko shakl i auwal
ke qiyas ka ek muqaddama banakar rakhen, to misal yih
hogi, ki

Kull A. B. hai.
Kull J. A. hai.
Kull J. B. hai.
172 REDUCTION.

But from the premisses of the former sy llogism, we see

that some "Z is not Y," and this being the contradictory
of the conclusion just drawn, both cannot be true. Now
as the premiss
" all Z is not Y," of the former syllogism
is assumed to be true, the conclusion "all Z is Y " must
be false. If then this conclusion is false, either the error
is in the form of the syllogism, or one of the premisses
is false. But the form of the syllogism according to the
first figure is valid, hence one of the premisses must be
false, and it cannot be the major, because this in the
original Syllogism is assumed to be true. Hence the
minor, " all Z is Y," must be false, and its contradictory
"some Z is not Y," is true in the first syllogism.
The verses constructed to aid in remembering the valid
moods of the four figures, are also arranged, as was inti
mated, to facilitate reduction. The student is referred to
these lines, (page 164) with this explanation that in the
scheme, the consonants b, c, d, f, in the beginning of the
words in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th figure, show to which mood
of the first figure the reduction may be made. To illus
trate, festino (E I 0) of the 2nd figure, felapton, feriso
I
(E A 0, E 0) of the third, and fesapo, fresison (EA O,
I
E 0) of the fourth, may be reduced to ferio (E 0 of I
the first figure. The letter m. shows that the premisses
are to be transposed. Thus, in reducing from camestres
of the second figure, to celerent of the first, the premisses
A E become E A. The letter s shows that the proposition
for which the preceding vowel stands, is to be converted
simply ; p shows that the proposition, indicated by the
preceding vowel, is to be converted " per aceidens" or
by limitation. The letter k shows that the mood is to be
reduced ad impossible, i. e., the premiss immediately pre
ceding k. is to be substituted by the contradictory of the
conclusion, and then the proof of the original conclusion be
worked out, as was shown in illustrating this form of re
duction. It will be seen that baraho of the second, and
bokardo of the third figure, are to be reduced thus. Other
letters in the scheme not mentioned, have no meaning in it.
 KRULF'. 175

Lekin pahle qiyas ke muqaddamat se yih malum hota

hai ki " baz J. B. nahin hai." Aur chiinki yih muqaddama,
raukhalif natije " kull J. B. hai" ke hai, is waste donon
sahib- nahin rah sakte hain. Lekin " kull J. B. nahin,"
pahle qiyas ka muqaddama sahih farz kar liya gaya hai, is
waste yih natija ki " kull J. B. hai," galat hona chabiye.
Agar galat hai, to ya to tartib i qiyas men ya kisi muqad-
dame men galati hai. Lekin tartib i qiyas bi-hasb i shakl
i auwal durust hai. Is waste koi muqaddama galat hai.
Lekin kubra galat nahin ho sakta kyunki asl qiyas men
sahih farz kar liya gaya hai. Is isabab se sugra, " kull J.
B. hai" zuriir galat hai, aur uski naqiz pahle qiyas men ki
" kull J. B. nahin hai" sahih hai.
 SECTION IV.

Op Hypothetical Arguments.

THE HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM.

So far we have considered only purely categorical

arguments and syllogisms, that is, such as are formed
from categorical propositions. We come now to con
sider hypothetical forms of argument, and the syllogisms
formed from them. An argument containing a hypoth
esis may be called a hypothetical argument.
A syllogism containing a pure hypothetical propo
sition, or more than one, is called a hypothetical syllogism,
and the syllogism will take its name as " conjunctive" or

it,
"disjunctive," from the proposition contained in [see
page 66 Inthe hypothetical syllogism, the hypoth
].

etical proposition the major premiss, the minor is

is

a
categorical, and the conclusion also categorical. In
is

the hypothetical proposition, the first member called

is

the antecedent, the second member the consequent. The

antecedent and consequent may be inverted, as " John
will be fit to travel, he not sick. '' We first examine —
if
is

The conjunctive syllogism, which in its most

I.

common form, has for its major premiss conjunctive

a

proposition and for its minor categorical. For ex

a

ample :—
If Zaid has fever, he sick.
is
a

Zaid has fever.

a

Therefore, He sick.
is
 I

FASL IV.

Bayan Qiyas Sharttya ka.

Tahan tak ham ne un qiyason ka, jo murakkab hain

hamliyat se, bayan kiya, aur jin ko qiyas hamliya kahte
hain ; ab ham bayan karte hain un qiyason ka, jo murak
kab hain shartiyat se.
Wazih ho ki jis qiyas men qaziya i shartiya paya jata

jis
hai, use shartiya kahte hain, aur jaisa qaziya qiyas men
paya jata hai, waisa hi us ka nam hota hai. Agar qaziya
muttasila paya jawe, to qiydx ittisdli, aur agar qaziya
i

munfasila paya jawe, to infisdli, kahenge. Qiyas shartiya

men, kubra qaziya shartiya, aur sugra hamliya hota hai,
i

aur uatija bhi hamliya nikalta hai. Qaziya shartiya ke

i

juz auwal I<o "muqaddam" aurdusreko "tali" kahte

i

hain, aur baz jagah muqaddam pichhe a jata hai aur tali
auwal. Misal qaziya shartiya —
i

Agar Zaid ko bukhar hai, to wuh blmiir hai.

Yahan par, " agar Zaid ko bukhar hai" muqaddam, aur " to
wuh bimar hai tali hai aur muqaddam agar tali ki jagah
;

a jae, to yun hoga, ki—

" Zaid bimar hai,
agar us ko bukhar hai."
U'par bayan ho chuka hai, ki qiyas shartiya, ya ittisdli
hota hai, ya infisdli.
Qiyas Ittisali.
I.

Auwal, ham bayan karte hain ittisali ka, jis ka

kubra shartiya muttasila hota hai, aur sugra, hamliya.
Misal ki, —
is

Agar Zaid ko bukhar hai, to bimar hai.

Lekin Zaid ko bukhar hai.
Pas, Wuh bimar hai.
176 CONJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMS.

Or
IfA is B, A is C.
But A is B.
Therefore, A is C.

In this example it is plain that if we affirm the an

tecedent, the affirmative of the consequent necessarily
follows, and we get the first rule for conditional propo
sitions.
1. — If
the antecedent be granted the consequent must
be granted also.
But if we
deny the antecedent, we cannot therefore
deny the consequent ; thus —
Zaid Las not a fever.
Therefore, He is not sick.

For it is plain that he may be sick from some other

cause than fever.
If we deny the consequent, we may deny the
antecedent also, thus —
Zaid is not sick.
Therefore, He has not a fever.

For it is plain that if Zaid is not sick, he cannot

have a fever, hence the second rule : —
2. — If the consequent be denied, the antecedent must he
denied also.
But it must be observed, that if the consequent be
affirmed, we cannot therefore affirm the antecedent
and say,

Zaid is sick.
Therefore, He has a fever ;

for he may be sick from some other cause.

Putting these two rules together we may draw
from them a third rule : —
3. — If the affirmed or the antecedent
consequent be
denied no conclusion can be drawn.
 &IYAS ITTISALY. 177

Wuhi misal ba zaria huriif, —

Agar A. B. hai, to A. D. hai.
Lekin A. B. hai.
Pas, A. D. hai.

Is misal bakliubi roshan hai, ki agar muqaddam

se
taslim kiya jae, to tali ko bhi taslim karna parega. Pas
yih pahla qaida nikla, ki —
1. — Agar muqaddam taslim kiyd, jdwe, to tali ko bhi
taslim karna parega.
Lekin agar muqaddam ka inkar kiya jae, to kuchh
zariir nahin, ki tali ka bhi inkar kiya jae. Maslan,

Zaid ko hukhar nahin hai.

Pas, "Wuh bimar nahin hai.

Tih kuchh zariir nahin hai, ki agar bukhar na ho, to

bimar bhi na ho. Shayad kisi aur sabab se bimar ho.
Agar tali ka inkar kiya jawe, to muqaddam ka bhi
inkar karna parega. Maslan, —

Zaid himar nahin hai.

Pas, Us ko bukhar nahin hai.

Sai zahir hai ki agar Zaid bimar nahin hai, to us ko

bukhar bhi nahin hai. Pas diisra qaida yih nikla ki, —
2. — Agar tali kd inkar kiyd jde, to muqaddam kd inkar
bhi harm parega.
Lekin gaur karna chahiye, ki agar tali taslim ki jawe,
to kuchh zarur nahin, ki muqaddam bhi taslim kiya jawe.
Maslan, yun na kahna chahiye,

Zaid bimar hai.

Pas, Us ko bukhar hai.

Kyiinki shayad kisi aur sabab se bimar ho.

Donon qaidon mazkura e bala se tisra qaida nikalta
hai: —
3. — Agar tali taslim ki jde, yd muqaddam kd inkar
kiyd jdwe, to kuchh natija nahin niklegd.
178 CONJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMS.

When from affirmation of the antecedent, we

the
pass to the affirmation of the consequent, the argument
is called constructive, and when we pass from the denial
of the consequent to the denial of the antecedent, the
argument is called destructive. For the constructive
syllogism then, we take the whole of the conjunctive
proposition as the major premiss, the affirmative of the
antecedent for the minor, and from these premisses, we
draw the affirmative of the consequent as a conclusion.
The following is a constructive syllogism.
If
this man is a sinner, God is displeased with him.
He is a sinner.
Therefore, God is displeased with him.

In
the destructive syllogism, we take the whole of
the conjunctive proposition as before, for the major
premiss, the denial of the consequent, as the minor, and
draw the denial of the antecedent, as the conclusion.

Thus—
Ifthis man is a sinner. God is displeased with him.
God is not displeased with him.
Th eref ore, He is not a sinner.

Again,—
If just law prevails, the rights of the weaker are secured.
But the rights of the weaker are not secured.
Therefore, Just law does not prevail.

As we have seen, the conjunctive proposition may

have various forms, (p. 66) and the syllogism will be
varied accordingly. For example —

If A is B ; C is D.
A is B.
Therefore, C is D.

If
the rains are scanty, the crop will be light.
The rains are seanty.
Therefore, The crop will be light.
 QIYAS ITTISA'LI'. 179

Jab muqaddam ko sadiq qarar dekar tali ko sadiq

thahrawen, to dawa qaim hota hai, aur jab ki tali ko qarar
dekar muqaddam ko qazib thahrawen, to us waqt men
dawa batil ho jata h ai. Auwal surat ko mmbita, aur
diisri ko manfi yd kanna chahiye. Auwal surat ke qiyas
men waste qaim karne dawe ke kull qaziye muttasile
ko kubra gardante hain, aur uske ain muqaddam ko sugra ;
pas qin tdli us ka natija niklega. Chunanchi misal is ki
zail men likhi hai : —

Agar yih shakhs gunahgar hai, to Khuda us se na-khush hai.

Lekin yih shakhs gunahgar hai.
Fas, Khudd us se na-khush hai.

Waste batil karne dawe ke, kull qaziye i muttasile ko,

jaisa pahli surat men tha, kubra karte hain, aur naqiz i tali ko
sugra. Pas naqiz i muqaddama, natija nikalta hai. Maslan —

Agar yih shakhs gunahgar hai, to Khuda us se na-khush hai;

Lekin Khuda us se na-khush nahin hai.
Pas, Wuh gunahgar nahin hai.

Dusri misal : —

Agar insaf ka qanun jari ho, to garib gurbon ka haqq, thikane

rahta hai.
Lekin garib gufbon ka haqq, thikane nahin rahta hai.
Pas, Insaf ka qanun jari nahin hai.

Jaisa ki malum ho chuka hai, [saf . 67] qaziya muttasila,

kai suraton par ata hai, aur waisi hi surat qiyas ittisali ki
bbi badal jati hai, maslan

Agar A. B. hai, to J. D. hai. Agar barsat thori hai, to f asl

A. B. hai. halki hogi.
Pas, J. 1). hai. Barsat thori hai
Is liye, Fasl halki hogi.
180 CONJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMS.

Other examples conforming to the form of the

conjunctive proposition can be made up by the student.
There may be cases of conjunctive syllogisms in
which both premisses are conjunctive, e. g.

If A is B, C is D.
If C is D, E is F.
Therefore, If A is B, E is F.

We may remark here that conjunctive proposition

a
is really a universal affirmative, whether the antecedent
and consequent be universal or particular, affirmative
or negative. For instance, "if a man is sick he is not
fit to travel." Here the antecedent is a universal affirm
ative and the consequent a universal negative, yet the
entire sentence is a universal affirmative proposition.
The truth or falsity of the conjunctive proposition
depends on the consequent, that is, if the consequent
follows from the antecedent the proposition is true,
otherwise it is false. The conjunctive proposition may
be true as a proposition, and yet the antecedent and
consequent be false, thus —
" If scienceis a bad thing, it should be neglected.''
This proposition is true, although both its members
are false.
The conjunctive syllogism may be reduced to a
simple categorical one by removing $he conditional
character of the major premiss.
The form of condition may be removed by the
phrases " The case of" put in place of the conditional
" if." The proposition then becomes categorical, with
the antecedent for its subject and the consequent for its
predicate ; thus,
The ease of Zaid having a fever is a case of his being sick.
Zaid has a fever.
Therefore, Zaid is sick.
 QIYAS ITTISA'LI'. 181

Qaziye muttasile ke bainujib, aur misalen talib i ilni

bana sakta hai. Qiyas i ittisali ki aisi suraten. bhi ho sakti
hain ki donon muqaddame muttasile hog. Maslan —

Agar A. B. hai, to J.
D. hai.
Agar J. D. hai, to K. S. hai.
Is live, Agar A. B. hai, to B. S. hai

Janna chahiye ki qaziya i muttasila dar haqiqat muji-

ba kulliya hota hai, khwah us ka muqaddam. aur tali kulli
ho ya juzi, mujiba ho ya saliba. Maslan, —
Agar koi shakhs gunah kare, Khudi us se khush na hoga.

Dekho, agarehi yahan par muqaddam mujiba kulliya

aur tali saliba kulliya hai, taham kull qaziya, mujiba kulHya
hai.
Sidq aur hizb qaziye muttasile k&, us ki tali par mau-
quf hai, yane agar tali muqaddam ko lazim hai, to qaziya
sachcha, -warna jhutha. Maslan, —
Agar Zaid ko hukhar hai, to wuh bimar hai.
Yih
qaziya muttasila sachcha hai kis waste ki tali
muqaddam ko lazim hai.
Lekin agar koi kahe ki —
" Agar yih admi chor hai, to Hindu hai,"

qaziya jhutha hai kyunki is ki tali muqaddam ko mutlaq

lazim nahin hai, zeraki tali aur muqaddam ke darmiyan
kuch ilaqa zaruri nahin hai. Aur aisa bhi hota hai, ki kull
qaziya mattasila sadiq hota hai, lekin muqaddam aur tail
donon kazib hote hain. Maslan,
Agar ilm buii chiz hai, to ohhor dena chahiye.

Is qaziyeke sadiq hone men kuchh kalam nahin, magar

donon juz is ke kazib hain, yane na to ilm buri chiz hai, na
yih, ki us ko chhor dena chahiye.
Qiyas ittisali ko hamliya ki taraf pherte hain, yane
qiyas hamliya banate hain, is tarah par ki kubra ki alamat-i-
ittisal "agar" ko diir karke us ki jagah lafz "
jis

mauqe
par", ya "jis halat men", aur "is mauqe par", ya "ishalat
men", barbate hain. Maslan,
Jis hilat men Zaid ko bukhar hai, wuh bimar hai.
Is hai men, Zaid ko halat bukhar ki hai.
Fas, hai men, wuh bimar hai.
Is
182 DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMS.
The same rules apply for testing the validity of
conjunctive syllogisms as for categorical.

II. — Disjunctive Syllogisms.

The disjunctive syllogism is one, the major premiss

of which is disjunctive, and the minor categorical. It is
of the form,
Either A is B, or it is C.
A is B.
Therefore, A is not C.

Example.
This metal is either gold or it is silver.
It is not silver.
Therefore, It is gold.

It will be seen that the

major premiss consists of
an alternative between two members. The minor pre
miss affirms the one, and the conclusion denies the other,
or, as in the second example, the minor denies the one,
and the conclusion affirms the other.
We may have instead of two alternatives, three or
more ; thus,

Either A is B, or C, or D.
A is not B or C.
Therefore, It is D.

Example.
Either the world is eternal, or it produced itself, or
it is the work of an intelligent Being.
But the world is not eternal, nor produced by itself.
Therefore, It must be the work of an intelligent Being.
Again —
The angle A must be equal to, or greater, or less, tian
the angle B.
But it is neither equal to, nor less thanB.
Therefore, It must be greater than B.
The simple rule for disjunctives is that, —
If one or more of the alternatives be denied, the
remaining
one, or some one
of those that remain, may U affirmed,
and vice versa.
 QIYAS INFISA'LI'. 183

Qiyas ittisali ki sihhat daryaft karne ke waste yihi

qawaid mustamal hain, jo hamliya ke waste the.

II. QlYAS-I-INFISAli.

ka kubra qaziya munfasila

jis
Qiyas infisali wuh hai,
aur sugra hamliya ho. Surat us ki yih hai
—

:
Tih A. ya B. hai, ya hai.

J.
Yih A. B. hai.
Pas, Yih A. J. nahin hai.
Diisri misal. —
Yih dhat ya sona hai, ya chandi.
Lekin yih chandi nahin hai.
Pas, Yih sona hai.

Nazirin ko malum hoga, ki kubra men do juz infisali

hote hain, aur sugra men donon men se ek miijiba hota
hai, aur natije men dusra ssjliba ya haraks ke, jaisa ki is
diisri misal se zahir hai.
Aur janna ehahiye ki yih kuchh zurur nahin ki do hi
juz infisali hon, balki tin hon, ya ziyada. Maslan —

Yih A. ya B. hai ya hai ya D. hai.

J.

Yih A. na B. hai na J. hai.

Pas, Yih A. D. hai.

Diisri misal.
" A'lam qadim hai, ya az khud ban gaya hai, ya kisi hakim
ka hanaya hai.
Lekin alam na to qadim hai na az khud ban gaya.
Pas, Kisi hakim ka banaya hai."

Tisri misal.
Zaviya A. ya barabar hoga, a bara hoga, ya kam hoga, zaviy
a
y

B. se.
Lekin zaviya A. na barabar hai, Da kam hai, zaviya B. se.
Pas, Zaviya A. zurur bara hoga zaviya
B

se.

Ek sahl sa qaida waste qiyas infisali ke yih hai, ki

Agar ek juz kdzib qardr diyd jde to dusrd sddiq qardi
diydjdegd.
184 DISJUNCTIVE STLLOGISMS.

This rule, however, ia not without

exception, for
in some instances by affirming one alternative, we are not
authorized deny the other ; thus,
" Virtue tends to procure us, either the esteem of
mankind, or the favour of God." Here both parts of
the proposition may be true. In such cases we must
determine from the context, whether the two members
are intended to exclude one another or not.

III. The Dilemma.

The dilemma is a hypothetical argument or syllo

gism of which the major premiss is a compound con
junctive proposition, and the minor premiss a disjunctive
proposition.
In the dilemma there are in reality two or more
conjunctive syllogisms blended into one, so that the
statement is briefer than if each syllogism were separately
unfolded in the argument.
The dilemma has several forms, as,

Simple dilemma.
If A isB, or C is D, then E is F.
But either A is B, or C is D.
Therefore, E is F.
Another form of the simple dilemma is,
If A is
B, then C is D, or E is F.
But C is not D, nor E is F.
Therefore, A is not B.

Complex dilemma.

In
this there are several antecedents each with its
own consequent ; thus,

If A is B, G is H ; and if C is D, L is M ; and if E is F,
XisY.
But either A is B, or C is D, or L is M.
Therefore, G is H, or L is M, or X is Y.
 QIYAS INFISA'W 185

Janna chahiye ki kabhi is amm qaide ke khilaf bbi

Waqi hua karta hai. Maslan —

Basabab neki ke, ham ya insan ki nazar meg pasand ate,

ya Khuda ki nazar meu.

Yahan par mumkin hai, ki donon juz sadiq hon. Jis

bayan men aisa qaziya waqi ho to wahan par tarz i bayan
se malum ho jaega ki donon juz sadiq hain, ya sirf ek.

III. QlYAS MURAKKAB ShARTIYA.

Qiyas murakkab shartiya us ko kahte hain, jis ka

kubra qaziya muttasila murakkab hota hai, aur sugra
qaziya munfasila.
Is qiyas men dar haqiqat do ya is se ziyada qiyas
ittisali hote hain, jin sab ko ikhtisar ke liye milakar ek kar
dete hain.
Qiyas murakkab shartiya ki kai suraten hain, maslan
amcal surat wuh jis men kai ek muqaddam hote hain, aur
tali ek hoti hai, ya tali kai ek aur muqaddam sab ka ek.

Misal 1.

Agar A. B. hai, ya J. D. hai, to B.. S. hai.

Lekin ya to A. B. hai, ya J. D. hai.
Pas, R. S. hai.

Misal 2.
Agar A. B. hai, to J. D. hai, ya R. S. hai.
Lekin na to J. D. hai, na R. S. hai.
Pas, A. B. nahin hai.

Dusri surat wuh hai, jis men kai ek muqaddam hote

liain, aur har muqaddam ki tall juda hot! hai, — Maslan:' —.

Agar A. B. hai, to J. D. hai, aur ajar R. S. hai, to F. K

hai, aur agar L. M. hai, to N. W. hai.
Lekin ya A. B. hai, ya R. S. hai. ya F. K. hai.
Pas, J. D. hai, ya F. K. hai, ya N. "W. hai.
186 THE DILEMMA.

These examples as given are in the constructive

form,
but if we wish we can reason in the destructive form.
An illustration of the first form or simple dilemma
is,—

„
Major,
. If the blest in heaven have no desires, or have them fully
gratified, they will be perfectly happy.

But they will either have no desires, or have them fully

m"or,
gratified.
Con., Therefore the blest in heaven will be perfectly happy.

It
was remarked, that the dilemma is in reality two
or more disjunctive syllogisms, blended into one with
a disjunctive minor. In illustration of this statement,
we may unfold this dilemma into the two syllogisms con
tained in it ; thus, —

If the blest in heaven will have no desires, they will be

perfectly happy.
But they will have no desires.
Therefore, The blest in heaven will be perfectly happy.

Again,
If the
blest in heaven will have their desires fully grati
fied, they will be perfectly happy.
But they will have them fully gratified. ,
Therefore, The blest in heaven will be perfectly happy.

An example of the second form of the simple di

lemma is,

If
man cannot make progress towards perfection, he is
either a brute, or divine.
But man is neither a brute nor divine.
Therefore, He can make progress towards perfection.

This also may be resolved into two syllogisms.

If
man cannot make progress towards perfection, he is a
brute.
But man is not a brute.
Therefore, He can make progress toward perfection.
 QIYA'S MURAKKAB SHART1YA. 187

Yih sab misalen mazkiira, musbita hain ; agar ham

chahen, manfiya bana sakte hain,
Auwal surat ki misal yih hai, ki—
Agar pak logon ko Whisht men kisl bat ki khwahish nahin
hoti hai,~ya hoti hai aur puri ho jati hai, to un ko
kamal rahat hogi.
Lekin un ko ya to khwahish nahin hoti, ya hoti hai to puri
ho jati hai.
Pas, Pak logon ko bihislit men kamal rahat hogi.

I/par mazkur ho chuka hai, ki Qiyas i murakkab

sharMya dar haqiqat do ya is se ziyada qiyas hote hain, jin
ko milakar ek kar dete hain, aur sugra jin ka munfasila
hota hai. Chunanchi waste zahir karne is bat ke, donon
qiyas, jo is qiyas i murakkab men milakar ek kar diye
hain, juda juda karke likhe jate hain : —

1.— Agar pak logon ko bihisht men chSh kisi bat ki nahin
hogi, to we kamal rahat men honge.
Lekin un ko chah nahiij bogi.
Pas, Pak log bihisht men kamal rahat menhorjge.

2. — Agar Pak logon ki chah bihisht men puri ho jaegi, to

we kamal rahat men hogge.
Lekin un ki chah bihisht men nuri ho jaegi.
Pas, Pak log bihisht men kamal rahat meg honge.

Diisri misal. — Tali kai ek, aur muqaddam ek.

o ilm ki taraqqi nahin" kar sakta hai, to
Agar insan neki
wuh nira haiwan hai, ya Khuda ke barabar hai.
Lekin na wuh nira haiwan hai, na Khuda ke barabar hai.
Pas, Wuh neki o ilm ki taraqqi kar sakta hai.

Is ke bhi do qiyas ho sakte hain, Maslan —

1. — Agar insan nekiilm ki taraqqi nahin kar sakta hai,

o
to wuh nira haiwan hai.
Lekin wuh nira haiwan nahin hai.
Pas, Wuh neki o ilm ki taraqqi kar sakta hai.
2. — Agar ilm ki taraqqi nahin kar sakta hai
insan neki o
to wuh Khuda barabar hai.
Ice
Lekin wuh Khuda ke barabar nahin hai.
Pas, Insan neki o ilm ki taraqqi kar sakta hai.
188 THE DILEMMA.

Again,
If man cannot make progress towards perfection, he is
divine.
But man is not divine.
Therefore, He can make progress towards perfection.

An
example of the second or complex form of the
dilemma, in which there are several antecedents each
with its own consequent, is —

If this man were wise he would not speak irreverently of

®0^ *n Jest' an<* •* he were g°°d, ne w»uld not do so in
Major.
earnest, and if he were a well-wisher of humanity, he
would not do so in forgetf ulness even, g
Minor. But he either does it in jest, or in earnest, or in forgetf ulness.
Con. Therefore he is either not wise, or not good, or not a lover of
humanity.

This
dilemma may be resolved into the three
syllogisms contained in it, —

If this man were wise, he would not speak irreverently of

God even in jest.
1
He does speak irreverently of God in jest.
Therefore, He is not wise.

If this man
were good, he would not speak of God irrever-
„ ently in earnest.
He does speak irreverently in earnest.
Therefore, He is not good.

If this man were a well-wisher of humanity, he would not

„ speak irreverently of God in forgetfulness.
He does speak irreverently of God in forgetfulness.
Therefore, He is not a well-wisher of humanity.

the dilemma then, and any

The difference between
simple conjunctive syllogism, is that the dilemma really
contains in a contracted form, two or more conjunctive
syllogisms.
The dilemma may be stated also in a categorical
form, and the rules for testing the validity of the syllo
gism applied directly to it. Just as in reducing a con-
 QIYA'S MURAKKAB SHARTIYA. 189

Qiyas i murakkab ki dusri surat ki misal, jis ke kai

muqaddam hote tain, aur har muqaddam ki tali juda hoti
hai: —

Agar yih admi aqlmand hota, to Khuda ki nisbat be-tamizi

ka kalima thatthe se zaban par na lata, aur agar nek
hot^i, to haqiqat men aisa na karta, aur agar khair-
khwah insan ka hota, to bhulkar bhi aisa na karta.
Lekin wuh ya to thatthe se ya haqiqatan, ya bhulkar aisa
karta hai.
Pas, Wuh ya to aqlmand nahin, ya nek nahin, ya insan ka khair-
khwah nahig.

Is qiyas men bhi tinon qiyas juda juda ho sakte hain :

—

I Agar yih admi aqlmand hota, to Khuda ki nisbat be-tamizi ka

1' J kalima thatthe se zaban par na lata.
Lekin wuh be-tamizi ka kalima thatthe se zaban par lata hai.
|
LPas, Wuh aqlmand nahin hai.

f Agar yih admi nek hota, to Khuda ki nisbat be-tamizi ka

j kalima haqiqat men zaban par na lata.
2. ■{
Lekin wuh be-tamizi ka kalima Khuda ki nisbat zaban par
j lata hai.
{- Pas, Wuh nek nahin hai.

(Agar yih admi khair-khwah insan ka hota, to Khuda ki nisbat

| be-tamizi ka kalima bhulkar zaban par na lata.
3. -{
Lekin wuh Khuda ki nisbat be-tamizi ka kalima bhulkar zaban
' par lata hai.
l. Pas, Wuh khair-khwah insan ka nahin hai.

Qiyas i murakkab shartiya do tin qiyason shartf se, jo

ikhtisar ke sath hon, milkar banta hai.

Qiyas i murakkab shartiya bhi qiyas i hamliya ki surat

men ho sakta hai, aur waste daryaft karne. sihhat is qiyas ke
bhi wuhi qawaid, jin ka bayan upar a chuka, istiamal kiye
jawen, aur jaisa ki qiyas i ittisali ko hamliya ki taraf
" is
pherne ke waste, lafz "jis mauqq par" aur mauqa
190 THE DILEMMA.

ditional syllogism to a'categorical the phrases, " the case

of", and " the present case,'' are used, thus : —
The case of A being B, or of E being P, are cases of X
being Y.
The present is a case of A being B, or of E being F.
Therefore, This is a case of X being Y.

If the
premisses are admitted, of course the conclu
sion must follow, and the rules for testing syllogisms
must be applied to ascertain the validity in this case
also.
 QIYA'S MURAKKAB SHARTIYA. 191

par' wg. mustamal hain, isi tarah is men bhi hona chahiyer
Maslan : —

Jis mauqa par A. B. hota ya J. D. hota hai, us mauqa pa

R. S. hota hai.
Is mauqa par A. B. hai, yaJ. D. hai.
Pas, Is mauqa par R. S. hai.

Agar muqaddamat taslim kiye jaen, to jo natija in se

niklega, tis ko zurur manna chahiye.

 SECTION V.

Other Forms of Argument.

Irregular and compound Syllogisms.

The Enthymeme.

The enthymeme is a syllogism with one premiss

omitted. It is thus a contracted syllogism. As was
remarked in another part of this work on the syllogism,
(page 110, 5) in reasoning, some propositions in the
chain of argument are usually suppressed because the
mind readily takes in the argument without unfolding
all its steps at length. The enthymeme is a common
form of abridged argument. Either premiss may be
omitted from the syllogism. For example,
All men are mortal.
Caesar is a man.
Therefore, Caesar is mortal.

In this we may omit the major premiss, thus, —

Caesar is a man.
Therefore, Caesar is mortal.

Or we may write it thus, suppressing the minor

premiss, —
All men are mortal.
Therefore, Caesar is mortal.

Now, both these statements are satisfactory, because

the suppressed proposition is readily supplied in the
mind.
 FASL V.

QlYAS I BE-TARTfB 0 MTJRAKKAB.

QIYXs I MTJKHAFFAF.

Jis qiyas ka ek qaziya yane kubra ya sugra muqaddar

ho, us ko qiyds i
mukhaffaf samajhna chahiye. Jaisa ki i
kitab men bayan ho chuka hai (Saf. Ill,
V.) aksar yan
Ma karta hai, kidalilon men mufassal bayan nahin hota hai,
is liye ki us dalll ko ham waisa hi samajhte hain, agarchi
baz qaziye chhorte jaen. MukhafEaf dalilen aksar isi sii-
rat men hua karti hain. Aur yih ikhtiyar hai, ki kubra
sugra men se jaun sa chahen muqaddar karen. Maslan ek
dalil hai, ki—

Kull insan fani hain.

Zaid insan hai.
Pas, Zaid fani hai.

Ab agar ham chahen, to kubra ko is dalil men na zikr

karen, Maslan,

Zaid insan hai

Pas, Zaid fani hai.

Donon tarah dalil puri hai, kyiinki qaziya i muqaddara

: ihnan samjba jata hai, go ki lafzan maujud na ho.
194 THE ENTHYMEME.

The completed syllogism may be easily constructed

from the given enthymeme, which always contains the
three terms of the syllogism. By examining the con
clusion of the enthymeme we know at once what the
major and minor terms of the syllogism are, since the
conclusion always contains these terms. Hence, since
the subject of the conclusion is always the minor term,
and its predicate the major, we may know which
premiss is given in the enthymeme, from the term it
contains.
Thus, in the first example of the enthymeme given,
we see that the given premiss must be the minor be
cause it contains the subject of the conclusion, and in
the second example the given premiss must be the
major, because containing the predicate of the conclu
sion. Having thus ascertained what premiss is want
ing, the syllogism can at once be constructed, and its
validity tested by the rules for testing syllogisms. It
may be remarked, that ordinarily, in speaking or writ
ing, the major premiss is suppressed, because being
generally some fact or principle to which the mind
yields ready assent. Thus, in the example given, it
would be more natural to suppress the major premiss,
" all men are mortal," because this is a fact so estab
lished by observation as to command our assent. Hence
we would simply say, —

Caesar is a man.
Therefore, He is mortal.

Sometimes the enthymeme is not in the syllogistic

form, thus, —
Csesar is mortal.
Because, Csesar is a man.

When the causal conjunction " because,'' thus unites

Ihe propositions of an enthymeme, they may be invert-
 QIYJTS 1 MUKHAFFAF. 195

Janna chahiye ki mukhaffaf qiyas se pura qiyas ba

asani ban sakta hai, kyunki tinon iuz qiyas ke yane akbar
aur asgar aur hadd i ausat maujud hain. Qiyas i mukhaf
faf ke natije ke dekhne se malum ho jata hai, ki akbar aur
asgar yih hain, kyunki natije men hamesha yih juz maujiid
hote hain. Pas chunki mauzu natije ka asgar hota bai,
aur us ka mahmul akbar, yih malum ho jata hai, ki yih
qaziya qiyas i mukhaffaf men kubra hai ya sugra. Maslan
pahli misal i mazkura e qiyas i mukhaffaf men ma
lum hota hai, ki pahla qaziya jo hai, sugra hai, is sabab se
ki natije ka mauzu us men paya jata hai; aur dusri misal
n en, jo qaziya paya jata hai zarur kubra hoga, kyunki
natije ka mahmul us men maujud hai. Pas jab malum ho
jata hai, ki fulana muqaddama is qiyas men maujiid nahin
hai, us hi ko lake pura qiyas band lete hain, aur us ki sih-
hat ba zaria un qawaid ke, jo waste parakhne qiyas ke
muqarrar hain, daryaft kar lete hain.
Janna chahiye ki aksar dalil men, kubra muqaddar
hua karta hai, is wajh se ki wuh ek aisa mashhur o maruf
qaziya hai ki dil bagair zikr karne ke ba asani use taslim
kar leta hai. Maslan agar koi bayan kare, ki Zaid fani
hai, to kubra, yane hull insdn fdni hain, is ko muqaddar
karega, kyunki adna aur ala is haqiqat se waqif hain, ki
sab admi marnewale hain. Pas wuh yug kahega ki —

Zaid insan hai.

Pas, Wuh fani hai.

Baz mauqa par qiyas i mukhaffaf, qiyas ki surat par

nahin hota hai, jaisa koi kahe :—

Zaid fani hai,

"Wuh4aa*-hai.
LitZ.-
Kyunki,

J ahan kahin koi

" is bdis
harf illat ka, jaisa "chunki" kyunki"
se," wg. kisi qiyas i mukhaffaf ke qaziyon ko ba-
ham-digar rabt de, to agar ham chahen, un ka aks yane
n uqaddam ko muakhkhar, aur muakhkhar ko muqaddam
lcarenge, aur harf i illat ko dur karke akhir ke qaziya men
196 THE SORITES.

ed and joined by the conjunction " therefore," and

then the nyllogism can be constructed from them.
Thus with the above, —
Caesar is a man.
Therefore, Ceesar is mortal.
The rule for constructing the syllogism from the

is,
enthymeme
premiss given, contains the subject
If
the the con-

of
the minor,
is
it

the predicate the conclusion

of
if
clusionf
major.
is
it

the
The Sorites.*
The Sorites string of contracted syllogisms of
is
a

the first figure. It has already been remarked that in

reasoning we do not usually unfold an argument in its
full logical or syllogistic form, but suppress some of
the propositions. Now, we have string of syllogisms
if

a
in the first figure, so arranged that the conclusion of
each becomes a premiss in the next, these syllogisms
may be contracted into the Sorites, in which the pre
dicate of the first proposition made the subject of
is

the next, until the predicate of the last proposition is

predicated of the subject of the first proposition. This
very common form of argumentation. The follow
is
a

ing the form of the Sorites —

is

AisB.
BisC.
CisD.
DisE.
EisF.
F.
Therefore, A
is

Or by substituting propositions for these letters —

The mind thinking substance.
is
a

A thinking substance spirit.

is
a

A spirit incorporeal.
is

That which indissoluble.

is
is is

incorporeal
That which indissoluble immortal.
is

Therefore, The mind immortal.

is

* From the Greek word Soros, meaning heap.

a
 QIFA& I MUSALSAL. 197*

lafz pas barha denge, to is halat men pura qiyas banne ke

laiq hoga. Pas upar ki misal ko agar is surat men la-
wen, to yiin hogi, —

Zaid insan hai, —

Pas, Zaid fani hai.

Qiyas i mukhaffaf so pura qiyas banane ka qaida

yih hai : —
Agar kisi muqaddame men mauzu natije kdpdydjdwe
to with sugrd hai, aur agar mahmul pdyd jde to kubrd.

QIYAS I MUSALSAL.

Qiyas i Musalsal shakl i auwal ke kai qiyason mukh-

tasar ke silsile ko kahte hain. Yih upar zikr ho ehuka
hai, ki bahs mubahise men har dalil ko
bajinsihi ba surat
i qiyas alahida alabida karkenabin bayan karte hain, balki
baz qaziye aisemauqa
par muqaddar karte hain." Agar
kaiek qiyas silsilewar is tartib se bayan kiye jawen, ki
natija har qiyas ka dusre ka muqaddama waqj ho, to" aise
to Qiyds i musalsal kahte hain. Aur yad rakhna
1^*1?ar
chahiye, ki qiyas i n usalsal men mahmul qaziyaiauwa
rSre 1azive
ka mauzu hota hai, aur tisre ka mahmul,
ik
chauthe ka mauzu waqi hota hai ; hatta ki sab se akhir ke
qaziye ka mahmul, qaziya i auwal ka mahmul parta hai.
XiM qaida aksar dalil lane ka hai. Misal qiyas i musal
sal ki, zail men
mundarij hai : —
A. B. hai.
B. J. hai
J. D. hai.
D. R. hai.
R. 8. hai.
Pas, A. S. hai.

Aur agar in huruf ke iwaz men qaziye qaim kiye

jaen, to misal yun hogi :
—
Zihn, ek quwat i darraka hai.
Quwat i darraka, ruh hai.
Huh gair jism hai.
Jo cliiz gair jism hai, gair-fani hai.
Jo ohiz gair-fani hai, abad tak rahegi.
Pas, Zihn abad tak rahega.
198 THE SORITES.

Now this abridged argument can be unfolded into

thus, —

it,
the syllogisms contained in

4
2

3
1
BisC. CisD. DisE. EisF
AisB. AisC. AisD. AisE
AisC. AisD. AisE. AisF
Or if we substitute the propositions given for the
•letters then we will have, —

thinking substance spirit.

is
A

a
(

The mind thinking substance.

is
a
<
1

Therefore the mind spirit.

is
a
(

is
A

spirit incorporeal.
(

The mind
is
spirit.
a
2
<

Therefore the mind incorporeal.

is
(

That which incorporeal indissoluble.

is
is
(

The mind
is

incorporeal.
3
<

Therefore the mind indissoluble.

is
(

That which indissoluble immortal.

is

is
(

The mind indissoluble.

is
4
<

Therefore the mind immortal.

is
(

Now, may be seen that these are all syllogisms in

it

the first figure, and by comparing them with the sorites

will be observed that contains as middle terms,
it
it

B. C. D. E., which are used twice, that the sorites has

is

as many middle terms as there are propositions between

the first and the last, and consequently an abridgment
is

of so many syllogisms. It will be further seen from

comparsion of these syllogisms with the sorites from
a

which they are formed, that contains but one minor

it

premiss, viz., A. B. The other, are all majors. Hence

plain that in the sorites we simply take the only
it
is

minor term given and by passing from middle term to

middle term, link with the final major term in con
it

clusion, as we had but one syllogism. Thus, in the

if

example given, the minor A was joined to the major

through B. CD. E.
 QIYAS I MUSALSAL. 199

dakhil ham,
Agar is dalil i mukhtasar men jitne qiyas
un sab ko juda juda karke rakhen to dalil yun hogi :—
B. &
B. J. hai. J.D. hai. |D.R.hai.
I
A. K. ^:
hai.
A. B. hai. A. J. hai. A.D. hai
Pas, A. & hai
Pas, A. J. hai. Pas, A. D. hai. Pas, A. fi. hai. I

hai :—
Yih misal hurdf ki Mi. Qazion ki misal yih
( Quwat i darraka ruh hai.
1. Zihn ek quwat i darraka hai.
<

( Pas zihn ruh hai.

( Ruh gair i jism hai.
2. < Zihn ruh hai.
( Pas zihn gair i jism hai.
'
Jo chiz gnir i jism hai, gairfani hai.
Ziiin gair i jism hai.
\ Pas zinn gair-fani
hai.
I Jo chiz gair-fani hai, abad tak rahegi.
4. < Zihn gair-fani hai.
( Pas, zihn abad tak rahega.
Ab dekhnd chakiye, ki yih sab qiyas shakl i auwal ke-

hain, aur qiyas i musalsal se muqabala karne se malum

hain
hota hai, ki B. J. D. E., jo qiyas men do do bar ae
hadd i ausat hain. Aur malum hoga, ki qiyas i musalsal
men utne hadd i ausat hote hain, jitne auwal qaziye aur
hai, ki
natije ke bich men qaziye hote hain. Pas zahir
karke
jitne hadd i ausat hain, utne hi qiyason se ikhtisar
ko
qiyas i musalsal bana hai. Aur alawa is ke in qiyason
hai,
qiyas i musalsal se muqabala karne se malum ho jata
" A. B. hai, aur
ki is men sirf ek hota hai,
sugra yane
baqi sab kubra hote hain. Garaz ki yih zahir hai, ki qiya*
i musalsal men asgar ko leke ek hadd i ausat ko dusre se
silsilawar milate chale ate hain ; hatta ki natije men akar
us hi asgar ko sab se akhiri qaziye ke mahmul se nisbat
dete hain, is tarah goya ki sirf ek hi qiyas hota hai.
Chunanchi misal i mazkura e bala se zahir hai,. ki asgar B
akbar S., se ba zaria hadd i ausat B. J. V. H ke, nisbat..

diya gay a hai.

200 THE SORITES.

Since the sorites is an abridgment of syllogisms in

the first figure, it is plain that its first proposition, and that
alone, may be particular, because it is a minor premiss,
and in the first figure the minor premiss may be parti
cular but not the major (p. 142, r. 1.), and in the sorites
'all the other propositions are majors. It is further mani
fest that in the sorites there can be one, and only one,
negative premiss and that the last ; if any other premiss
were negative, one of the syllogisms contained in the
sorites besides the last would have a negative conclu
sion which becomes the minor premiss of the following
syllogism, but in the first figure the minor premiss can
not be negative. (p. 142, r. We may then lay down

2.)
the following rule —
:

In the sorites, except the conclusion, thejirst proposi

tion alone may be particular, and only the proposition pre
ceding the conclusion can be negative.
A sorites violating this rule not valid. When
is

the sorites resolved into syllogisms, these may be

is

tested by the rules formed for this purpose. rule for

resolving the sorites may be thus stated, —
A
Take the second proposition the sorites for the major
of

premiss the first syllogism, the first proposition for the

of

minor, and use the conclusion thus drawn for the minor
premiss the second syllogism, with the third proposition
of

the norites as a major, and so on, as long as any middle

of

term remains.
There an inverted form of the sorites called, from
is

the name of its inventor, the Goclenian sorites. In the

it

propositions are reversed, thus, —

F.
is is is is is is
B C DE

E.
D.
C.

A B.
Therefore, F.
A
 QIYAS 1 MUSALSAL. 201

bat qarar pai, ki qiyas i musalsal qiyason

Jab ki yih
shakl i auwal ka ikhtisar hai, to malum hua ki qiyas i
musalsal men bajuz qaziya i auwal ke, aur koi juziya nahin
hota hai, is sabab se ki pahla qaziya sugra hota hai, aur
shakl i auwal men sugra hi juziya atahai na yihki kubra;
(Saf. 145, 1.) aur baqi sab kubra hote hain. Aur yih bhi
malum hua, ki is qiyas men sirf ek hi qaziya i saliba hota
hai, aur wuh akhiri hai, kyuriki agar aur koi qaziya i sa
liba ho, to alawa qiyas akhiri ke, ek aur qiyas, qiyas i
musalsal men aisa hoga, ki jis ka natija saliba niklega, aui
yih natija qiyas men sugra waqi hoga, lekin shakl i auwal
men sugra saliba nahin hota hai. (Saf. 145, 2.) Pas ek
qaida zail men likhte hain : —
Qiyas i
musalsal men siwd natije ke, sirf pahld qaziya
juzia hota hai, aur sirf akhiri yqne natije ke upar Jo hota hai,
saliba hota hai.
Jo qiyas i musalsal is qaide ke khilaf hoga, sahih
nahin hoga. Jab qiyas i musalsal ke sab qiyas alag alag
karke likhe jaen, to un ki sihhat un qaidon se daryaft karna
chahiye, jo is maqsad ke waste muqarrar hain. Qaida
waste juda karne qiyas ke yih hai : —
Qiyas i musalsal ke dusre qaziye io pahld qiyas bandne
'•'e aur pahle qaziye ko sugra garddnte hain, aur
waste kubra,
phir un donon muqaddamdt se, jo natija nikaltd hai, us dusre
qiyas kd sagrd karte hain, aur ishi qiyas kd kubra, qiyas i
musalsal ke tisre qaziye Ico qdim karte hain. 1st tarah par
harte chale jdte hain, jab tah sab hadd i ausat tamdm na ho
jdwen.
Qiyas i musalsal ka aks bln ho sakta hai, chunanchi
misal i zail se zahir hai : —

E.S. hai.
D. R. hai.
J. D. hai.
B. J. hai.
A. B. hai.
Pas, A. S. hai.
202 HYPOTHETICAL SORITES.

The same in proposition, thus, —

That which is indissoluble is immortal.

That which is incorporeal is indissoluble.
A spirit is incorporeal.
A thinking substance is
a spirit.
The mind is a thinking substance.
Therefore, The mind is immortal.

It will observed here, that the conclusion reached

be
is just the same as before, although the order of the
propositions is reversed. It will be seen also, that in
this form we begin with the most extensive proposition
first, and reason from the general to the particular. It
may often best suit the argument to do so.
The sorites may also be composed of conditional
propositions, and is then called the hypothetical sorites.
The hypothetical sorites, consists of a string of condi
tional propositions so arranged that the consequent of
each- becomes the antecedent of the succeeding one, and
the conclusion is drawn by either affirming the first an
tecedent with the last consequent, or by denying the last
consequent with the first antecedent. For example, —

If A is B,
then C is D. If A is B, then C is D.
If C is D,
then E is F. or If C is D, then E is F.
But A is B. But E is not F.
Therefore, E is F. Therefore, A is not B.
IfGod is holy then He is not the author of sin.
If He is not the author of sin, then the doctrine of fate
is false.
But God is holy, therefore the doctrine of fate is false.

The second example is a destructive hypothetical

sorites.

Ifgaming is a good thing, the practice of it is right.

If the practice of it is right. it will result in good.
But it does not result in good, therefore the practice of it is
jiot right.
 QIYAS 1 MUSALSAL SHARTIYA. 203

Misal qazion ki yih hai, —

Jo chiz gair-fani hai, abad tak rahegi. -
Jo chiz jism nahin, gair-fani hai.
Rub, jism nahin hai.
Quwat i darraka, rub. hai.
Zihn, quwat i darraka hai.
Pas, Zilm abad tak rahega.

Yahan par dekhna chahiye, ki is siirat men bhi wuhi

natija nikla, jo pahli surat men nikala tha, go ki qaziye qi
yas ke, sab ulte ho gae hain.
Yih bhi malum karna cha-hiye, ki is aks ki siirat
men pahla qaziya jo late hain, us ke afrad aur qazion se
ziyada hote bain, aur kulli se juzi ki taraf dalil late hain.
Aisar mauqa akar parta hai, ki yunhin dalil lana achchha
hota hai.
Qiyas i musalsal, qaziyon muttasila se bhi murakkab
hota hai, aur tab qiyas % musalsal shartiya kahte hain
Qiyas i shartiya, qazion muttasilon ke silsile se
musalsal
murakkab hota hai, aur wuh qaziye is tarah par ate hain,
ki tali har qaziya i auwal ki, apne ma bad ka muqaddam
waqi hoti hai, aur natija ya to pahle muqaddam ko akhiri
taK ke sath nisbat i isbat dene se hasil hota hai, ya akhiri
tali ko pahle muqaddam ke sath nisbat i nafi dene se.
Maslan,
Agar A. B. hai, to J. D. hai. Agar A. B. hai, to J. D. hai.
Agar J. D. hai, to R. S. hai. Yd Agar J. D. hai, to R. S. hai.
Lekin A. B, hai; Pas, R. S. hai. Lekin R. S. nahin; Pas,'.A. B. nahin

Misal i auwal, qiyas i musalsal sharti bil ijab ki : —

Agar Khudii pak hai, to Ban! gunah ka nahin hai.

Agar wnh Bani gunah ka nahin hai, to qismat ka masla
gal at hai.
Lekin Khuda pak hai, pas qismat ka masla galat hai.

Misal dusri, qiyas i musalsal sharti bis salb ki : —

Agar jua khelna achchhi bat hai, to us ka khelna durust hai.

Agar khelna durust hai, to us ka anjam bihtar hoga.
Lekin us ka anjam bihtar nahin hota, pas us ka khelna durust
nahin hai.
204 HYPOTHETICAL SORITES.

The hypothetical sorites may be reduced to the

categorical one, by the rule for reducing hypothetical to
categorical propositions (p. 180) . It may then be tested
by the rules for the sorites, or it can be resolved into
hypothetical syllogisms and then tested by the method for
trying the validity of hypothetical syllogisms, [p. 180.]
We may now briefly recapitulate the whole subject
of hypothetical, compound, and abridged syllogisms.
 QIYAS 1 MUSALSAL SHARTIYA. 205

Qiyas i musalsal
shartiya ko usi qaida ki ru se, jo
shartiya ko hamliye men lane ke waste muqarrar hai,
hamliya bhi kar sakte hain, [Saf. 181 ;] aur phir sihhat
us ki, qaidon qiyas i musalsal se malum ho jati hai ; ya
yih. ki us qiyas i musalsal men jitne qiyas i shartiya da-
khil hain, un sab ko juda juda karke phir un ki sihhat usi
qaida ki ru se jo qiyason shartiya ki sihhat malum karne
ke waste muqarrar hai, daryaft ki jawe.
[Saf. 181.]
Ab ham kull bayan qiyason ka, bil-ijmal likhte hain : —
 RECAPITULATION.

Syllogisms are divided thus,—

„ „ .
Syllogisms
J Categorical ( Conjunctive.
J Hypothetical...
] Disjunctive.
( Dilemma. ( Simple.
( Complex.
Irregular and Compound ( Enthymeme
syllogisms, \ Sorites

Roles.

1. — For the conjunctive syllogism.

First. If the antecedent be granted, the consequent
must be granted also.
Second. If the consequent be denied, the antecedent
may be denied also.
Third. If the consequent be affirmed, or the antece
dent be denied, no conclusion can be drawn.
2. — For the disjunctive syllogism.
If one or more of\the alternatives be denied, the remain
ing one, or some one of those that remain may be affirmed.
3.— For constructing a syllogism from the Enthy
meme.
If the premiss given contains the subject of the con
clusion, it is the minor, if the predicate of the conclusion, it
is the major.
4. — For the Sorites.
In conclusion, the first propo
the Sorites , except the
sition mlone may be particular , and only the pi oposition pre
ceding the conclusion may be negative.
 BAYAN I MUJMAL.

Uiyas is tarah par munqasim hai : —

„. , ( Hamaliya, ( Ittisali.
V*6*' hnflsali.
\ Shartiya, ...
( Murakkab.

^
, Qiyas i. Mukhafiaf
. .
Aur qum U
. . -
qtyto,
(

| MuiJaaL
.

Qawajd.

1. — Q«yas j Ittisali ke liye..

Pahla. — Agar muqaddam taslim kiya jawe, to tali

bhi zurur taslim karni paregi.
Dijsra. — Agar tali ka inkar kiya jawe, to muqaddam
ka bhi inkar karna parega.
TfsRA. — Agar tali taslim ki jawe, ya muqaddam ka
inkar kiya jawe, to kuchh natija nahin niklega.

2. — Qiyds i Infis&li ke liye.

Agar ek juz kazib qarar diya jawe, to dusra sadiq

qarar diya jawega.

3.- — Qiyds i Mukhaffaf ke liye.

Agar kisi muqaddama men, mauzu natije ka paya

jawe, to wuh sugra hai, aur agar mahmul paya jawe, to
kubra hai.

4. — Qiyds Musalsal ke liye.

Qiyas i Musalsal
men, siwa natija ke, sirf pahla qaziya,
juziya hota hai, aur sirf akhiri qaziya, yane natije ke upar
jo hota hai, sahba hota hai.
 PART IV.

APPLIED LOGIC.

By applied Logic is meant the practical use of the

science for general purposes, as distinguished from a
mere knowledge of the science in the abstract, i. e., a
mere knowledge of the laws and rules of logic, without
any special reference to their use and application. It is
one thing to have merely a knowledge of the nature and
structure, so to speak, of a science, and quite another
thing to be familiar with its practical use in every day
life. For instance, one may know the names of all the
implements used in carpentering, and the mode of using
them, and have a knowledge of the rules used in that
useful art, and yet may not be able to make furniture.
The knowledge required for this, is quite different from
a mere acquaintance with names and rules. Again, by
Btudying a book, one may gain a knowledge of the
nature and rules of surveying, but a practical or
" applied" use of the science of surveying, is obtained
in the field and by observing, how under different cir
cumstances, these rules are applied. Having gone over
the laws, rules, and terms, that constitute the science of
Logic, we propose in this part of our book to treat
more of a practical application of the science, showing
how it is applied in every day life. We will first
classify the different forms of error commonly met, and
illustrate the mode of treating them, and then explain
some modes or forms in which arguments are commonly
used.
 HISSA IV.

MANTIQ I ISTIAMALI'.

Mantiq i Istiamali se yih murad hai, ki is ilm ko, jahay

kahiii hajat pare, amal men lawen. Chunanchi mantiq i
istiamali us ilm i mantiq se, jo sirf zihn men ho, faqt isi bat
men mukhtalif hai. Kisi ilm ka jan lena aur bat hai, aur
us ka mashq rakhna is tarah par ki roz-marra kam men
awe, aur bat hai. Maslan, yih mumkin hai ki koi shakhs
jitne hathyar barhai ke kam karne ke hon, sab ka nam
bakMbi janta ho, aur is bat se bhi waqif ho, ki fulana
hathyar fulane kam men ata hai, aur is ko is tarah istiamal
men land chahiye. Garaz ki sab kam barhai ka janta ho,
magar bain haoia, chahiye ki koi chiz un hathyaron se
barhai ki tarah bana le to kabhi na banegi ; pas mashq
rakhna barhai ke kam ka aur bat hai, aur sirf jan lena
us ka apne zihn men aur bat hai. Isi tarah agar koi shakhs
ek kitab ko parhkar, paimaish ke qaidon se waqif ho jawe
to ho jawe, magar mashq jo ek chiz hai, wuh, jab tak khe-
ton kheton napta na phire, aur tarah tarah ki baten us ki
nazar se na guzren, kabhi nahin hasil hoga.
Bayan qawaid aur qawanin, aur istilahat i mantiq se
faragat pai. Ab irada hai, ki age chalkar is kitab men
mufassal bayan istiamal i mantiq ke tariqon ka hkhen, aur
hatlawen, ki kis tarah is ko roz-marra amal men lana
chahiye. Auwal bayan mukhtalif suraton mugalte ka jo
aksar ake parte hain, likhenge ; aur phir tariqa un mugal-
ton ke rafa karne ka, ba zaria misalon ke batlawenge ; aur
phir chand tariqe dalil lane ke samjhawenge.
 SECTION I.

Fallacies.

Having described the various forms of argument

and syllogism, it is important that we now consider
more at length, the various kinds of fallacy that may be
used intentionally in reasoning, or into which one may
inadvertently fall. A fallacy is an invalid argument. As
much of the practical usefulness of logic depends on the
ready detection and exposure of fallacies, it is very im
portant that the subject be well understood. The learner
should strive to get a thorough acquaintance with all
forms of fallacy. We are not simply to guard against
the false weapons of others, but also against the mis
takes into which we ourselves are liable to fall in rea
soning. The fallacy may be in one, or all, of the three
parts of the argument or syllogism. Some word or
term may be used in a doubtful or double sense, or a
proposition may be false, or the form of the syllogism
may be invalid.
Now, it is plain that all fallacies may be divided
into two great classes, first, where the error is in tie
form of the reasoning, i. e., where the conclusion
does not follow from the premisses; second, where
the error is not in the form of the reasoning, i. e., where
the conclusion does follow from the premisses, notwith
 FASL I.

Bayan Mugalton ka.

Dalil aur qiyas ki sab suraton ke bayan se faragat

pai, ab zardr hai, ki mugalta, jo aksar dalil lane men parta
hai, us ki mukhtalif qismon ka bayan bit-tashrih likhen.
Mug.dlta, na-durust dalil ko kahte hain. Chunanchi istiamal
ilm i mantiq ka is bat par bahut munhasar hai, ki mugalte
ko bakhubi pakar len, aur malum kar len, is waste bayan
mugalte ka khub samajh lena nihayat zariir hai. Is ilm ke
sikhnewalon ko mugalte ki sab suraton se waqifiyat i kamil
paida karni chahiye. Mugalte se waqif hona sirf isi kam men
nahin ata hai, ki auron ki galat dalil se mahfuz rahen, balki
apni galatian, jo bar waqt dalil lane ke ho jaya karti hain
un se mahfuz rahne ke waste bhi kam ata hai. Mugalta
tin jagah parta hai, maslan jab koi lofz mashkuk ho, yane
do manon men istiamal kiya jawe, ya koi qaziya galat ho,
jawe, ya tartlb qiyas ki na-durust ho jawe.
Yih zahir hai, ki sab galatian do qism par ho sakti hain.
Auical, jahan ki tartib i qiyas galat ho, yane wuh natija
muqaddamat se nahin hasil hota hai. Doyum, jahan
tartib i qiyas galat nahin hai, yane sahih natija muqadda
mat se hasil hota hai, lekin us qiyas ke kisi lafz ya qaziye
212 FALLACIES.

standing an error in some term or proposition of the

syllogisms. Here the error is in the matter of the
The first are called
"
logical or formal falla
syllogism.
cies,'' the second "non-logical or material fallacies." The
first great class will now be described.

I. Logical or formal Fallacies.

The fallacies of this class include all violations of

Aristotle's dictum, and the rules for syllogisms. They
are of five kinds : —

1. Undistributed middle.
2. Illicit process of the major or minor term.
3. Negative premisses.
4. Affirmative conclusion from a negative prem
iss, or vice versa.
5. More than three terms in the argument.
In all these forms of fallacy, the erior is manifest
from the form of expression, when the syllogism is fully
stated. But in practice, frequently the difficulty of
detecting the error, arises from the argument being
elliptical, i. e., one of the propositions may be suppressed,
or the fallacy may be so covered up in a volume of
words, that the error does not readily appear. In such
case, if the argument is drawn out to its full form, or
stripped of its verbosity and put in the syllogistic form,
the error becomes manifest. These errors were illus
trated to some extent in drawing out the rules for
testing the validity of syllogisms, and we need do but
little more here than classify them as above, and give
an additional illustration of each. Let it be well borne
in mind, that in these fallacies, the conclusion does not
follow from the premisses. Even if the conclusion be
.true, the argument is yet a vicious one.
 BAYA'N MUGA'LTON XA'. 213

men galati waqi hai. Pahli qistn ke mugalte ko, yane jab
ki qiyas ki tartib men galati waqi hoti hai, MugAtta Suri i
kahte hain, aur dusri qism ke mugalte ko, yane jab ki
qaziye ke manon men galati waqi hoti hai, MugAtta i Mqna-
wi, kahte hain.

Qism auwal, Mugalta i Suri.

Is qism men wuh mugalte dakhil hain, jo ba bais

khilaf hone qaul i Arastatalis ke, aur qaidon qiyas
ke, waqi hua karte hain. Aur yih panch tarah par hain :
1. — Hadd i ausat juzi.
2. — Kulliyat i najaiz, akbar ya asgar ki.
3. — Muqaddamat salibe.
4. — Natija i mujiba muqaddame salibe se, ya baraks
is ke.
5. — Ek qiyas men. tin juzon se ziyada ka hona.
In sab siiraton ki galati, surat i qiyas se malum ho
jati hai, jab ki apni surat men bayan kiya jawe. Lekin
galati ke pakarne men aksar mushkil us waqt ake parti hai,
jab dalil mukhaffaf ho, yane koi qaziya wahan muqaddar
ho, ya yih ki bahut se lafzon ki tah men galati aisi ehhip
gai ho, ki ba asani na malum hot! ho. Aise waqt men agar
dalil ko purl surat men lawen, ya yih ki un bahut se
lafzon ke janjal ko diir karkar ba tartib i qiyas rakhen, to
us waqt galati saf zahir ho jaegi. Galation ka kueh
hal, qiyas ki sihhat daryaft karne ke qaide nikalte men, ham
ne bayan kiya hai, is wajh se yahan kuchh ziyada bayan
Jii hajat nahin hai, sirf mugalte ki qismon ka bayan likha
jawega, aur har bayan ke sath misalen hongi. Yad rakhna
chahiye, ki is qism ke mugalte men jo natija nikalta ho,
agarchi ba iatibar apne mane ke sahih ho, lekin muqad
damat se wuh natija na nikalta ho, to dalil naqis rahegi..
214 FALLACIES.

1. Undistributed middle.

Form of the fallacy.

Some A
is B. or, All Bis A.
Some A is C. All C is A.
Therefore, Some C is B. Therefore, All is C B.

Here it will be observed, that neither the major nor

minor term is compared with the whole of the middle
term, i. e.. the middle term is not distributed, hence the
argument is not valid, as the conclusion does not follow
from the premisses. Suppose one should argue, that the
religion of the Hindu is true because believed and
tnught by some good men ; his argument would contain
an undistributed middle as may be seen by unfolding
it thus, —

True religions, are believed and taught by good men.

The Hindu religion, is believed and taught by
good men.
Therefore, The Hindu religion is true.

Here the middle term, " believed and taught by

good men/' being the predicate of two affirmatives is
undistributed (p. 76, r. 3), hence the conclusion is an
error.
 SAYA'N MUGJCLTON KA. 215

1. — Hadd i ausat juzi.

Siirat mugalte ki yih hai :—

A . B. hai, Sab B. A. hai.

Baz:
Sab D. A. hai.
Baz A . D. hai,
Pas, Sab D. B. hai.
Pas, Baz D. B. hai,

Dekho is misal men na akbar aur na asgar, hadd i

ausat ke kull afrad se muqahala kiya gaya hai, yane hadd
i ausat, kulli nahin hai, juzi hai ; pas is sabab se dalil galat
hai, aur isi wajh yih natija jo yahan par likha hai,
se

muqaddamat se nahin nikalta hai. Farz karo, koi shakhs

dalil lawe, ki Hinduon ka mazhab haqq hai, kyunki baz
achehhe admi us par iman kte hain, aur us ki talfm dete
hain. Yahan hadd i ausat juzi hogi, jaisa ki qiyas ko puri
surat men likhne se zahir hai. Maslan, —

Haqq mazhab ko, achehhe admi qabul karte hain,

aur us ki talim dete hain.
Hinduon ke mazhab ko, achehhe admi qabul karte
hain, aur us ki talim dete hain,
Pas, Hinduon ka mazhab haqq hai.

Is misal men, hadd i ausat " achehhe admi qabul karte

hain," ba bais waqi hone mabmul do mujibon ke juzi hai,
[Saf. 77, Q. 3,] is sabab se natije men galati hai.
216 FALLACIES.

2. Illicit process of the -major or minor term.

Fofm of the fallacy.
Or:—
All A is B. All A is B.
No C is A. All A is C.
Therefore, No C is B. Therefore, All C is B.

Suppose some one should argue that a certain man

was not a bad king, because he was not a tyrant. His
argument unfolded would be,
All tyrants
are bad kings.
Zaid was not a tyrant.
Therefore, Zaid was not a bad king.
Here the major term " bad king" is distributed as
the predicate of a negative [p. 78, r. 4] in the conclu
sion but not in the major premiss, because the predicate
of an affirmative. [p. 76, r. 3.]
Again, suppose some should argue that all
one
instruction of women in science is bad, because certain
bad women were instructed. His argument when
written in full, would show an illicit process of the
minor ; thus, —
Certain women were bad.
They were women instructed in science.
Therefore, All instruction of women in science is bad.
Here the minor term " instruction of women in
science,'' is distributed in the conclusion but not in the
minor premiss, because it is the predicate of an affirm
ative, hence the argument is not valid.
 BA YAN MUGALTON EA' 217

2. — Ndjdiz kulliyat akbar yd asg.ar hi.

Siirat is qisra ke mugalte ki yih hai : —

Sab A. B. hai, Sab A. B. hai.

Koi J. A. nahin, Ya Sab A. J. hai.
Pas, Koi J. B. nahin, Pas, Sab J. B. hai.

Farz karo, koi shakhs dalil lawe, ki fulana badshah

bura na tha, kyunki wuh zalim na tha. Yih dalil agar
ba tartib i qiyas likhi jawe, to yun hogi : —

Sab zalim badshah bure badshali, hote.haig.

Zaid badshah. zalim na tha.
Pas, Zaid bura badshah na tha.

Is misal men akbar, " bure badshah," kulli hai natije

salibe men, kyunki us ka mahmul para hai, [Sqf. 79, Q.
4 ;] lekin kubra men kulli nahin hai, kyunki qaziya i mu-
jibe ka mahmiil para hai, [.Suf. 77, Q. 3,] pas kulliyat nd
jdiz akbar ki hui.
Misdl i doyum. — Farz karo, koi shakhs dalil lawe, ki
talim kisi tarah ki kyiin na ho, auraton ko talim dena bura
hai, kyunki fulani fulani kharab auraton ne talim pai thi.
Yih dalil agar puri siirat men likhi jawe, to kulliyat najaiz
asgar ki zahir ho jawegi. Maslan,

Fulani auraten buri thin.

Tin auraton ne ilmon ki talim pai thi.
Pas, Kisi tarah ka ilm kyim na ho, auraton ko sikhana
bura hai.

Is misal " auraton ko ilm sikhlna," natije

men asgar
men kulli hai, lekin sugra men kulli nahin hai, kyunki
miijibe ka mahmul para hai, pas dalil sahib- nahin hai.
218 FALLACIES.

3. Negative permisses.

The form of this error is as if one would say,

No A is B.
No C is A.
Therefore No C is B.

It
is manifest that A, the middle term, is no
medium of comparison between the other two terms,
and although in this instance the conclusion is true,
there might be instances in which B and C, while not
being A, would still have some connection with each
other as shown by this diagram.
Hence, this is an erroneous form
of argument. Suppose one were
to argue that education has no connection with virt ue
and goodness, because a certain nation was not an edu
cated nation neither was it a wicked nation. This
would be an example of negative premisses from which
one would not be justified in drawing any conclusion.
The argument stated in full would be,
A certain nation was not a wicked nation.
That nation was not an educated nation.
Therefore, An uneducated nation is not a wicked nation.

4. Affirmative conclusion from a negative premiss,

and vice versa.
First case. — If one of the premisses is negative, we
cannot draw an affirmative conclusion, because this
would be declaring two things to agree in the conclusion
when one of them had been declared not to agree with
the same third in the premisses. This is contrary to
the axiom for the syllogism [p. 114 a. 2.] Hence any
syllogism or argument, in which an affirmative conclu
sion follows where one of the premisses is negative, must
be erroneous.
 BA YAN MUGA'LTON KA". 219

3. — Muqaddamdt sdlibe.

Yih aisi galati hai, jaise koi kahe, —

Koi A. B. nahin hai.

Koi J. A. nahiy hai.
Pas, Koi J. B. nahiu liai.

Tih zahir hai, ki hadd i ausat " A", muqabala karne

ka wasta, in donon juzon ke darmiyan men nahin hai ; aur
agarehi is siirat men yih natija sahih hai, magar mum-
kin hai, ki koi surat aisi akar pare, ki B. aur J. A. men na
dakhil hon, magar taham apas men ilaqa rakhen. Maslan, —

A
Pas yih dalil galat thahri.
Farz karo, koi shakhs dalil lawe ki ilm aur neki men
kuehh ilaqa nahin, kyunki fulani qaum tarbiyat-yafta na
thi, aur phir bhi badzat qaum na thi. Yih misal muqad-
damat salibon ki hai, is liye kuchh natija nikalna sahih
nahin hai. Agar yih dalil ba tartib i kamil likhi jawe, to
yun hogi : —

Fnlani qaum badzat na thi.

Wnh qaum tarbiyat-yafta na thi.
Pas, Gair talim-yafta qaum badzat nahin hoti hai.

4. — Natija i mujiba nikalna jab ki muqaddamon men se

ck sdliba hai, aur barqks is ke.

Surat i auwal. — Agar koi muqaddama saliba ho, to
natija mujiba nahin niklega, aur agar niklega, to goya aisa
hoga ki do juz jin men se ek juz tisre juz, yane hadd i ausat
se nisbat nafi ki rakhta tha, natije men akar baham-digar
nisbat is bat ki rakhenge, aur yih bat qiyas ke qanun i
badihi ke khilaf hai, \.Saf. 115. Q. 2 ;] pas koi dalil ya qiyas
jis ka natija mujiba nikle, jis halat men ki us dalil ya
qiyas ke muqaddamat men se ek saliba ho, zarur galat
hoga.
220 FALLACIES.

Second ease. — We cannot draw a negative conclusion

from affirmative premisses, for this would be declaring
things not to agree in the conclusion that had agreed
with the same third in the premisses, which is contrary
to the axiom for syllogisms [p. 114 a. 1.] Hence any
syllogism in which the conclusion is negative from affirm
ative premisses may be pronounced erroneous.
5. More than three terms in the argument.*
Itis plain that a correct argument which may be
put into the form of a valid syllogism must have only
three terms, hence any argument containing more than
three terms must be erroneous.
This form of fallacy may arise in two ways ; .either
from ambiguity in the major or minor term, or from
ambiguity in the middle term. In either case, where
the word does not preserve the same meaning through
out the argument, there will be really more than three
terms in the syllogism. An example of this kind of
fallacy in the minor premiss would be,

Acertain person was treated unjustly.

He was wrongly imprisoned.
Therefore, A prison is a place of injustice.

Here the fallacy lies in assuming that " wrongly im

prisoned" and "prison" have the same meaning, i. e.,
that the minor term of the minor premiss, is the same as
the minor term of the conclusion.

Again,
Hindus have a religious faith.
Hindus are often guilty of falsehood.
Therefore, Some guilty of falsehood are often faithful persons.

* This haB beeu humorously called the logical quadrufed, as it makes

the reasoning go on four legs instead of three.
 BA YA'N M UOA'L TON KA 221

JDa sri si'irat. — Muqaddamat

miijibon. se natija saliba
nahin nikalta hai, aur agar nikle to goya aisa hoga, ki do
juz jo kubra sugra men tisre juz, hadd i ausat se nisbat
isbat ki rakhte the,natije men akar ek dusre ke munafiho
jawenge, aur yih bat qiyas ke qanun i badihi ke khilaf hai,
\.8af. 115, Q. 1 ; pas jo koi qiyas aisa ho, jis ke muqadda-
aiat mujibon se natija saliba nikle, galat hoga.
5. — Ek qiyas men tin juzoii se ziydda lid hond.
Yihzahir hai, ki jo koi dalil, ba tartib i qiyas sahih
likhi jati hai, to zariir us men sirf tin juz hote hain, Pas
jis dalil men tin juz se ziyada honge, wuh dalil zarur galat
hogi.
Is akar parta hai, ya
qism ka mugalta do surat men
to jdh ki akbar ya asgar mushtarak ul mana hon, ya hadd
i ausat mushtarak ho. In donon suraton men se jis kisi
siirat men hadd i ausat ke ek hi mane kull qiyas men qaim
na rahen, to be-shaklc qiyas men tin juz se ziyada ho ja
wenge. Misal is qism ke mugalte ki, jo sugra men akar
parta hai, is tarah par hai, —

Falane admi par zulra hua.

Us ko na-haqq, qaidkhane meg dal diya.
Pas, Qaid-khana, zulm ki jagah hai.

Yahan par is sabab se galati waqi hiii hai, ki "na-haqq

qaid-Khane men dal diya" ke, aur "qaid-khane" ke, ek hi
mane liye hain, yane is dawa karne se ki jo sugra ka
asgar hai, wuhi natije ka bhi asgar waqi Ma hai, lekin dar
liaqiqat aisa nahin hai. Dusri misal, —

Hindu ek tarah ka iman rakhte hain.

Hindu gunah aksar karte hain.
Pas, Baze gunahgar, imandar hote hain.
 222 FALLACIES.

Here the major term " faith" of the major premiss,

is really a different term from the major term "faithful,"
of the conclusion.
The major and minor term then must preserve the
same meaning in the premisses and conclusion, otherwise
there will be more than three terms in the syllogism.
But the most common form of the fallacy of having
more than three terms in the syllogism, arises from the
" ambiguous middle ;
"
hence this requires more careful
guarding. Some word is used as a middle term having
a different meaning in the premisses, hence there are in
reality four terms in the syllogism. The middle term
should be the same word in both premisses and be un
derstood in the same sense, for if the word be the same,
but h»ve a different meaning in each premiss, there are
four terms in the syllogism.
In every language there are a number of words
which have various senses. Words which spring from
the same root as noun, adjective, verb, fyc, often differ
widely in meaning, hence sometimes in use lead to an
ambiguous middle. Thus faith and faithful though-
from the same root do not always convey the same mean
ing; thus,

The faithful will be saved.

John was firm in the faith.
Therefore, John will be saved.

One may be resolute and firm in his religion with

out being faithful, hence the fallacy of this syllogism.
There are many ways in which words come to
have various meanings, and hence are liable to mislead
in argument. (1), There may be an accidental resem
blance in the words, as
" light" opposed to darkness and
"light" opposed to heavy. (2), There may be some
resemblance between the different things for which the
 BA YAN MUGALTON KA. 223

Yahan akbar kubra ka, yane " iman rakhte hain," us

akbarse, jonatijemenayahai, yane "imandar," mukhtalif
hai. Garazaiir asgar ke muqaddamat men aur
akbar
natije men ek hi mane rahen, warna us qiyas men tin juz
se ziyada ho jawenge.
Lekin aksar is tarah ka mugalta, yane ek qiyas men
tin juz se ziyada ka hona us surat men akar parta hai, jab ki
hadd i ausat mushtarak hai ; pas hadd i ausat par khub lihaz"
rakhna chahiye, taki galati na pare. Baz lafz jo hadd i
ausat men waqi hota hai, us ke mukhtalif mane muqadda
mat men liye jate hain, yane ek hadd i ausat men kabhi
shirkat mane ki, a parti hai. Maslan, agarchi imdn aur
imdnddr, donon ka masdar ek hi hai, lekin in ke mane
hamesha ek hi nahin rahte hain ; maslan, —

I'mandar najat pawenge.

Zaid iman meu pukhta hai.
Pas, Zaid najat pawega.

Mumkin hai ki Zaid apne mazhab ka pukhta aur khub

sakht ho, lekin imandar na ho; pas yihi wajh mugalte
ki hai.
Ek
lafzke kai mane hone ke ehand sabab hain. Amcal
yih, ki ruushabahat i lafzi ho, jaise lafz "ag" ka, ki waste
darakht aur ag, donon ke mustamal hai, ya lafz "lahsan"
ka, ki .waste us chiz ke, jo per se paida hoti hai, aur
waste us
dag ke jo larakpan men admion ke badan par
kahin na kahin hota hai. Dot/um yih, ki ba sabab musha-
bahat surat ke ek hi lafz do mukhtalif chizon ke waste
bola jawe, jaise lafz "bhale" ka, ki hal men laga hota
hai, us ko bhi kahte hain, aur eharkhe men jo hota
hai, use bhi kahte hain. Ya lafz "kaman" ka, ki waste
kaman ke aur gari ke kahte hain. Seyum yih, ki ba sabab
224 FALLACIES.

same word is used. Thus, " spear"

is used for a weapon
and for a blade of grass. (3), There may be some anal
ogy in the purpose for which the word is U6ed. Thus,
we speak of the "leg" of a chair and of the " leg'' of an
animal because both are used as support ; of " sweet"
food and of "
sweet'' sound, because both are pleasing
somewhat in the same way. (4), Association again
leads to calling different things by the same name; thus,
" shot'' may mean the ball used, the
effect of the ball or
the person shooting. (5), In the same way by ellipsis
the same word comes to mean different things : thus, we
use a person's name either to indicate the man or his
writings. Acareful study of this matter will lead to
a proper discrimination and aptitude in detecting and
exposing the ambiguous middle. The way to remove
the ambiguity and detect the error, is to fix on some
uniform meaning for the word used as middle term, and
then see that it remains the same in both premisses.
There are two more forms of fallacy that should
be discussed here, as the error lies in the middle term.
The first of these is : —
The Fallacia Accidentis.
This error consists in arguing from the general to-
the special in a way not justified. The error arises
where the middle term is con sidered in one premiss
in reference to its essence or general nature, and in
the other premiss is considered in reference to some
it,

accident or something incidental to so that incon

gruous or incompatible things are compared in the
conclusion. A stock illustration of this error, which
it

the fashion to give in almost all the books, hence

is

we do not pass by, runs thus, —

it

Things bought in. the market, are what we eat-

Haw meat, thing bought in the market.
is is
a

Therefore. Raw meat what we eat.

 BA VAN 31 UGA'L TON' KA. 22u

mushabahat maqsad ke, ek hi lafz bold jawe, jaise lafz

" paya" ka, ki waste paya i chauki, aur waste paya i shami-
yana, donon ke bola jata hai. Donon pae ek hi maqsad ke
waste hain, yane ek chauki thanme ke waste, aur dusra
shamiyane ke thamne ke waste; ya maslan
" mithi" chiz,
aur "mithi" awaz, donon men yih mushabahat hai, ki
tabiat ko khush karti hain. Aur chahdrum, kahin par
ba sabab qarabat ke ek nam miikhtalif ehizdn ke waste
bola jata hai, jaise lafz "sawari" ka ki waste chiz ke
jo baithne ke liye hoti hai, aur waste us fial ke jo
sawar se hota hai, yane donon ke waste mustamal hai;
maslan koi kahe, ki baggi ek sawari hai, ya yun ki fulana
shakhs achchhi karta hai; ala haz-al-qiyas lafz
sawari
"gari" ka. Agar is bayan par bagaur, lihaz rahe, to
hadd i ausat mushtarik ka janna aur zahir karna ajaega.
Tariqa rafa karne mushtarika mane aur pakarne galati ka
yih hai, ki Jo lafz hadd i ausat icaqi Jw, us he ek hi mane
mitqarrar kiyejden ; aur phi V yih dek/id jde, ki ay a in donon
muqaddamon mihi mane qdim rahte hain yd nahin ?
men
Do suraten aur mugalte ki hain, jin ka bayan yahan
par zariir karna ehahiye, kyunki un ke sabab se hadd i ausat
men galati par jati hai.

AUWAL, MUGALTA I ARIZI.

Jab amm se har khass ko sabit karen to is qism ki

galati kabhi waqi hoti hai.
Yih galati us surat men bhi ake parti hai, jab ki ek
muqaddame men hadd i ausat ke zdti mane liye jawen,
aur dusre men drizi mane, yane mana i
ittifaqiya, ynhan
tak ki natije men akar do aisi baten, jo ek dusre ke munafi
hoti hain, jama ho jati hain. Ek sahl si misal is qism ki
galati ki yahan par di jati hai: —
Bazar sewuh ohizeu kharidi jati hain, jo ham khsite hain.
Kachclia gosht ek chiz hai, jo bazar se kharida jata hai.
Pas, Kacheha gosht ek chiz hai, jo ham khate hain.
226 FALLACIES.

In the majorpremiss the middle term

" things
bought in the market/' is considered in reference to its
essence or general use, and in the minor term it is con
sidered in reference to one of its accidents, that is, that
meat bought in the market is " raw." The middle term
in one premiss has a general meaning and in the other
an accidental or specific meaning; hence there are in
reality two middle terms, involving a fallacy in the
conclusion.
Another illustration of this error may be thus
given :
—

Food is necessary to sustain life.

Potatoes are food.
Therefore, Potatoes are necessary to sustain life.

" Food'' in
the minor premiss here, is restricted to
a special thing, of which we cannot affirm that it is
necessary to life, as may be affirmed of the general term
" food'' of the major premiss.

Again,

Civil law is necessary .to the existence and control of

human society.
Tyrannical law, is also civil law.
Therefore, Tyrannical law, is necessary to the existence of human
society.

Here there is an erroneous argument from the

general meaning of the term
" law" as a necessity to
the existence of society, to special law which is not a
necessity. The check to this error is to see that the
middle term have the same use in both premisses, that
is, if it is used in the major premiss with reference to
its essence or general nature, the same be preserved in
the minor premiss.
 SA YJCN M UGA'L TON KA. 227

Kubra men hadd i ausat, yane " bazar se wuh chizen

kharidi jati hain" jo hai, us ke zati mane bye hain, aur
sugra men us ke drizi mane; pas jab ek muqaddama
men fem mane hadd i ausat ke, aur dusre men mane itti-
faqi, yane khass mane liye, to dar haqiqat do hadd i ausat
ho gae, jin ke sabab se natije men mugalta parta hai. Is
galati ki ek aur misal yih ho sakti hai ki, —

Khurak qiyam i hayat ke liye zarur hai.

Alu khurak hai.
Is sabab se, Alu qiyam i hayat ke liye zarfir hai.

Khurak sugra men juzi mane par hai, yane ba mane

makhsus chiz ke ho gaya. Is sabab se jis tarah us lafz

i
khurak ko, kubra men waqi hone kasir ul afrad hai
jo

se

qiyam hayat ke waste zaruri kah sakte hain, tarah ko

is
is
i

nahin kah sakte.

Dusri misal —
:

Qanun, rif ah qiyam khalaiq ke liye zarur hai.

o

Qanun izulm bhi, qanun hai.

Is liye, Qanun zulm, rif ah qiyam khalaiq ke liye zarur hai.
o

i
i

Is misal men dalil ki galati yih hai ki ek jagah qanun

ka lafz amm mane se rifah qiyam khalaiq ke liye zaruri
o

gardanagaya hai, aur dusri jagah khass mane se, kiwuh za

ruri nahin. Aisi galati raf karne ke waste yih lihaz rakh-
a

na chahiye, ki hadd ausat ke ek hi mane donon muqadda-

i

mon men qdim rahen,yane agar kubra men hadd ausat ke

i

zati mane bye hon, to chahiye, ki wuhi mane sugra men

qaim rahen.
228 FALLACIES.

THE FALLACY OF DIVISION AND COMPOSITION.

This error arises where the middle term is used in
a collective or additive sense in one premiss, and in a
distributive sense in the other. If it is first used in the
major premiss in a collective sense, and then in a dis
tributive sense in the minor premiss, this is the " fallacy
of division.'" If the middle term is used in a distribu
tive sense in the major premiss, and in a collective sense
in the minor, this is the " fallacy of composition."
Familiar examples follow. —
Hindus are idolaters. (collectively)
Itam Chandar is a Hindu. (separately)
Therefore. Ham Chandar is an idolater.
This is the fallacy of division, for in the major pre m-
iss, Hindus are considered collectively or as a people,
and as such are idolaters ; but in the minor premiss
they are considered as individuals, and hence it cannot
be said of all that they are idolaters, and Ram Chandar
may not be an idolater.
Again,
Zaid, Amr, Bakr are Mohammedans. (separately.)
Mohammedans were engaged in the mutiny, (collectively.)
Therefore, Zaid, Amr, Bakr were engaged in the mutiny.
Here we have the " fallacy of composition,'' for in
the major premiss the middle term
"
Mohammedans " is
considered separately, or as referring to certain individ
" Mohammed
uals, but in the minor premiss the term
ans'' is used collectively for a people who were generally
engaged in the mutiny. Hence, as the middle term is
used in a distributive sense in the major premiss, and
in a collective sense in the minor, there arises the
"fallacy of composition" in saying that Zaid, Amr,
Bakr were engaged in the mutiny, for they may have
had nothing to do with it.
This error is checked by seeing that the middle
term be used in the same collective or distributive
sense in both premisses.
 BATA'X MUGALTON KA. 22&

DiJSRA MuGALTA I TAQSIM AUR JAMA.

Tih galati us surat men waqi hoti hai, jal> ek muqadda-

ma men hadd i ausat ba mani jama istiamal ki jawe, aur
ek men bataur i taqsim. Pas agar kubra men ba mani
jama istiamal ki jawe, aur sugra men bataur i taqsim,
to us ko "mugalta i taqsim" kahte hain; aur agar badd
i ausat kubra men bataur i taqsim istiamal ki jawe, aur
sugra men bamani jama, to us ko "mug/tlta i j'irna" kahte
hain. Ek sahl si misal yahan par di jati hai: —

Hindu butparast hain. (ba mani i jama)

Ram Chandar Hindu hai. (ba mani i taqsim.)
Pas, Ram Chandar butparast hai.

Yih " mugalta i taqsim" hai, kyiinki kubra men Hin

du ba mane jama istiamal kiye gae hain, yane ba lihaz
qaumiyat butparast hain, magar sugra men bataur i taqsim,
is wajah se yun nahin kah sakte hain, ki sab Hindu but
parast hain, kyiinki mumkin hai, ki Ram Chandar but
parast na ho.

Dusri Misal, —
Zaid, Amr, Bakr, MusalmSn hain.
Musalmanon ne gadar par kamar bandhi thi.
Pas, Zaid, Amr,Bakr ne gadar par kamar bandhi thi.

Yih " mugalta i jama" hai, kyiinki kubra men hadd i

ausat
" Musalman" bataur i taqsim ke ai hai, yane fard fard
"
ke waste ai hai; lekin sugra men hadd i ausat Musalman,"
ba mane jama mustamal hai, waste ek qaum ke, jis ne
Pas jab ki hadd i
gadar machane par kamar bandhi thi.
ausat kubra men ba taur i taqsim, aur sugra
men ba mane
i
jama istiamal ki jawe, to wahan mugalta jama
par jata

hai; pas yih kahna, ki Zaid, Amr, Bakr ne gadar par

hai; shayad unhon ne
kamar bandhi thi, galat thaharta
kuchh bhi na kiya ho.
230 FALLACIES.

Another simple example of both errors is, —

Five is one number.

Three and two are five.
Therefore, Three and two are one number-

making the fallacy of division.

Three and two are two numbers.
Five is three and two.
Therefore, Five is two numbers

making the fallacy of composition.

II. — Non-logical oe material Fallacies.

Non-logical fallacies are those, as was remarked,

where the fallacy is not in the form of the argument,
but in the matter of the propositions that make up the
argument. In this kind of fallacies, the conclusion-
does follow from the premisses, so that the error is not
in the form of reasoning but, as said, is in the matter of
the propositions which are, in the case of the premisses,
either false or unduly assumed, or the error may bo
that the conclusion is irrelevant, i. e., not the one requir
ed. Non-logical fallacies then may be divided into—

Fallacies in the premisses.

Fallacies in the conclusion. \

First, where the error is in the premisses. There

are several forms of this error, as a premiss may either
depend on the conclusion, or be in itself entirely false.
We notice, —
The Petitio Principii, in which a premiss de-
1.
ends on the conclusion. This is the fallacy called
pb egging the question" and consists in provingth*
 BAYAN MUGALTON KA: 231

Ek aur sahl si misal donon qism ke mugalte ki yih

hai —
Panch ek adad hai.
Tin aur do panch hote hain.
Pas, Tin aur do ek adad hai.

Yih " mugalta i taqsim" hai.

Tin aur do, do adad hain.

Panch, tin aur do hote hain.
Pas, Panch do adad hain.

Yih " mugalta i jama" hai.

Is qism ka mugalta rafa karne ke waste, is amr par
lihaz rakhna chahiye, ki agar hadd i
ausat ba mane jama
tnustqmal ho, to donon muqaddamon men ba mane jama rahe,
aur agar ba taur i taqsim ho, to donon muqaddamon men ba
taur i taqsim rahe.

Bayan Mugalta i MANAwf ka.

U'par. zikr ho chuka hai, ki "mugalta i manawi" us

ko kahte hain, jahan tartih i qiyas men galati na waqi ho,
balki uu qazion. ke manor} men galati ho, jin se wuh qiyas
bana ho. Is qism ke mugalton men natija to muqadda-
mat se nikalta hai, aur qiyas ke surat men koi galati nahin
malum hoti hai, lekin qaziya ke manon, yane madde men
galati par jati hai; aur galati madde men, ya yih ki muqad-
damat galat hon, ya he-mauqa istiamdl kiye gae hon, to
parti hai ; ya yih, ki wuh natija nikala jawe jo gair mat-
lub ho. Garaz ki mugalta i manawi ki do siiraten hain : —

Mugdlta muqaddamdt men.

MugAlta native men.

Pahle. — Bayan us mugalte ka, jo muqaddamat men

parta hai. Is ki kai suraten hain, ya to yih ki koi muqad-
dama aur natija donon ek hi hon, ya muqaddamat khud
bilkull galat hon.
'a
f 1. — Muqaddama atir natija el: hi hond.
Is qism ke mugalte men yih bat hai, ki natija nikalta
hai aise muqaddamat se jo mauquf hog natije ke subut par,
232 FALLACIES.

conclusion from a premiss that depends on the truth of

the conclusion, or is the same in sense as the conclu
sion. It is an attempt to support a proposition by it
self as a proof. The point or question to be proved is
thus "begged/' because it is assumed in fact, in the prem
'

isses, while a conclusion should not be thus assumed

but be proved by independent propositions. Suppose
one should attempt to prove the proposition (conclu
sion) that God is eternal, and offer as proof the state
ment that he is without beginning or end. Here the
proof and the conclusion to be drawn, are in reality
the same, and the argument put in the form of a syllo
gism would be,

Any being without beginning or end of existence,

is eternal.
God is without beginning or end of existence.
Therefore, God is eternal.

Here the premisses are true enough, but the argu

ment is invalid, because they unduly assume the con
clusion.
As a further example of this form of error, sup
pose that one should argue that a certain religion is
true because its sacred books are from God. Here the
proposition offered in proof of the truth of the religion,
really assumes that the feligion is true, for if its sacred
books are from God, it follows that the religion is true,
but all of this is the point to be proven by independent
propositions. This error will be detected by observing
carefully whether the premisses unduly depend on the
conclusion itself, or assume its truth.
2. Arguing in a circle, is another form of fallacy
in which the premiss is unduly assumed, because depend
ing on the conclusion. It differs from the
" petitio
principii" under which it is sometimes classed, in this
 BAYKN MUGALTON KA. 233

ya aise muqaddamat so jo mane men natije ke muwaqif

ho ; pas jab natija aise muqaddamat se nikle, jo us par
mauqiif hain, ya mane men ek hi hain, to natija kya sabit
hoga. Balki chahiye, ki natije ke subut men aise muqaddamat
£wen, jo us se alahda hain. Is qism ke mugalte men yih
bat hai, ki natija nikalta hai aise muqaddame se, jo mauquf
ho natije ke subut par, ya aise muqaddame se, jo mane
men natije ke muwafiq ho. Farz karo ki koi shakhs is
"
qaziye ko, ki Khuda azali hai," is tarah par sabit karna
chahe, ki wuh bagair ibtida aur intiha ke hai, to subut
natije ka, aur nati]a jo nikla hai, donon fil-waqai ek hi ho-
jaweiige. Yih dalil agar ba surat i qiyas likbi jawe, to
yun hogi : —

Jozat ki be-ibtida aur be-intiha hai, asali hai.

Khuda be-ibtida aur be-intiha hai.
Pas, Khuda azali hai.

Is misal men muqaddamat bila-shubha sahih hain,

lekin qiyas na-durust hai, kis waste ki muqaddamat natije1
ke manon men hain, aur yih dalil sahih nahfn hai. Bk aur
misal is qism ki galati ki di jati hai. Farz karo, koi shakhs
dalil lawe, ki fulana mazhab bar haqq hai, kyunki us msiz-
hab ki kitaben Khuda ki taraf se ai hain. Is dalil men
sihhat i mazhab ke subut men, jo qaziya aya hai, us ke
mane haqiqat men yih hain, ki mazhab barhaqq hai ; kyunki
agar mazhabi kitaben Khuda ki taraf se hain, to yih bai
bhi nikalti hai, ki mazhab barhaqq hai. Lekin is siirat
men dawa aur daKL donon ek hi hain, halanki yih chahiye
tha ki dawa sabit hota aise muqaddamat se, jin men na to
koi natije par mauquf ho, aur na koi manon men muttahid
ho. Agar is bat par bakMbi lihaz rahe, ki aya yih mu
qaddamat natije par mauquf hain, ya natije ke manon men
hain, to is qism ki galati zahir ho jawegi.
2. — Daur i
tasakul, us mugalte ko kahte hain, jaban
muqaddamat beja istiamal kiye jawen, yane natije par
mauquf hon ; magar mugalta i mazkura i bala se is men
itna farq hai, ki is ke muqaddamat aur natije yih kuchh
234 FALLACIES.

that the premiss and conclusion need not be the same in

import. It consists in making the premiss and con
clusion prove each other. Thus one proposition (pre
miss) is ofiered in proof of another (the conclusion), and
when the proof of that proposition is demanded the con
clusion is offered ; the same as to say, — A is true because
B is true, and B is true because A is true. Suppose that
one should argue that female education should not be
maintained because it is wrong, and then argue that it
is wrong because it is female education ; this would be
reasoning in a circle and the same as to say, — A is not
true because B is not true, and B is not true because A
is not true. This error is checked by demanding an in
dependent proof for both propositions.

The wider the circle, that is, the more propositions

involved before reaching the last which depends on the
first, the more difficult is the error of detection, because
the fallacy maybe thus lost sight of in the lengthened
argument. Thus, A is true because B is true, B is true
because C is true, C is true because D is true, D is true
because B is true, B is true because A is true, is a wider
circle in which the mind might lose sight of the unfair
dependence of the last proposition on the first. Of course
the way to check the error would be to demand proof
for the last proposition independent from anything given
in the circle.

3. " Non causa pro causa." This is the assign

ing of a false cause or reason for some effect or conclu
sion. In this case the premiss is false, or at least
unsupported. There is no morecommon form of fallacy
than this. Some event occurs, or some fact is stated,
for which a cause is assigned that has no connection
with it. Thus ignorant people especially are ever ready
 SAYJM MVGALTON KA'. 235

zurur nahin, ki mane men muwafiq hon, jaisa ki uparwale

mugalte men tha. Garaz ki daur i tasalsul us waqt hota
hai, jab ki muqaddama aur natija baham-digar sabit kiya
jawe, yane is tarah par, ki natija ke subut ke waste mu
qaddama laya jawe, aur agar muqaddama ka subut talab
kiya jawe, to natija laya jawe, jaisa A. sahih hai, kyunki
B. sahih hai ; aur B. sahih hai, kyunki A. sabih hai. Ya
maslan koi kahe, ki auraton ko talim dena na chahiye,
kyunki na-durust hai, aur phir dalil lawe ki wuh na-durust
hai, kyunki wuh auraton ki talim hai, to yih daur i tasalsul
hogi. Yih kahna aisa hai, jaise koi kahe, ki A. sahih nahin
hai, kyunki B. sahih nahin hai, aur B. sahih nahin, hai,
kyunki A. sahih nahin. Is tarah ki galati men muqad-
daniat aur natija donon ke waste alag alag subut talab
karna chahiye.

Jitna bara daur hoga, yane pahle qaziye se piehhle

tak jo auwal par mauqiif hai, jitne bahut qaziye honge se
usi qadar galati pakarne men diqqat ziyada hogi, kyunki,
tul tawil dalil men mumkin hai, ki galati khiyal se utar
jawe. Maslan A. sahih hai, kyunki B. sahih hai ; B. sahih
hai, kyunki J. sahih hai ; J. sahih hai, kyunki D. sahih
hai, aur D. sahih hai, kyunki A. sahih hai. Yih bahut
bara daur hai, aur shayad is bat ka khiyal na rahe, ki
akhiri qaziya, qaziya i auwal par mauquf hai, ba tariq i na-
jaiz ; pas is galati men. qaziya i akhiri ke waste koi aisa
subut talab karna ehahij e, jo daur ke qazion se bilkull
juda ho.
3. — " Wajh g.air muwajjih," kisi bat, ya natije kigalat
wajh lane ko kahte hain. Is hal men wuh wajh ya to
galat hogi, ya musallam na hogi. Yih mugalta aksar waqi
hua karta hai. Baza muamala aisa waqi hota hai, ya koi
haqiqat aisi bayan kijati hai, jis ke waste ek aisa sabab
muqarrar kiya jata hai, ki kuehh us se ilaqa nahin rakhta
hai- Jahil admi hamesha jhuthe sabab qaht ke, aur tarah
236 FALLACIES.

to assign false causes for famine and various calamities.

For instance, eclipses are supposed to be the cause of
numerous effects with which they have no possible
connection. A man gets sick or dies, and it is attri
buted to the displeasure of some god or evil spirit. A
certain king was beheaded and his son ascended the
throne. This son once met a man, then blind, who had
opposed his father to whom he said,
" Do you not think
your crimes against my father were very great, since you
have been punished by God with the loss of your eyes?''
" Nay your majesty," replied the blind man,
"
if my
crimes on that account may be considered great, how
much greater the crimes <f your father, seeing that he
was punished by God with the loss of his head, while I
have lost only my eyes" The king must have felt the
force of this reply to his " non causa pro causa" and he
must have seen that the cause assigned was as good in
one case as the other. An example of the nou causa
pro causa is found in the statement sometimes made
that the tyranny of the English Government was the
cause of the rebellion in India ; when in reality the real
cause was something else, as the fanaticism and political
ambition of the natives.

Sometimes the non causa pro causa takes the form

of a question which assumes unduly that something is
so, the interrogatory form aiding in concealing the undue
assumption. The question was once asked, why a vessel
of water is no heavier after a fish is put in it than be
fore. Efforts were made to determine the reason, with
out reflecting that the question assumes an error,
for the vessel is heavier with the fish in it. The way
to meet this form of error is to demand that the cause
itself be proven, and not to accept it till some satisfactory
proof be given that it is the real cause of the event or
 BAYAN MUG ALTON KA. 237

tarah ki afaton ke batlate hain. Maslan gahan ko, bais

batlate hain tarah tarah ki tasiron ka, jin ka ilaqa gahan
se mutlaqan nahin hai. Koi admi bimar ho jawe ya mar
jawe, to kahte hain, fulana deota ya bhiit us se na-khush
tha, is sabab se aisa hua. Ek badshah ka sar kat gaya,
aur us ka beta takht par baitha. Ek martaba aisa ittifaq
hua, ki is bete ne us shakhs ko, jis ne us ke bap ka muqa-
bala kiya tha, dekha ki andha ho gaya hai, to kahne laga,
Kaho ab tum nahin jante, ki tum ne kaisi bar! khata mere
bap ke sath ki thi, jis ke sabab se Khuda ne tum ko aisi
saza di, ki tumhari ankheg jatirahin. Us andhe ne jawab
diya, ki Nahin khudawand i niamat, jahan-panah, agar is
khata ke sabab se meri ankhen jati rahin, to malum hota
hai, ki ap ke bap ne koi is se bhi bari bhari khata ki hogi,
jo Khuda ne aisi saza di, ki us ka sar kat gaya, meri to
sirf ankhen hi gain. Badshah apni wajh gair muwajjih
ke jawab ka sawab ko sunkar bahut qail hua, aur dekha,
ki jo iatiraz main is par karta hiin, wuh khud mere upar
aid hota hai. tarah ek misal " wajh gair muwajjih"
Isi
ki yih hai, ki aksar log Sarkar i Angrez par ittiham rakhte
hain, ki bais bagawat ka Hindustan men Angrezon ka
zulm tha ; agarchi dar haqiqat sabab is ka kuchh aur hi
tha, yane hararat i dini, aur hawass mulkgiri ki. Baz
mauqa par wajh gair muwajjih ka, jab ba surat suwal ake
parta hai, to galati chhip jati hai. Ek martaba ek shakhs
ne suwal kiya, ki pani lihare bartan men machhli dalo, to
wuh bartan banisbat qabl ke kyun nahin bhari hota hai ?
Dusra shakhs is ka sabab daryaft karne laga, magar yih
na socha, ki yih suwal hi galat hai, kyiinki machhli dalno
se wuh bartan bhari ho jawega. Is galati ke pakarne ka
yih qaida hai, ki malum karna ki ay a yih sabab durust
hai ya nahin ; aur jab tak dalil i shafi is bat ki na di jawe,
238 FALLACIES.

effects produced. In case of a question, the fact assumed

should not be accepted till proved.
These three — " petitio principio," "arguing in a circle"
and " non causa pro causa," are the principal forms of
" non-logical fallacy" where the error is in the premisses.
We now turn to non-logical —
Fallacies in the Conclusion.

The common term for this form of error is " ignoratio

elenehi," or " irrelevant conclusion." The conclusion
established is not the one required, but something that

it,
conceals or appears to be or diverts attention from
the required " elenchus" or conclusion. Elenchus is

a
Greek word which means the contradictory of an oppo
nent's assertion.
The "irrelevant conclusion" then the establish

is
ment, either from ignorance or design, of conclusion

a
not required in the argument. Thus, suppose the ques
tion is, whether man committed a certain theft or not.
a

Now the one that undertakes to prove it, finding

it
difficult to establish the theft, sets about proving the
man rascal at any rate, which not the point to be
is
a

an " irrelevant conclusion." There are

is

ascertained/but
various forms of this error. Sometimes the question
is
dexterously changed to something else. Sometimes an
effort made to bring an opponent into state of mind
is

to accept a conclusion not proven, by arousing in him

some passion or feeling. The way to meet this error
is

to settle clearly the point dispute or inquiry, and keep

of

this well in view. Any diversion or conclusion " irre

levant " to this should be promptly rejected.
Some common forms of this fallacy are enumerated
below.
Argumentum ad hominem, or "personal argu
1.

ment." This an unfair appeal to the passions, pre

is
 SATAN MUG ALTOS KA. 239

K.i yihi haqiqi hai is mu&male ya tasir ka, us waqt

sabab
tak use taslim karna na chahiye. Kisi suwal ke dawe ko
taslim na karna chahiye, jab tak sabit na ho. Mugalta i
manawi, jo muqaddamat men par jaya karte hain, aksar
yihtin hain, yane "Muqaddama natije par maitqi'tf" "Daur
i tasalsnl" " Wajh gair muwajjih."
Doyum, baydn tin mugAton kd natije men hote.

Is " MugAlta i natija i g.air

galati ko aksar
qism ki
matluba kd" kahte hain. Jo natija cbahiye, wuh nahin
nikala jata hai, balki koi aur aisa hota hai, jo natija i mat
luba ki tarafse dhyan ko hata leta hai. Garaz ki mu
"
galta natija gair matlub ka" us ko kahte hain, ki us dalil
men wuh natija muqarrar kiya jawe, jo matlub na ho,
khwah wuh natija na-samjhi se nikal awe, ya jan bujhkar
nikala jawe. Maslan farz karo koi shakhs suwal kare, ki
is admi ne fulani chori ki. Aur dusra shakhs jawab dene-
waladekhe, ki chori sabit nahin hoti, to idhar udhar kj
haten lakar sabit kare, ki agar chor nahin hai, to bahar hal
bad-maash to hai. To yih " mugalta natija i gair matlub
ka" hoga, kyiinki us ki bad-maashi par bahs na thi, balki
bahs us ki chori par thi. Is mugalte ki kai, ek suraten bain,
jin ka zikr age chalkar likha jawega. Baz martaba aisa
hota hai, ki dawe ko chalakise badalkarkuchh ka kuchh
kar dete hain. Aur kabhi jawab denewala bahs karnewa-
le ke dil men aisi baten dal deta hai, ki galatnatije ko wuh
shakhs qubul kar lewe. Pas is qism ke mugalton se mah-
f uz rahne ke waste, chahiye ki jis bat par bahs ho usi par
qaim rahe, aur agar koi bat bahs se juda ya natija gair
matlub pawe, us ko bila taammul radd kare. Is mugalte ki
chand suraten, jo aksar ake parti hain, zail men likhi jati
hain : —
1. — Mugdlta i tamattuq-dmez, wuh hai, jis men jawab de
newala bad mudmali se bahs karnewale kedil ko, yajis
240 FALLACIES.

judices, personal opinions, vanity, modesty, &c, of an

opponent or those whom it is desired to convince. An
unfair effort may be made to arouse the anger or ridicule
of persons against the truth. A "laugh" sometimes
brings the truth into contempt. A few simple illustra
tions of this error will make it plainer.
It an unworthy [beggar appears before your door,
and to your statement that he is not a fit subject for
alms, replies by an appeal to your feelings of charily
and compassion for the poo-, and sense of duty in alms
giving, this ould be a fair example of the " argumentnm
\*

ad hominem." The ccnolusion of the beggar's argument

would be " irrevelant," because the propriety of mani
festing feelings of chanty and compassion for the poor,
or the duty of alms-giving in general is not the ques
tion, but rather, is this particular -person a jit subject for
oharity. The beggar avoids the question but tries to
gain his point by a personal appeal.
Again, many persons in India who object to female
education, do not attempt to prove directly that the
things in itself would be an injury, either to females or
to the country generally, but try to arouse the prejudices
of people against it by saying that it is not the custom
and that they will bring discredit upon their families
by sending their daughters to school. All attempts then
to gain some point by passing by the real question at
issue, and appealing to passion, prejudice, vanity, &c,
constitute the " argumentum ad homnem." When this
appeal to passion, &c. is to an assembly or number
of persons, it is sometimes called "argumentum ad
populum."
This error should be met by calmly referring to the
question at issue and keeping attention on that.
It may be observed that any proper appeal to pas
sion or feeling to establish the real question at issue is
not an error, and may be justly employed.
 D A YA N At UGAL TON KA. 241

kisi ko qail karna manzur ho, aisi targib de, ki us ke dil

men josh ya taassub paida ho jawe, ya us ke dil ki sikahne
lage, ya us ko barhawe ki ap aise hain, aur waise hain, ya
haya wg. dilawe. Aksar haqiqat ki hat par gussa
dilate hain, ya thatthe men urate hain. Thatthe se bhi
haqiqat ki bat ehhip jati hai, ya us se nafrat paida ho jati
hai. Chand misalen sahl si is galati ki yahan par likhi
jati hain, jin se us ka hal bakhubi khulega.
Agar koi faqir jis ko dena munasib nahin hai, tum-
hare darwaze par awe, aur tum us se kaho, ki tu is laiq na
hin hai, ki tujh ko khairat di jawe, to wuh faqir is ke jawab
men yih kahe, ki "Baba, garib-parwari aur rahm karna
garibon par farz hai, khairat dena sab par farz hai." Yih
misal mugalta i tamalluq-anaez ki hai. Faqir ki dalil
ka natija gair matliib hai; kyiinki garib-parwari, aur rahm
karna, khairat dena, 'umuman farz hai. Is men kalam na
tha, balki is men tha ki aya yih faqir khairat ke laiq hai
ya nahin? Wuh faqir suwal ka jawab nahin deta, balki
tamalluq-amez dalilon se tumhare dil ko lubhata hai, taki
turn rahm khakar us ko khairat de do .
Dusri misdl. — Bahut log Hindustan ke, jo auraton ki
talim men muzahimat karte hain, subut i kamil is amr ka
nahin dete, ki talim se auraton ko ya mulk ko kya nuqsan
hota hai, balki logon ko talim ki taraf se pherte hain, aur
kahte hain, ki yih dastur nahin hai. Apni larkion ko
iskul men bhejne se hamare khandan ki badnami hogi.
Garaz ki yih sab baten, ki bahs men asl matliib ko chhor
dena, aur josh o taassub paida karna, aur shekhi dilana
" mugalta i tamalluq-amez" men dakhil hain. Is mugalte
se mahfuz rahne ke waste yih dhahiye, ki asl matliib ko
bar waqt mubahise ke, hath se na de, balki usi par dhyau
rakhe.
Yih janna chahiye, ki bar waqt mubahise ke aisa josh
o targib dilana, ki bahs karnewala rasti par awe, aur sahib,
natija nikale, kuchh galati nahin hai.
242 FALLACIES.

2. The fallacy of shifting ground. Let it be kept

in mind that we are discussing the "irrelevant conclu
sion'^
i. e., cases where the required conclusion is not
drawn but something foreign to it, and which, if estab
lished, gives the appearance only, of having gained the
point in dispute. The fallacy of shifting ground is a
common artifice for this purpose. Often during a discus
sion, when one finds that he cannot maintain his point,
he slyly shifts the discussion to some other proposition
different from the one under consideration in whole or
in part. Thus, suppose one is trying to prove that tho
drinking of a single drop of ardent spirits is wrong, but
failing in this, he quietly sets about proving that the
drinking ardent spirits in excess is wrong, which is
quite another question. This fallacy is effected in
various ways. Sometimes an ambiguous or general
term is used, and when it cannot be maintained in one
meaning, a second or third meaning is claimed for it.
Thus, an attempt may be made to prove that a certain
people have faith in God in the sense of knowing him
aright and obeying him, but on failing in this, an attempt
may be made to prove that they have faith in the
existence of one God, which is a different conclusion or
" ground." Sometimes a particular is proved when a
universal should be proved. Thus, some persona on
failing to prove that the Christian religion is not good
" shift" their " ground" by showing that particular
persons are not good, which is not the required conclu
sion, and if it be proved even, the real question is not
touched.
Sometimes the discussion is shifted from one to the
other of an opponent's premisses alternately. The attack
on failing on one is changed to the other, and on failing
there, is shifted back again without settling finally any
one point. No fallacy is more common than this in a
 BAYAN MUQSLTON K£. 243

2. — MugAlta i tagaiyur i mazmun. bat ko yad rakh-

Is
na chahiye, ki yih bahs natija i gair matlub Id hai, yane
natija i matlub na nikala jawe balki koi aur aisi bat garr
matlub, ki agar qaim Id jawe, to ba zahir malum ho ki yw
" tagaiyur i mazmun,
wuhi hai. Garaz yih fareb yane, _
hai, ki
jawab denewala aksar is maqsad ke waste karta
rnubahise men jab wuh dekh+a hai, ki main apni bahs par
bat
qaim nahin rah sakta hun, to us bahs ko chhorkar aur
par, jo Lilkull nmkhtalif ho, ya bilkull na ho balki kuchh
ho, bahs karne lagta hai. Maslan farz, karo l<oi shakhs
sabit karna chahe, ki sharab ka ek qatra bhi pina gunah
hai, magar sabit na kar sake, to chalaki se bahs ko badal-
kar kahne lage ki sharab ka bahut sa pina gunah hai.
To yih bahs auwal se bilkull mukhtalif hogi. Yih mugal-
ta kai tarah ake parta hai. Maslan baz jagah lafz 1
mushtarak istiamal kiya jata hai, aur jab ek mane qaim
nahin rah sakte hain, to muqabilwala dusre tisre mane
istiamal karne lagta hai. Maslan koi sabit karna chahe
ki fulane log Khuda par is tarah iman lae hain, ki us
ko bakhubi jante hain, aur us ke ahkam ko mante
hain;
lekin is ko sabit na kar sake, to kahne lage ki we Khuda
ke wujud par iman rakhte hain, to yih bahs 1 ilkull judi
i
ho jawegi. Baz jagah aisa hota hai, ki qaziya juziya
chahiye.
sabit kiya jata hai, jab ki kulliya sabit karna
hain, ki Isai
Maslan baze log jab yih nahin sabit kar sakte
mazhab:achchha nahin hai, to is bahs ko
chhorkar kahne
ke, achchhe nahin
lagte hain, ki baz shakhs is mazhab
nikalna chahiye
hain : pas yih wuh natija nahin hai, jo
tha^ aur agar yih sabit bhi ho jawe, ki baz shakhs is maz
se yih bat bilkull
hab ke achchhe nahin hain, to asl dawe
alag hai.
Baz dafa muqabilwala barwaqt mubahise ke, ek mu-
qaddame ko chhorkar, dusre par bari
bari se bahs karne

lagta. Jab ek muqaddame par iatiraz nahin

ho sakta hai,

to dusre par iatiraz karne lagta hai, aur ja > dusre par bhi
iatiraz nahin ho sakta hai, tophirpahle par a jata hai. Garaz
244 FALLACIES.

weak disputant, of shifting the discussion from one prop

osition to another in a perpetual round or flight with
out fully settling any one point. Thus, often in religious
disputes we will find persons combating first one and
then another of an opponents doctrines with a great
noise and clamour of words, but not waiting for a full
reply on any point, nor delaying to either disprove it or
acknowledge defeat.
The effective way to deal with the fallacy of shift
ing ground is to fix some meaning on doubtful or gen
eral terms and settle the " ground" of dispute fairly
and clearly in the beginning, and demand that the dis
pute remain there ; and in case an opponent
" shifts''
his attack from premiss to premiss alternately, or from
one proposition to another, the demand should be made
that a proposition taken in hand be settled before pass
ing to another.
3. The fallacy of objections. This consists in rais
ing some objection against a proposition or science or
proposed improvement, and then because this objection
can be urged, concluding that the proposition, science,
or proposed improvement, or whatever the point may
be against which the objection is urged, is erroneous
or not to be maintained. The " fallacy of objections"
is put under the division of " irrelevant conclusion''
because, simply the conclusion that objections can be
urged against a proposition, is not the conclusion to be
drawn, but rather it should be shown whether the objec
tions have greater weight against the proposition than the
reasons which can be urgea" for it. This is the point to
be proved and not simply that some objections can be
urged against the proposition. Many truths have such
a weight of evidence in their favour that no one should
hesitate for a n oment to accept them, and yet there may
be some plausible objections urged against them. An
 BATAN MVGALTON KA'. 245

ki kisi bahs ko pura nahin karta hai. Agar bahs karne-

wala kam aql ho, to us ko is sebarhkar aur koi mugalta nahin
parta hai, ki ek qaziye ko chhorkar dusre par chala jata
hai, hamesha idhar udhar ghurata phirta hai kisi bahs par
bakhubi qaim nahin rahta hai. Mazhabi mubahison men
ham ne aksar dekha hai, ki muqabilwala ek masle par iati
raz karta hai, aur phir dusre masle par bare shor o
gul ke sath. Zara thaharta nahin, ki pura jawab pawe
ya ap radd kare, ya iqrar apne qail hone ka kare. Pas
aise mugalte se mahf uz rahne ke waste yih khiib tariqa hai,
ki agar koi lafz mushtarak ho ya amm ho, to auwal us ke
mane muqarrar kiye jawen, aur auwal hi auwal khub jata
diya jawe ki isi par bahs rahe aur phir agar muqabile-
;

wala ek muqaddame ya qaziye ko ehhorkar dusre muqadda-

me ya qaziye par bari bari se jane lage, to use muttald
karta rahe, ki jab tak ek bat par bahs puri na ho jawe, dusri
ko na pakre.
3. — MugAlta iqtirdzon l:d.
Hugalta iatirazon ka us ko
kahte hain, jab ki iatiraz kisi qaziye par, ya jo koi hat jis
par bahs ho rahi ho warid howe, aur ba sabab warid hone
iatiraz ke, us bat ko galat qarar diya jawe.

Mugalta iatirazon ka bhi "natijaigair matlub" k*

qism se hai, kyiinki sirf is qadr natija nikalna, ki fulane
qaziye par iatiraz ho sakte hain, natija i matliiba nahin hai
balki yih batlana ohahiye, ki fulane qaziye par iatiraz ziyd-
da yd us ki isbdt i sihhatki dalilen ziydda hain, jane yihi bat
sabit karna chahiye, ki 6yd iqtirdz, dalilon se ziydda huin ya
nahin ? Bahut aisi hain, jin ke subut men us qadr
baten
dalilen hain, ki koi un ke qabulkarne men kisi tarah ka taam-
mul nahin kar sakta hai ; magar bain hama un ke upar
kuchh iatiraz ho sakte hain. Agar koi muqabilwala un
baton par bare shor o gul ke sath iatiraz uthake zahir kare
246 FALLACIES.

opponent of these truths by making a noisy parade of

the objections, might make it appear that they should be
rejected and in this lies the fallacy.
For instance, a medicine has been useful in scoies
of instances, but in a few cases failed ; now it would be
erroneous to urge that because in a few instances it
had failed, the medicine is not a good one. The
Bible has many and weighty arguments to prove that
it is God's book, and that it has remained uncorrupted
through ages down to the present time. Yet because
some objections or difficulties can be urged against it,
some persons claim that it should be rejected. This is
the " fallacy of objections," and the question here should
be, is there a preponderance of evidence in favour of the
inspiration and uncorrupted preservation of the Bible ?
Another illustration of the fallacy of objections is
found in the objections that are urged against some
change or improvement in the government or public
works of a country. Although the change may have
many reasons to commend its adoption, yet because

it,
one or two objections may be urged against some
persons are ready to reject it.
Where the fallacy of objections urged against
is

any question or proposition should be met by the

it

position, that while the proposition has stronger arguments

in its favour than can be urged against
it,

not disproved,
is
it

and this point should be kept clear above all the clamour
of debate.
4. The fallacy proving only a part. This just
is
oj

the reverse of the fallacy of objections, and consists in

proving only apart of what required, and then claim
is

ing that the whole question has been proved. Thus,

suppose that the question whether certain book
is
is

good- or not. Now, only a few good points could be

it if

shown in the book, would be the " fallacy of proving

 BAYAS MUG ALTON KA. 247

ki in baton ko radd karna chahiye, pas yihi mugalta

iatirazon ka hua. koi dawa ho, jis se
Masal to maslan,
bisiyon marizon ko faidahuaho; magar ek-adh martaba kisi
ko na hua ho, to yih kahna ki yih naqis dawa hai, galat hoga.
Ya maslan, Eaibal ke subut men bahuteri pakki dalilen
hain, ki yih kitab Khuda. ki hai, aur sal-ha sal se aj tak
bajinsihi bagair tahrif chali ati hai, magar taham, churjki
baz jagah diqqat ake parti hai, aur bazahir chand iatiraz ho
sakte hain, is sabab se baz admi kahne lagte hain, ki is ko
radd karna chahiye. Yih mugalta iatiiazDn ka hiia. Ya-
han par yih suwal chahiye tha, ki Baibal ke ilhami hone
aur bagair tahrif rahne ki ziyada dalilen hain ya nahin ?

agar ziyada hain, to taslim karna chahiye. Ek aur misal

" mugalta i
iatiraz" ki yih hai, ki baz admi, jab umurat i
saltanat men rafah i khalaiq l<e waste kisi tarah ka tagaiyur
amal men awe, to iatiraz karte hain. Agarchi us tagaiyur
men us mulk ki bahut bihtari ho, taham ba sabab do ek
iatiraz ke baze log radd karne lagte hain.
Jis mubahise men, ki mugalta iatiraz ka waqi ho, to
us ke jawab men yih qaida baratna chahiye, ki jitni dalilen
subut i sihhat men hain, is se ziyada iatiraz -jab tak na
hon, us waqt tak use radd karna na chahiye, aur kaisa hi
shor o gul kyun na mache, is qaida ko hath se na de.

4. — MugAlta subut i juzi ka. Yih mugalta, mugalta

i Mugalta i iatiraz men juzi par iati
iatiraz ke baraks hai.
raz karke kulli ko radd karte hain, aur is men juzi ko sabifc
karke dawa karte ki kulli sabit hai. Maslan farz karo,
koi shakhs suwal kare, ki aya fulani kitab achchhi hai ya
nahin ? aur us ke jawab men kaha jawe, Id chand bayanat
as kitab men achchhe hain, is sabab se wuh kitab achchhi
248 FALLACIES.

only a part" to argue therefore that the book is a good

one. The question to be proved is, " is the book upon
the whole a good one." To prove anything short of
this is " irrelevant." Again, suppose the question is,
" whether a certain government is a good one or not.''
Now, to prove two or three good points in the govern
ment is not enough, but the government should be
considered as a whole ; anything short of this is proving
but a part, and a partial conclusion is "irrelevent'' here.
The fallacy of proving a part should be met with a
demand that while proof for the whole question is
not brought forward it must not be decided. The caution
may here be given that in every question, care should
be taken not to attempt to maintain too much, for if
more is claimed in tbe question than can be fairly proved,
the argument is open to the objection that it involves
the " fallacy of proving only a part.''
These four kinds of fallacy then, " argumentum ad
hominem'' — "shifting ground" — " fallacy of objections"
and " fallacy of proving only a part of a question" in
clude the usual forms of"
irrelevant conclusion."
We may give here some general rules for the
examination of arguments and then conclude the subject
of fallacies with a recapitulation.

To Discover Formal Fallacies.

First, reduce the reasoning or argument to the form
of a syllogism. This can be done in the following
manner whether it be an oral discourse, a book, chapter
or section. — Observe what the concluding assertion or
position is, for this is usually the conclusion. Go back
from this and ascertain on what grounds this assertion is
made or from what reasons this conclusion is drawn.
These " grounds'" or " reasons'' will be the premisses,
and from the conclusion and premisses thus obtained the
 BAYA'N MUQJTLTON K£. 249

hai, to yih " mugalta subut i juzi ka" hoga ; kyunki juzi ke
hal se kulli ki taraf dalil pakarta hai. Suwal is bat men
tha, ki wuh kitab sab tarah se achchhi hai ya nahin ? Pas
yahan par natija juzi nikalna, jis surat men kulli chahiye tha,
gair-matlub hai. Dusri misal. Farz karo, koi shakhs suwal
kare, ki fulani Sarkar achchhi hai ya nahin ? to us ke jawab
men sirf do tin I aten us amaldari ki achchhi sabit karna
kafi na hoga, balki kull baton par gaur karke natija nikal
na chahiye, aur agar kull baten achchhi sabit na hon,
balki juzwi baten, to yih natija yahan par gair-matlub hoga,
kiyunki bahs hamari kull par thi na juz par. Garaz ki
mugaltai subut i juzi se ir.ahfuz rahne ke waste, kulli par
dalil talab karna chahiye, aur is amr se agah kar dena
chahiye, ki agar kull suwal ka jawab na milega, to dalil
puri na hogi. Aur wazih ho ki har bahs men is bat ka
lihaz rakhna chahiye, ki jitni bat ho, utna hi dawa karna
chahiye na yih ki ziyada ; kyunki agar ziyada dawa kiya
jawe, to kull sabit na ho sakegi, aur dalil men iatiraz mu-
galata i juzi ka paida hoga. Natija gair-matlub, aksar
inhin char qismon ke mugalton men yane " tamalluq-amez,"
aur "mugalta tagaiyur i mazmun," aur "mugaltai iatiraz,"
aur " mugalta i subut i juzi" men akar parta hai.
Ab yahan. par chand qaida i amm, waste daryaft karne
sihhat dalilon ke, likhenge, aur phir bayan mugalton ka,
bil-ijmal likhkar tamam karenge.

Mugalta i suitf ko pakarna.

Dalil ko ba surat i qiyas karna chahiye, khwah dalil

zabani ho ya tahriri, aur tahriri khwah kull kitab men
ya bab men ya fasl men ho. Surat i qiyas is tarah
lana chahiye, yane dekho ki akhiri bahs kya hai, kyiinkar
aksar wuhi natija hoga, aur phir yih daryaft karna, ki kis
bina par wuh akhiri bahs qaim hai, yane kin dalilon se wuh
natija nikla hai, aur wuh I ina yane dalilen muqaddamat
honge; pas is tarah qiyas ban jawega, aur jab qiyas ban
250 FALLACIES.

syllogism or syllogisms, as the case may be, can bo

constructed, -which may then be tested by the rules for
syllogisms.
1st. Observe whether the syllogism be categori
cal or hypothetical. If hypothetical the rules for the
hypothetical syllogism must be applied.
2nd. If categorical count the terms.
3rd. If there are only three terms, ascertain
-whether the middle term is distributed, and is used in
only one sense.
4lh. Observe whether the premisses are both
negative in reality or in appearance merely. If but one
is negative, see if the conclusion is negative also; or if
both are affirmatives, observe if the conclusion is
affirmative.
oth. Mark what terms are distributed in the con
clusion, and ascertain whether they are distributed also
in the premisses.
6th. If the syllogism is in the first figure, observe
if it is in the form of Aristotle's dictum.

To Discover Material Fallacies.

If nofault appears in the syllogism as such, that

is in the form of the reasoning, then proceed to try the
truth of the premisses and the relevancy of the con
clusion. Take each premiss separately and observe : —
1st. Whether it is self-evident or not.
2nd. If not self-evident, but requiring proof
mark if the ground or proof on which it rests is valid or
not.
3rd. Observe whether the premiss is the same
as the conclusion in reality, or whether it depends upon
it.
If
the premisses are true and unobjectionable, turn
to the conclusion and observe; —
 BA YA'N M UGJTL TON KA'. 251

jawe to us ki sihhat un qaidon se, jo waste daryaft karne

sihhat qiyason ke muqarrar hain, daryaft karna chahiye.
Auvial. — Yih dekho, ki wuh qiyas hamliya ya shartiya
hai, agar shartiya hai, to unhin qaidon se, jo waste shartiya
ke muqarrar hain, sihhat us ki malum karo.
Boy urn. — Agar qiyas hamliya ho, to yih dekho, ki us
men kitne juz hain.
Sei/iim. — Agar sirf tin juz hon, to yih dekho, ki hadd
i ausat kulli hai ya nahin, aur ba mane mufrad istiamal ki
gai hai, ya nahin.
Chuhdriim. — Yih dekho, ki donon muqaddamat salibe
hain ya mujibe, aur agar salibe hain, to manan ya lafzan,
aur agar ek muqaddama saliba ho, to dekho ki natija bhi
saliba hai ya nahin ? agar donon muqaddamat mujibe hon,
to yih dekho ki natija bhi mujiba hai ya nahin ?
Panjum. — Yih malum karo, ki jo juz natija men kulli
hain, muqaddamat men bhi kulli hain ya nahin ?
Skashum. — Agar qiyas ba surat shakl i auwal ho, to
yih daryaft karo, ki bamujib " qaul i Arastatalis" ke hai
ya nahin ?

MuGALTA MANAWf KO PAKARNA.

Agar wuh qiyas in sab nuqson se khali ho, yane us ki

surat men galatina ho, to yih daryaft karo ki muqaddamdt
sahih hain, aur natija wuhi hai jo matlub tha. Aur daryaft
is tarah par karo, ki har ek muqaddama ko juda juda
karke, —
Pahle. — Yih dekho, ki yih muqaddama badihi hai ya
nahin ?

Lusre. — ^Agar badihi na ho, balki muhtaj subut ka ho,

to yih dekho ki wuh bind yane dalil, jis par wuh qaim hai,
sahih hai ya nahin ?
Tisre — ^Yih dekho, ki muqaddamat dar haqiqat wuhi
hain, jo natija hai, ya natija par mauquf hain.
Agar muqaddamat sahih aur iatiraz so khali hon, to na
tija ki taraf mutawajjih ho.
 >52 FALLACIES.

If it is "

is,
1st. relevant," that the one required
in this argument.
2nd. If the one that the reasoner set out to

it
is
prove or has the question been changed.
3rd. If the whole or only part of what

it
is

a
should be proved.
Some such analysis as this will generally lead to
the detection of any errors in an argument. Each form
of fallacy in the recapitulation, should be studied and
dwelt on till its nature fully understood and till can

is

it
be illustrated by a number of instances.

Recafitulation of Fallacies.

Undistributed middle.
1
f

Illicit process.
3 2

Negative premisses.
Logic
I.

Affirmative conclusion
al error
or
from negative pi emiss- Ambiguous major or
-{
4

in form. f
es and vice versd. minor.
j

Ambiguous middle.
More than three terms in
J
,

.i Fallacia accidentia.
5

„
the argument.
.

Falkcy rf divisi(m Qr
| I
L

composition.
^

Petitio principii.
'

First, fallacy in
Arguing in circle.
'

a
f

the premisses.
Non causa pro causa.
II. Non-
logical or
material, er
Argumentum ad hominem.
ror in mat
f

ter.

noratio elenchi," or-{ Fallacy of objections,

irrelevant conclu-
Fallacy of proving only a
sion.
t

part.
I
 BAYAN MVGJTLTON KA'. 253

Pahle. — Yih dekho, ki natija matluba hai, yane wuhi

hai jo is dalil men chahiye tha ? «

Busre. — Yih, Id natija wuhi hai, jobahs karnewalene sa-

bit karna chaha tha, ya bahs badal gal hai ?
Tisre. — Yih
dekho ki natija jitna sabit karna chahiye
tha, utna hai ya juz us ka ?
Pas in sab baton mazkura i bala par lihaz rakhne se
agar lusi tarah ki galati dalil men ho, bakhubi malum ho
jaegi. Mugalta ki har surat par, jo zail ke bayan i muj-
mal men likhi hai, tawaqte ki us ki kaifiyat bakhubi ma
lum na ho jawe, aur har surat ki misal apni taraf se na ba-
na sake, khub dhyan dena aur gaur karna chahiye.

3Iug.dlton kd mujmal bayan.

fl. Hadd i ausat juzi.

j 2.Kulliyat i najaiz.
j 3.Muqaddampt i salibe.
1. Mvgdlta J 4. Natija mujaba muqad-
i Suri, |
damat salibon se, ya f
Akbar, ya asgar, ya
baraks is ke.
|
hadd l ausat mush-
j 5. Ekqiyasmentin juzon
tarika.
se ziyada ka hona.
L
Mugalta i arzi.
Mugalta taqsim o
jama.

'
Muqaddama aur natija
ek bi hona.
Auwal, — Mugalta muqad-
)
Daur i tasalsul.
damat meg. )
Wajh i gair-muwajjih.

2. Mug&Ita j
i Man'atvi, '
f Mugalta i tamalukamez.
Doyum, — Mugalta nati j e Mugalta i tagaiyur i maz-
nten,
" natija gair-{ niun.
yane
matlub." | Mugalta
iatirazon ka,
(.Mugalta subut juzi.
 SECTION II.

Op certain methods of applying logic.

There are certain peculiar methods of applying the

reasoning process in practical life, to which appropriate
names are given. We propose to describe these briefly,
and illustrate their mode of application. It will be
seen that the reasoning process, although always really
the same, in practical use in the search for truth or in
the refutation of error, is varied in method.

Induction.

1. Induction, is the inferring of general laws or

truths, from particular truths or facts, that have pass
ed under observation. It is also the process of discov
ering causes from effects. A number of facts or
things are found always associated in the same way, or
accompanied by the same phenomena; hence we con
clude that this class of facts are always so, and infer
some general law or truth in regard to them. For
instance, it has been observed that lead, iron, silver,
gold, &c, melt when a sufficient degree of heat is
applied to them. Hence, the general truth is inferred
that metals are fusible. Again, it is observed that
cows, sheep, goats, deer, and other horned animals
ruminate, hence the rule is inferred that horned animals
ruminate. Again, it has been observed in hundreds of
trials, that pure water resolved into its elements by chemi
cal analysis, yields but two gases, oxygen and hydrogen,
 PASL II.

BaYAN CHAND TARIQON ISTIAMAL I MANTIQ KA.

Mantiq ke istiamal ke waste chand tariqe hain, jin ke

juda juda nam muqarrar hain. Ab hamara irada hai, ki un
tariqon ko likhen, aur un ke istiamal ka taur batlawen. Yih
malum hoga ki aql agarchi haqiqatan hamesha ekhi taur
par daurti hai, magar phir bhi. bar waqt mubahise ke, jab
ki kisi bat ki haqiqat daryaft ki jawe, ya koi galati rafa ki
jawe, to dalil lane ke tariqe men kuchh na kuchh tagaiyur
ho jata hai.

Bayan Istiqra ka.

1. — Istiqra us ko kahte hain, ki juziyat se kulliyat ko

malum karna, yane chand baton se us qism ki kull baton
ke liye koi qaida i dimm nikalna. Jab chand martaba ham
ne dekha, ki jab ek amr hota hai, us ke sath fulani bat bhi
hoti hai, pas us se ham natija nikal lete hain, ki is qism ki
jitni baten hain, sab hamesha isi tarah par hoti hain, aur ek
amm qaida un sab baton ke waste nikal ata hai. Maslan
ham dekhte hain, ki sisa, loha, chandi wg. jab khub garm
kiye jaweg, to pighal jawenge. Pas qaida i £mm yih nikla ki
dhaten pighal jati,hain. Dusri misal, hamne dekha, ki gae,
bhains, bakrian, aur aur singwale janwar jugali karte hain
pas qaida nikla ki singwale janwar jugali karte hain. Tisri
misal, saikron martaba azmane se malum hua, ki khalis
pani, jab us ke anasir kimiyai tarkib se juda juda kiye jawen
to do gasen ho jati hain, is hisab se ath hissa dksijen aur ek
256 INDUCTION.

in the proportion of 8 to 1 ; hence it is inferred that

all pure water consists of two elements, oxygen and
hydrogen, combined in the proportion of 8 to 1.
2. We may remark here, that induction, as far at
least as the material world is concerned, is founded
on the belief, that the laws of nature are uniform.
This belief itself is perhaps an induction. From child
hood up, we observe that the sun uniformly rises and
sets, that day and night succeed each other in tbe same
regular order, that the seasons come and go, that
seeds germinate and plants grow, and produce flowers
and fruit in the same order; hence the belief has
fastened itself in the mind from these observations,
that nature's laws are uniform. For this reason, when
in a number of cases we see the same thing accompanied
by the same phenomenon, we infer from the uniformity
of nature's laws that it will always be so.
3. The induction will be complete or incomplete
according to i he number and accuracy of the observations
that have been made. It would be an incomplete and
hasty induction to infer a general law or truth from a
few facts, or from a few hasty and immature observa
tions. Yet this is a common mistake; because
a thing happens in a certain order or connection for a
few times, it is referred to some cause with which it
has no connection whatever. It is a common saying
among the Hindus, that eclipses have an unfavourable
influence on the birth of children, because perhaps,
in some instances, unfavourable births have taken place
in connection with eclipses ; although there is no pos
sible bad influence in eclipses over the birth of a child,
as the thousands of favourable births at times when
eclipses have taken place, should prove. If it should
occur twice or thrice in a life time, that a journey,
undertaken when an animal crossed the road before us,
 BA YAN ISTIQRA' KA. 257

hissa haidrojen, pas natija nikla, ki jitna khalis pan! hai,

do unsar se, yane aksijen aur haidrojen se, is tarah par ki
ath hissa aksijen hai aur ek hissa haidrojen, murakkab hai.
2. — Ab janna chahiye ki bunyad istiqra ki is yaqin
par hai, ki qudrati qdniin ek hi rahte hain, badatte na/rin,
aur yih yaqin bhi shayad istiqra se hasil hua, kyunki
larakpan se ham dekhte hain, ki aftab barabar tulii hota
aur gurub hota hai, aur rat aur din pai dar pai bote
rahte hain ek hi tartib par; ruausim ate hain, bijon men
kalla phiitta hai, aur darakht barhte hain, aur phalte phiilte
hain, ek hi tartib par; pas dekhte dekhte hamare dil
par yih yaqin jam gaya hai, ki qawanin i qudrati badalte
nahin, et hi rahte hain. Jab kai ek martaba ham dekhte
hain, ki fulane waqi ke sath fulani lat hoti hai, to natija
nikalte hain, ki chtinld qudrat ke qanun hamesha ek hi
rahte hain, is sabab'se fulane waqi ke sath fulani bat
hamesha hoti rahegi.

8.— Jitni martaba aur gaur ke sath koi bat

jis

qadr
dekhi jawe, usi qadr us ka istiqra kamil hoga. Yih nahin
hai, ki ek bat ko ek amr ke sath do ek martaba hote hue
dekhkar ek 4mm qaida nikalna, ki jab fulana amr hoga,
to us ke sath fulani bat zarur hogi. Yih galati aksar waqi
hoti hai, kyunki baraha dekhne men ata hai, ki jab koi bat
kisi amr ke sath do ek martaba hoti ho, to log kahne lagte
hain, ki us bat aur us amr men ilaqa zurur hai. Maslan,
Hindu log aksar kahte hain, ki gahan parte waqt larke ka
paida hona manhus hota hai, kyunki baz martaba azma
dekha hai, ki jab aise waqt men larka paida hota hai, man
hus hota hai, agarchi bat ki kuchh asliyat nahin kyunki
is

hazaron martaba larke ka paida hona aise waqt men masud

hua. Agar umr bhar men do tin martaba kisi shakhs
ko aisa ittifaq hiia ho, ki safar karte waqt koi janwar us ke
samhne se rasta katlsar nikal gaya, aur us safar men kuchh
khalal par gaya, to use yih natija nikalna na chahiye, ki
musafirat men janwar ka rasta katkar nikal jana shugiin
i
258 INDUCTION.

proved bad, we should not therefore infer that there

is some unfavourable sign in an animal crossing our
track. On the contrary, a correct induction would
show us that the instances are vastly more numerous,
where the crossing of our track by an animal, was fol
lowed by a prosperous journey.
Induction will thus be complete, in proportion to
the number of cases that have passed under observation.
An absolutely complete induction would be where all
the cases had passed under observation. But this is
usually not practicable, and indeed is not necessary,
since a number of observations, more or less just, as the
case seems to demand, satisfy the mind that a general
law or truth has been reached. For instance, it is not
necessary to analyze all the water in the world, to be
sure that water is composed of two gasses. Repeated
trials have satisfied the mind that this is the fact. A
complete induction, then, is where the trials have been
sufficient to satisfy the mind and warrant the conclu
sion. From the process of induction, different degrees
of belief arise, in proportion to the completeness of the
induction. If the examples have not been numerous,
the field of observation having been limited, there may
be a degree of doubt in the conclusion ; but if the
observation has been very extended, the belief may rise
to absolute certainty.
4. Nearly all science is the result of induction.
Numerous observations and experiments having been
compared, general principles and laws are inferred from
them. These principles and laws classified, constitute
science. Thus, the sciences of astronomy, geology,
chemistry, botany, medicine, &c, have been developed.
Centuries of observation and experiment have been
required to bring some of these sciences to their pres
ent degree of perfection. Induction will mature them
 SAYAN ISTIQRA- KA'. 259

bad hai ; balki barkhilaf is ke istiqra e kamil se ham ko

}'ih bat sabit ho jawegi, ki janwar ke nikalne se kuchh
nahin hota, kyunki saikron martaba janwar rasta katkar
nikal gae, aur safar ba khairiyat tamam hua.

Jis qadr baten hamari nazar se guzrengi, usi qadr is

tiqra un ka, barhta jawega.

Istiqra e kamil, ki jis men kuchh bhi kisi tarah ka

shubha mumkinna ho, jab hoga ki ek qism ki kull baten
hamari nazar se guzar jaen. Lekin yih amr aksar gair
mumkin hai, aur haqiqat men kuchh zarur bhi nahin hai,
jab ki tabiat ke chand hi martaba dekhne 6e qarar waqai
itminan ho, ki han yih amm qaida nikalta hai. Maslan
yih zarur nahin hai, ki tamam duniya ke pani ko juda karke
dekhen, taki yaqin ho jawe ki pani do gason, yane do
hawaon se murakkab hai, kyunki chand martaba azmane
se dil ko qarar waqai itminan is amr ka ho gaya hai, ki
pani do gason se murakkab hai. Garaz istiqra e kamil jab
hoga, ki ek bat itni martaba azmai jawe, ki dil ko yaqin i
kamil ho jawe aur jo natija nikala jae, jaiz ho. Yaqin
jo istiqra se hasil hota hai, yaksan nahin hai, yane dalil
istiqra ki, jis qadr kamil hogi, usi qadr yaqin kamil hoga.
Agar kisi amr ko sirf chand hi martaba azmakar dekha,
to us ke yaqin men shayad kisi qadr shakk hoga, aur
jis bat ko baraha azmakar dekha, us ka yaqin khub pukhta
hoga.

4. — Qarib tamam ilmon ke, istiqra se hasil hue hairu

Bar bar dekhte dekhte, aur azmate azmate, £mm qaide nikle
hain, aur un qaidon ke jama karne se jlm ban gae hain. Ilm
i Haiat, ilm i Tarkib i Zamin, ilm i Kimiya, ilm i Tibb,
wg. isi tarah nikle hain. Saikron baras ki azmaish aur
tahqiqat se baz ilm is kamiliyat tak pahunehe hain. Istiqra
 260 IS MICTION.
still further, as new observations are made and now facts
are compared.
5. Allinductions can be reduced to the syllogistic
form. An induction is usually in the form of an en-
thymeme, the major premiss being suppressed. Obser
vation having been made in a number of cases, wo
conclude that whatever is true of them, is true of the
class of which they belong. To illustrate, we have this
induction in the form of an enthymeme : —

The cow, sheep, goat, and deer, are horned animals.

Therefore, They ruminate.

This is an induction, and put in the full syllogistic

form would stand thus, —

Whatever is true of the cow, sheep, goat, deer,

&c. is likely true of all horned animals.
Rumination is true of the cow, sheep, goat, deer,
&c.
Therefore, Rumination is likely true of all homed animals.

In an induction, simply discover that some

we
thing common, belongs to a number of cases, and then
infer that it belongs to all things of this class. In
spection of the above illustrations shows that the major
premiss is suppressed in such inductions. This major
premiss is some such proposition as : — Whatever is true of
the case or cases icliich ice have examined, is likely true of
the whole class to which they belong..

Inductions taken singly may also be put in the

form of syllogisms. Thus, take the inductions, "lead
is fusible, therefore some metal is fnsible,"
" silver is
fusible, therefore some metal is fusible '; we find that
cvnA-M-s-y. the majoti premisses "lead is a metal,'' "silver is a

metal," are suppressed. '

 BAYAN ISTIQRA' KA. 2(>1

se aur bhi in ilmon ko pukhtagi ho jawegi, kyunki tahqi-

qat i jadida hot! jati hai, aur nai baten nikalti hain.
5. — Dalil i istiqra kisi tarah kyun na ho, ba surat i
qiyas ho sakti hai. Aksar to dalil i istiqra ba surat i qiyas
i mukhaffaf hoti hai, jis ka kubra muqaddar hota hai. Jab
ek qism ki chand chizon ke ek se halat barha hamari nazar
se guzarte hain, to ham natija nikal lete hain, ki jo hai un
chand chizon par sadiq ata hai, wuhi us qism ki kull chizon
par sadiq awega. Maslan.

Gae, bher, bakri, liiran, singhdar jauwar haiu.

Pas, Yih jugali kamewale hain.

Yihi istiqra hua. Agar ba tartib i qiyas likha jawe

to yun hoga : —

Jobat ki gae, bher, bakri, haran wg. par sadiq ati bai, ga-
liban sab. singhdar janwarou par sadiq awegi.
Jugali karna gae, bher, bakri, harati wg. par sadiq ata hai.
Pas, Jugali karna, galiban sab singhdar janwarou par sadiq ata
hai.

Istiqra men auwal sirf yih malum kar lete hain, ki

fulani amm bat ek qism ki chand chizon men pai jati hai,
aur phir yih natija nikalte hain, ki is qism ki kull chizon
men yih bat pai jati hai. Upar ki misal dekhne se malum
hota hai, ki aisi dalilon istiqra men knbra muqaddar hota
hai, aur wuh kubra muqaddar koi aisa qaziya hota hai jaisa
ki, Jo bat fulani qism U chand chizon par sadiq ati liai,
wuhi us qism ki hill par siidiq awegi.
Dalilon istiqra ko bhi juda juda karke ba surat i qiyas
rakh sakte hain. Maslan; "sisa pighal jata hai, pas baz
dhat pighal jati hai;" "Chandi pighal jati hai pas baz
dhat pighal jati hai ;" lihaza ham ko malum ho jata hai, ki
"
kubra, " sisa dhat hai," chandi dhat hai," muqaddar hai.
262 DEDUCTION.

The full syllogisms are, —

Lead is fusible.
Lead is a metal.
Therefore, Some metal is fusible.

And,
Silver is fusible.
Silver is a metal.
Therefore Some metal is fusible.

From number of such inductive syllogisms, re

a
duced to one single syllogism, we get a general fact of
law as a conclusion. Thus, —
Lead. silver, gold, iron, &c., are fusible.
These are metals.
Therefore, Metals are fusible.

Op Deduction.

Deduction is just the opposite of induction. In

induction we deduce general laws or principles from facts,
in deduction we infer certain effects from general laws.
By induction we have learned that certain things are
poisonous. With this general fact before us, we con
clude, that if a
certain person has eaten one of these
things be is poisoned. This is a deduction. In the
same way we conclude that any horned animal newly
found, is a ruminant, because the general fact has
been discovered by induction that horned animals are
ruminants. Deduction, then, is reasoning from the
general to the particular, while induction is reasoning
from the particular to the general.

Examfle.

Reasoning from example is somewhat of the nature

both of induction and deduction. It may be called im
perfect induction. In induction, we infer ageneral fact
from a number of particular cases, but in the argument
 BA YA'N ISTIKHRAJ KA. 26&

Agar yih istiqra ba surat i qiyas likha jawe to yun hoga : —

«w— •-*-*! ^
? ya '
SB SffiS*
( Pas, Baz dhat pighal jati hai.

^S^**'
[ Pas, Baz dliat pighal jati hai.

In sab qiydson istiqrai ko milakar ek kar dete hain,

aur phir ek &mm qaida un se natija nikalta hai. Maslan, —

Sisa, ohandi, sona, loha wg. dhat hain.

Yih dhaten pighal jati hain.
Pas, Dhaten pighal jati hain.

Bayan Istikhraj KA.

Istikhrdj, thik istiqra ke baraks hai. Istiqra men juzi-

yat se kulliyat sabit ki jati hai, aur istikhraj men kulliyat
se juziyat sabit ki jati hai. Istiqra' se ham ko yih bat
malum Mi hai, ki fulani chizen zahrdar hain. Pas is dmm
qaida se, jo ham ko malum hua hai, ham yih natija nikalte
hain, ki agar in zahrdar chizon men se koi bhi kisi shakhs
ne kha li hai, to us par zahr ne asar kiya hoga. Isi ko
istikhrdj kahte hain. Isi tarah agar koi naya janwar
singhdar kahin mile to ham natija nikal lenge, ki yih
jugali karnewala hai ; kyiinki yih dmm qaida dalil i istiqra
se malum ho chuka hai, ki singhdar janwar jugali karte
hain. Garaz istikhraj, kulli se juzi par dalil lane ko kahte
hain, aur istiqra, juziyat se kulli par dalil lane ko kahte
hain.

Bayan Tamsil ka.

Tamsil men, istiqra aur istikhrdj kuehh kuchh donon

pae jate hain. Is ko na-kamil istiqra samjho. Istiqra
men juziyat se kulliyat par dalil late hain. Tamsil men ek

juzi se dusrf juzi par, yane ek chiz se dusri chiz par hawala
264 ANALOGY.

from example, we infer something in regard to one

particular case from another case or other cases. Thus,
we might infer that a certain traitor will come to a bad
end because the traitor Nana Rao came to a bad end.
But perhaps there is something of the nature both of an
induction and deduction here, it having been settled
from the example of Nana Rao, that traitors generally
come to abad end; hence, since this man is a traitor,
he too will come to a bad end. The apostle Peter
reasons by example [2 Peter 2, 4-9,] when he refers
to the destruction of the angels that sinned, and of the
antediluvian world, and of the inhabitants of Sodom and
Gomorrah, to prove that the wicked shall be punished.
This form of reasoning is very plain, and need not be
further illustrated here.
Akalogy.

1.Analogy, as commonly used, means resemblance,

and the resemblance may be in the things themselves,
or in their uses, and their relations. The earth and
moon both being round and both revolving on their
axes, is an example of
"analogy in things themselves.''
The fin of a fish and the wing of a bird, being both
used for propelling each animal in the medium where
it lives, afford an example of analogy of " use." The
capital of a country bears somewhat the same relation
to that country as the heart does to the body ; this is
an analogy of
" relation."
Now in reasoning from analogy, we infer that
because things resemble, in some known particulars, they
will resemble in others. The strength of the argument
of course will be in proportion to the strength of the
resemblance. The following is an example of reason
ing from analogy. We see a great resemblance be
tween the earth on which we live, and Mars, Jupiter,
 BA TA'N QARI'NE KA'. 265

diya jata hai. Maslan koi natija nikale, ki fuMne bagi

ka anjam bura hoga, kytinki Nana Eao bag! ka anjam bura
hua. Shayad yahan par istiqra aur istikhraj donon pae
jate hain, kyuiiki tamsil i Nana Hao se istiqra ke taur par
yihi bat nikalti hai, la kull bigion ka an am bura hota hai.
Pas chunkijih admi bag! liai, is sabab se us £mm qaida se
istikhraj ke taur par yih bat nikalti hai, ki is ka bhi anjam
bura hoga. Patras Easul ne, jo gunahgar firishton ki hala-
kat ka, [2 Pat. 2, 4-9.] aur qabl tiifan i Nuh, jo log dnnya
men abad the, un ka anr Sadum o Gamura ke logon ka
hawala diya hai, taki sabit ho jawe, ki sharir badzat, saza
pawenge, wuh dalil i tamsil hai. Yih tariqa dalil lane ka,
bahut saf aur sahih hai, kuchh hajat aur misal lane ki ya
han par nahin hai.

BaY^N QARfNE KA.

1. — A'mm muhaware ke mutabiq, qaritie ke mane

mushabahat ke hain, aur mushabahat is men khass do
tarah par hai, ya siiri hai, j"a mqnmci. Misal auwal, qarina
i siiri, jaise zamin aur ehand donon ka gol hona aur donon
ka apne apne mihwaron par ghumna. Misal doyum, qnrina
i mqnawi ki, jaise bazu machhli ka aur parand ka, ki do
non waste ek hi matlub ke bane hain, yane waste urne aur
daurne ke, aur jaise mulk ka sadr maqam dar-us-saltanat
hai, isi tarah jism ka sadr maqam dil hai. Dekho, yahan
par jo nisbat mulk ko apne dar-ns-saltanat se hai, wuhi
jism ko apne dil se hai, pas yih bhi misal mushabahat ki
hui.
Qarine ki rudalil lane men is tarah par natija ni-
se

kalte hain, ki jab ek chiz dusri chiz se chand baton men

mushabahat rakhti hai, to aur baton mea bhi mushabih
hogi. Aur besha'ik jis qadr mushabahat hogi usi qadr da
lil pukhta hogi. Ek dalil qarina ki mundarija e misal i zail
hai. Maslan ham dekhte hain, ki yih zamin jis par ham
rahte hain, saiyaron \Jtarid, Mushtari, Zuld wg. se bahut
baton men mushabahat rakhti hai. Sab, zamin ki misl
266 ANALOGY.

Saturn and other planets. They all seem to be com

posed of matter like the earth. They revolve around
the sun and derive their light from him as the earth
does. They revolve on their axes, and hence must have
day and night like our earth. So in many particulars
they resemble the earth. Now, as the earth is inhabit
ed, it may be inferred that they are also.
2. Reasoning from analogy resembles both in
duction and reasoning from example. It differs from
induction thus : —
In induction we reason from several cases or in
dividuals to the whole class, but in analogy we reason
from one case to another. In induction we see that
the several things are like each other, but in analogy
the evidence is indirect and we infer that they are alike
in some particular or particulars in question, because
they are alike in others. Analogy differs from example
in this, that in example we are supposed to see that the
one case is like the other, the evidence being thus
dirsct, while in analogy we see but in part and infer
the rest from resemblance in what we do see.
As another illustration of this form of argument,
we may meet the objection against the Bible that it
contains doctrines inexplicable by reason, by a reference
to the analogy between nature and revelation Both
are the work of the same infinite Being. In this they
are alike. Now as nature presents to us many inex
plicable things, from analogy we may 'expect that revel
ation also may contain things inexplicable. And we
may further infer that as time and study remove many
of the mysteries of nature, so it will be in regard to
revelation ; as indeed we do find that time and study
often clear up apparent difficulties in God's word.
3. Analogy can always be reduced to the syllo
gistic form, as we see is the case with all reasoning.
 BAYAN QARINE KJC. 267

ai-jirm malum hote hain ; sab Sffcab ke dspas gardish karte

hain, aur us se roshni hasil karte hain jaise zamin ka hal
hai; aur jaise zamin ke apne mihwar par ghumne se din
aur rat hote rahte hain, isi tarah un men bhi din aur rat
hote rahte hain. Pas jab ham ne dekha, ki yih saiyare bahut
baton men zamin se mushabahat rakhte hain to qarine se
ham natija nikalte hain, ki jaise zamin abad hai, waise we
bhi ahad honge.
2. — Dalil i qarina, dalil i istiqra aur tamsil, donon se
mushabahat rak hti hai, magar istiqra se mukhtalif is bat
men hai, ki istiqra men juziyat se kulliyat par dalil lai jati
hai, lekin qarine men ek bat se diisri bdt sabit ki jati hai.
Istiqra men kai chizon ko ek dusre ke mushabih dekhkar
natija nikala jdta hai, aur is men ek ehiz ko diisri chiz se
chand baton- men mushabahat dekhkar qarine se yih
nikal liya jata hai, ki aur baton men bhi mushabih honge.
Qarina, tamsil se is bat men mukhtalif hai, ki tamsil men
ek chiz ko diisri chiz se mushabih dekhkar ham dalil late
hain lekin qarine men ek chiz ko diisri chiz se kuchh baton
;

men mushabih dekhkar qarine se malum kar lete hain, ki

b&qi aur baton men bhi mushabahat rakhti hai. Is qism
ki dalil ki ek aur misal yih hai. Agar koi shakhs iatiraz
kare, ki Baibal men aise masle hain, jo samajh men nahin
ate hain, to us ke jawab men ham yih bat kahen, ki khilqat
aur ilhdmi kitdben donon us la-intiha Khuda se hain. To
is bat men khiiqat aur ilhami kitab, donon ek hue. Ab
chiinui khilqat men bahuteri b&ten aisi hain, ki samajh men
nahin ati hain, isi sabab se galib hai, ki ilhami kitab men
bhi bahuteri baten aisi hon, jo samajh men na awen ; aur jaisa
zamana ba zamana gaur karne se bhed khilqat ke, khulte jate
hain, isi tarah Baioal ka hal hoga. aur haqiqat men ham
dekhte hain,ki zamana ba zamana gaur karne se wuh baten
Kalam i Ilahi ki, jo ba zahir mushkil malum hoti thin, roshan
hoti jati hain.
3. — Dalil
qarina bhi, ba surat i qiyas ho sakti hai,
i
jaisa ki aur sab dalilon ka hal hai. Maslan farz karo, kisi
268 ANALOGY.

Thus, suppose we find the skeleton of an animal we have

never seen alive, and observe that it has sharp teeth and
claws like a tiger. From analogy we infer that this
animal lived on prey, eating the flesh of other animals.
The argument patin the syllogistic form would be, —

All animals with sharp teeth and claws, prey on other

animals.
This animal has sharp teeth and claws.
Therefore, It preys on other animals.

Thus, also the example just given on the Bible.

The work of an infinite Being. as proved hy nature

may contain things inexplicable by man.
Revelation is the work of an infinite Being.
Therefore, Revelation may contain some things inexplicable
by man.

4. Eeasoning from analogy must be used with

caution. The evidence is indirect, and is often liable to
objection. There may be resemblance in some par
ticulars, without sufficient resemblance in other particu
lars, to justify the conclusion we wish to draw. Thus,
although the planets, as Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, do
resemble the earth in many particulars, we cannot infer
with absolute certainty that they are in like manner in
habited. For in respect of temperature, water, and the
general conditions of life, these planets may not be like
the earth, hence may be incspable of supporting life.
Some have supposed that because there is a re
semblance between the growth, decay, and death of
vegetation and that of animals, the latter perish entirely
like the former, and man with them. But this conclu
sion is not warranted ; for animals are sentient creatures,
capable of voluntary action, in which plants do not resem
ble them. There is between the existence of each, such
a wide difference that no one is justified, from faint
resemblances, in inferring a like destruction.
 BAYAN QAMI'NE KA". 269

ko ham ne kabhi na dekha ho

jis
aise janwar ki khankar,
kahin par mile, aur ham dekhen, ki us khankar ke tez dant
hainaur tez panje, to qarine se daryaft kar'lenge ki yih jan
war shikari tha. Agar yih dalil qarina, ba surat qiyas

i
i
libhi jawe, to yun hogi —

:
Jin janwaron ke tez dant aur tez panje bote hain, we shi
kari hote liaig.
Is janwar ke tez dant aur tez panje the.
Pas, Yih janwar shikari tha.

Isitarah ek misal Baibal ki, abhi ho chuki hai, ba

jo
surat qiyas ho sakti hai.
i

Khilqat ke dekhne se malum hota hai, ki us la-intiha

Khaliq se baz baten aisi hoy, insan ki samajh men
naliiu ati bog. jo
Kalam ilalif us la-intiha Khaliq se hai.
i i

Pas, Kalam ilahi men baz baten aisi hog, insafi ki samajh
jo
men na ati hog.

Dalil qarina bari hoshyari se lana chahiye, kyunki

i

bagair dekhi bat men, aksar gunjaish iatiraz ki hoti hai,

aur bahuteri chizen aisi hain, baz baton- men baham-
jo

digar mushabahat rakhti hain, magar itni baton men nahin

ki ham natija nikalen. Maslan agarchi Zamin, saiyaron
Utarid, Mushtari, Zuhalwg. se bahut baton men mushaba
hat rakhti hai, taham ba yaqin kamil ham yih natija nahin
i

nikal sakte hain, ki we zamin ki misl abad hain, kyunki

chizen zin-
jo

Mlat sardi, aur pani, aur

jo

shayad garrai
o
i

dagi ke liye chahiyen, zamin Ui misl, un saiyaron men na hon

to wahan parwarish jan ki gair mumkin hai.
Baze yih samajhte hain, ki chunki haiwanat aur na
batat darmiyan men. barhne aur ghatne aur marne
ke
men mushabahat hai, haiwanat maa insan aur nabatat,
donon ek hi taur par nest ho jate hain. Lekin yih
natija nikalna gair jaiz hai, kyunki haiwanat zi-hiss har-
o

kat jism hain, aur tat men haiwanat, nabatat se musba-

is
270 REASONING A PRIORI.

Hence, analogy must be used with caution. It may

generally be used as a strengthening and confirming
argument rather than as absolute proof.

Seasoning "a priori," " a posteriori," and "a

fortiori."

The above names are used to designate particular

forms of argument, the manner and use of which we here
explain. An argument is called. —

1. "A priori," when we infer effects from known

causes, or when we deduce consequences from defini
tions formed, or principles assumed. Thus, from the
existence of the cause we infer the existence of the effect.
For instance, if the sun has risen we know that it is day,
because the sun, as a source of light, must produce day.
If the moon has come between the sun and the earth,
there must be an eclipse, because such a conjunction of
the sun, moon, and earth, would produce an eclipse as
an effect. If we hear that a man has been bitten by
a mad dog, we naturally infer that he will die from
hydrophobia. Believing that God is a merciful, all-
wise, and infinitely holy Ruler, we infer that his deal--
ing with man will be marked by mercy and that he can
not be the Author of sin.

In mathematics we find many instances of " a

priori" reasoning, where from certain definitions or
general principles, we infer certain results, or deduce
the impossibility of wrong assumptions. For instance
from the definition that parallel lines never meet, we may
infer, in any demonstration, that two certain lines can
not meet, because they are parallel ; or because they have
not met, we infer that they are not parallel. In like
 ILLAT SE MALVL SABIT EARN A'. 271

bahat nahin rakhte hain. In do wujud men bara farq

hai, zara si mushabahat dekhkar natija nikalna, ki we marte
bhi isi tarah honge, kisi tarah jaiz nahin hai. Pas bari
hoshyari se qarine ka istiamal karna chahiye. Dalil i qa-
rina, aur dalilon ke istihkam ke waste late bain, aisa kam
hota hai, ki wuh bajae khud dalil ho.
" IsTIDLAL-I-LIMMI," " IsTIDLAL-I-INNf."
"ADNA SE ^LA KO SABIT KARNA."

Yih tinon, dalil ki ke nam hain. In suraton

suraton
ka, aur un ke tariqae istiamal ka bay an, ham yahan par
likhte hain :—

1. — " Istidldl i linmi," yqne Illat

malul sdbit karnd,
se
us ko kahte hain, ki sababon maluma se musabbab dar-
yaft kiye jawen, aur qawaid ya qawanin i muqarrara se
natije nikale jawen. Garaz ki wujud i illat se wujud
malul ka natija nikalne ko " illat se malul sdbit karnd"
jis

kahte hain. Maslan waqt aftab tulu hoga, ham jante

hain ki din zariir hoga, kyunki aftab chashma roshnf ka
hai. Tulu hona aftab ka illat hai, jis se wujud malul
ka, yane din ka hona sabit hota hai. Yaagar chand aftab
aur zamin ke darmiyan a jawe, to zarur gahan parega. Pas
dekho yahan par hail hona chand ka, illat hai, jis se wujud
malul ka, yane gahan ka parna hota hai, ya agar ham
sunen, ki kisi shakhs ko baole kutte ne kat khaya hai, to
ham jan lenge, ki wuh shakhs kutte ki bimari se mar jawe-
ga. Isi tarah jab ham ne jana, ki Khuda rahim aur karim
quddus Hakim Haqiqihai, to ham natija nikalte hain.
o

ki Khuda Tadla insan parrahmat ki nazar rakhta hai. aur

Bani gunah ka nahin hai.
Ilm Kiyazi men qism ki dalil ki bahut misalen
is
i

pai jati hain, kyunki ilm riyazi men chand qawaid mu-
i
i

qarra ya usul mauziia se nataij sabit kiye jate hain, ya yih

i

sabit kiya jata hai, fulan dawa galat hai. Maslan ek qaida
ki

yih hai, ki khutut mutawaziya kabhi nahin milte hain,

i

par jahan kahin kisi dawe men aisa sabab ake pare to ham
sabit karenge, ki yih khutut kabhi na milenge, kyunki
mutawaziya hain, ya yih sabit karenge, ki yih khutut mil
jawenge, kyunki mutawaziya nahin. Garaz isi tarah par
272 REASONING A POSTERIORI.

manner we infer numerous otler results or conclusions.

And we reason in the same way in all sciences.
" a "posteriori just the reverse of

,''
is
2. Reasoning
"apriori'' reasoning. In this, causes are deduced from
effects. .For instance, from the round shadow of the
earth on the moon in lunar eclipse, we infer that the

a
earth round. We reason that a round shadow as an
is

effect, must come from round substance as cause.

a
a
" a poste
Other familiar examples of reasoning
riori" may readily be found in cases, where from effects
produced, we try to find out their cause. In cases of
murder, often the cause and manner of death, are thus
traced up and the murderer detected.
By reasoning " posteriori,'' we infer the existence
a

and attributes of God, from our own existence and the

existence of nature and manifestations of design and
goodness, &c. around us. Thus also, from the sublime
teachings and superhuman spirit of the Bible, we infer
that has divine Author. In the same way, from
it

the evil tendency of book claimed to be inspired, we

is a

might infer that simply human production.

it

This kind of reasoning should be used with cau

tion. An inference should not be drawn till some clear
relation of effect and cause established, otherwise the
is

error of "non causa pro causa" will be committed.

The cautions against that error should be observed here.
"A fortiori," argument in which
of

form
is
3.

from an admitted case or proposition, we proceed to prove

another case of the same nature, for the acceptance of
which, the reasons seem even stronger than for the
admitted case.
The form of the argument is, —
equal to. or greater than B.
is is is
A

greater than
A
C C

Therefore, greater than B.

 MALTTL SE ILLAT SABIT KARNA. 273

bahut aur nataij sabit kar lete hain, aur sab ilmon se isi
tari'q par bahs jati hai.

l<i
2. " Istidhil inm" yqne malul se illat sdbit kartid.

i
Yih auwal ke baraks hai. Is men malul se illat sabit ki jati
hai maslan jab chand gahan parta hai to chand ka aks
;

zamin par gol parta hai, pas se malum hota hai, ki zamin

is
gol hai. Aks gol parna malul hai, jis se illat, yane zamm
ka gol hona malum hota hai. Is qism ki dalil ki bahuteri
misalen us mauqa par ati hain, jahsin ki wujud malul se

i
"wnjud illat ka sabit karna chahte hain. Khun ke muqad-
i

dama men aksar amr ki tahqiqat, ki kis chiz se mara gaya

is

aur kis kis tarah par Ma, isi tariq se qatil malum ho jata
hai.
Isi dalil ki ru se ham apna wujud, aur khilqat ka
wujud, aur tarah tarah ki hikmaten wg. dekhkar, Khuda
ka wujud, aur us ki zat sifat sabit karte hain. Isi tarah
o

ham dekhte hain, ki Baibal ki tabm nihayat umda hai, aur

aisi baten us men pai jati hain, insan ki taqat liyaqat
ki

o
se bahar hai; pas se sai•it hota hai, ki Baibal ilhami
is

kitab hai. Ala-haz-al-qiyas agar kisi kitab ki talim buri

ho, aur us ki nisbat l<oi dawa hare, kiyih kitab asmanihai,
to hamen sabit ho jawega, ki yih sirf admi ki banai hai.
Is qism ki dalil ko ban hoshyari aur khabardari se is-
tiamal karna chahiye. Jab tak illat aur malul ke
darmiyan koi ilaqa qarar waqai na paya jawe, us waqt
tak kuchh natija nikalna nahin chahiye, warna surat
" mugalta wajh
gair muwaj jih" ki paida ho jaegi. Jo
i

waih gair muwajjih se mahfiiz rahne

jo

baten mugalta
i

ke waste upar bayan ho chuki hain, un ka lihaz yahan

par bhi rakhna chahiye.
" Adnd did ho sdbit karna." — Is dalil men kisi
3.

se
amr ya dawa musallam se, usi qism ke kisi aur amr, ya
e

dawe ko sabit karte hain. Aur amr ya dawa ki sabit

jo

kiya jata hai, us ko taslim karne ke waste us se bhibarh-

kar subut hote hain, jitna ki us amr ya dawa musallam
e

ke subut ke liy hote hain. Yih dalil surat ki hoti hai —

is
e

A. barabar hai B. ke, ya^us se bara hai.

J. A. se bara hai.
Pas, B. bara hai.
J.

se
274 REASONING A FORTIORI.

Christ reasoned thus with his disciples and others,

in many instances. For example (Mat. vi. 28-30,)
" And why take ye thought for raiment ? Consider the
lilies of the field, how they grow, they toil not, neither
do they spin, and yet I
say unto you, that Solomon in all
his glory was not arrayed like one of these. Where
fore, if
God so clothe the grass of the field, which to
day is and to-morrow is cast into the oven, shall he not
much more clothe you, 0 ye of little faith V
This put into the form of a syllogism would stand
thus,
The lilies and grass of the field, are clothed by God:
You are much greater than they.
Much more will you be clothed by God.

Again :
"
And behold there was a man which had
his hand withered. And they asked him saying is it
lawful to heal on the sabbath days ? that they might
accuse him. And he said unto them, what man shall
there be among you that shall have one sheep, and if
it fall into a pit on the sabbath day, will he not lay hold
on it and lift it out ? How much then is a man better
than a sheep ? Wherefore it is lawful to do well on the
sabbath days.'' [Mat xii : 10-12.]
This then is the argument " a fortiori,'' in which we
reason from a less obvious but admitted proposition to
one with stronger reasons for its adoption.

Recapitulation.

An argument according to the mode of its reason

ing may be :
1. — Inductive.
2. — Deductive.
3. — By example
4. — By analogy.
5. — A priori.
6.— A posteriori.
7.— A fortiori.
 ADNAT SE A'LA' KO SA'BIT KARNAT. 275

Masih apne shagirdon, aur aur logon ke sath baraha is

qlsm ki dalil laya. Maslan (dekho Mati 6 : 28-30.)
" Aur
poshak ki kytin fikr karte ho, jangli sosan ko dekho, kaise
barhte hain, wiih na mihnat karte na katte hain. Par
main tumhen kahta hun, ki Sulaiman bhi apnf sari shan
o shaukat men un men se ek ki manind pahine na tha.
Pas jab Khuda raaidan ki ghas ko, jo aj hai, aur kal
tanur men jhonki jati, yun pahinata hai, to ky& tum ko
ai sust-iatiqado, ziydda na pahinawega ?"
Agar yih dalil ba surat i qiyas qaim ki jawe, tx)
yiin hogf : —

Khuda ne jangli sosan aur ghas ko poshak di. ,

Turn un se bahut bare ho.
Pas, Yaqin ziydda hai ki wuh turn ko poshak baljhshega.

Dusri misal, (Mat! 12 : 10-12.) " Aur dekho, wahan

ek shakhs tha, jis kd hath sukh gaya tha. Tab unhon ne
is irade se, ki us par nalish karen, us se puchha, ki Kya
sabt ke din changa karna rawa hai ? Us ne unhen kaha,
ki Tum men se aisa kaun hai, ki jis ke pas ek bher ho,
agar wuh sabt ke din garhe men gire, wuh use pakarke
na nikale ? Pas admi bher se kitna bihtar hai ? Is liye
sabt ke din neki karna rawa hai."
Garaz, isi qism ki dalil ko " adnd se did ko sdbit
karna" kahte hain, jis men qaziya i musallama aisa saf
nahin hota, jaisa ki us qaziye ki, jo musallama se sabit
hota hai, taslim karne ki dalilen pukhta hoti hain.

Bayan i MUJMAL.

Dalil kai tarah par hai : —

1. — Istiqrai.
2. — Istikhraji.
3.— Tamsili.
4. — Qarina.
5. — Illat se malul sabit karna.
6. — Malul se illat sa it karna.
7. —Adna se ila ko sabit karna.
 CONCLUSION.

Wo have now gone over the subject of Logic, and

it only remains to add a word by way of conclusion.
The subject of logic, as generally taught, has been pre
sented in these pages. The student need not be per
plexed by the pretensions of any one who may, by way
of magnifying his own learning, claim that the subject
has not been fully treated in this book, being too vast to
be comprehended in a volume of this size. The sub
stance of logic, as taught by the ancients and moderns,
is presented in compact form in this book. If it be
mastered, a correct and practical outline of this science,
as far as it may be gained from a book, will be obtained.
The works on logic found in this country, should be
studied in order to be familiar with the different modes
of treating the subject, and with the various terminology
and phraseology in use.
But the learner must not imagine that the mere
reading of any book or number of books on logic, how
ever complete, will make him a logician. If this b>ok
be thrown aside when read, or even when its terms,
rules, and phraseology are memorized, and the subject
be left there, the learner will not be a logician.
" Prac
tice makes perfect," in every science and art. It is
the daily use of tools that makes the artisan a skillful
workman after he has learned what is taught in books.
Thus also, an application must be made of the science
of logic, before one can earn a just reputation as a
logician. The principles, terminology, and rules of the
science should be well understood, and then an effort
 KHA'TIMA.

Mantiq ke bayan se faragat pai ; ab sirf itna aur raha

hai, ki ek a Ih bat khatime ke taur par likhen. Mantiq
ka hal jis qidr ki aksar sikhlaya jata hai, is kitab men.
maujud hai. Agar koi shakhs az rah i dhokha-dihi, apna
ilm jatane ko, kisi talib i jlm se yih dawa kare, ki "is kitab
men kull hal ilm i mantiq ka nahin likha hai ; mantiq
bahut bara ilm hai, is zara si kitab men nahin sama sakta
bai," to is bat par hargiz yaqin na lana chahiye. Baz
maqamat men Arabi o Farsi kitabon se farq bai, lekin
matlab ek hi hai, aur bahut se manamai:, kutub-i-Arabi o
Tarsi se ziyada mukammal hain.
Matalib a'ir mane sahih mantiq ke, jaisa Id mnta-
qaddamin aur mutaakhkhirin sikhlate chale ae hain, is
kitab men maujud hain. Jo kuchh hal iLn i mantiq ka
aur kitabon ke parhne se ata hai, w ih sab is kitab se
mukhtasar hasil hai. Jo kuchh kitaben ilm i mantiq ki
ismulk men iniirauwaj hain, un ka parhna is garaz se
chahiye, ki mukhtalif tarz i I ay an aur istilahat wg. se ki
har kitab ui mukhtalif hoti hain, waqif ho jawe, aur istia-
malmen lawe.
Magar koi talib i ilm yih na samjhe, ki ek adh kitab ya
bahut si kit aba n ilmi mantiq ki agarclii wuh kamil hi
kyun na hon, parh lene se mantiqi ho jawega. Agar koi
is kitab ko parhkar us ke istilahat aur qawaid a^r alfaz
bar zaban yad karke us ko tah kar rakhe, aur us ko istia-
mal men na lawe, to mantiqi na ho awega, kyiinki " kar ba
kasrat hai." liar ilm o hunar u en malihi chabiye.
Karigaron ko dekbo, ki auwal ha h> aron ke nam, aur un
ke istiamal karne ke tariqon se waqif hokar badahu roz
marra un hathyaron ko kam me j late hain, to kahin ek
muddat men jake hoshyar ho iate hain. Isi tar.'h pai-
maishi ko dekho, ki bad janne qawaid painaish ke ek
muddat tak us ka mashq karta hii, to paimaish men pukh-
ta ho jata hai. Ala-uaz-al-qi}as har shakh* ko qabl is se,
ki wuh apne ko mantiqi kaklawe, is jlm ke istiamal se
278 CONCLUSION.

should be made to practice correct reasoning in every

day life. An effort should be made to detect and
name our own, and the errors of others. We should
accustom ourselves to scrutinize the arguments, oral or
written, which we meet. Their form, and strength,
or weakness, should be observed. Models of correct
and powerful reasoning when met with should be
studied. In this way, same true claim may be earned
to the title of logician. Such a course cannot fail to
have a very beneficial effect on the mind, in the marked
improvement of the reasoning faculties. To specify,
greater clearness of thought will be gained. Through
want of clearness in thought, men are apt to impose on
themselves and others. Where the mind is properly
trained by the study of logic, thought is much clearer
in the comprehension and expression of truth, than it
can be without this study. The faculties are also
quicker in the detection and exposure of error. Again,
by the course recommended in this study, greater
mental strength will be gained. When not properly
trained, the mind is feeble and uncertain in the pur
suit of truth, and wavering in its grasp of what is
obtained. The study of logic trains the mind to
a more vigorous pursuit, and firmer grasp of truth.
Finally, the course recommended will give greater
oeauty to the mind. The mind of man is the noblest
creation of God, with which we are acquainted. But
what is more pitiable than a mind full of ignorance
and wandering in error, and what is more beautiful than
a mind built up in strength and symmetry, and radiant
with truth ! One of the most powerful aids to secure
all these results, is the study of Logic.

The End.
 KHAT1MA. 279

waqif hona zarur hai. Usul aur istilahat, aur qawaid is

ilm ke, auwal khub samajhna chahiye ; aur phir roz marra
sihhat ke sath, bahs karne ke liye malika paida karne ki
koshish karni chahiye. Hamesha apni, aur auron ki galati
pakarne ki, aur mugalton ke janne ki koshish karta rahe.
Jo dalil ki pesh awe, khwah wuh zabani ho ya tahriri,
khub gaur ke sath dekhne ki 6dat dalni chahiye. Har
dalil ki surat aur pukhtagi aur khami par hamesha nazar
rahe. Jahan koi pukhta aur qawi dalil dekhne men awe,
us ko apne waste ek namuna sama hna chahiye. Jo shakhs
in sab baton par lihaz rakhe, wuh mantiqi ho jawega. Pas
garaz jib. hai, jo shakhs aisa kare, us ka zihn barh jawega;
maslan, auwal, us ke khiyiilat men khub mfa'% aur roshni a
jdwegi. Agar zihn men safai aur roshni na ho, to andesha
hai ki wuh shakhs ap dhokha khae, aur auron ko dhokhe
men dale. Jo shakhs ilm i mantiq men mali* a i k amil hasil
kar le, us ka soch bahut durust ho jawega. Har bat ki
rag o pai ko khub safai ke sath samain lega aur bay an kar
dega. Qawae zihni men aisirasai a jawegi, ki fauran kisi
tarah ka mugalta ho, daryaft kar lega aur batla dega.
Dusre, in sab baton mazkura i bala par lihaz rakhne se,
zihn men bari quwat a jjdti hai. Jo admi khub tarbiyat-
yafta na ho, us ka zihn kamzor hoga, aur is laiq na
hoga, ki kisi haqiqat ko daryaft kar sake, aur agar koi
haqiqat daryaft ho bhi gai, to us par qaim rahna mushkil
parta hai. Mantiq ke parhne se tabiat insan ki, zor par a
.iati hai, aur is laiq ho jata hai, ki mushkil se mushkil bat
ho, us ko hall kar le.
Tisre, in sab baton mazkura i bala par lihaz rakhne se,
zihn drdsta o pairnsta ho jdtd hai. Kbuda ki banai iiui jin
jin chizon se ham waqif hain, tinmen sab se umda chiz, ham
dekhte hain ki zihn hai ; lekin is se barhkar afsoso hiqa-
rat ki bat kya hai, ki zihn kisi ka, jahalat se bhara ho, aur
khata o galati ki rahon men bhatak raha ho ; aur is se
barhkar aur kya khubsurati hai, ki zihn kisi ka, tez o durust
ho, aur nur i sadaqat aur haqiqat se munauwar ho. In
sab baton mazkura i bala ke hasil karne ke waste, jo jo
wasail i qawi hain, un men se ek Ilm i Mantiq hai.

Tamam shud.
 QUESTIONS
FOE

EXAMINATIONS.
 QUESTIONS
FOR

REVIEWS AND EXAMINATIONS.

Introduction.

"What is Logic?
When is Logic a Science and when an Art f
Is there more than one mode of reasoning ?
What is the effect of the true study of logic on the mind in
regard to truth ?
Point out an error into which many fall ?
Among what ancient nations is the science of logic first found?
Among what people did the science of logic originate ?
Among what nations and from whom did this science spread ?
Name different writers on the science and the time in which
they lived ?
What is the condition of the science of logic among Mahom-
medans ?

What among Hindus ?

PART I.
What is the real province of logic ?
What is mind?
With what three operations of mind is logic concerned ?

Define and illustrate each of these ?

What is attention as a mental state ?
What is comparing, abstraction, generalization ?

What is language?
What are words?

Sectton I.
Define and illustrate simple apprehension? complex apprehension?
Wherein does a notion or idea formed by an act of apprehension
differ from a term ?
 IMTIHAN
KB LITE
CHAND SUWA'LA'T.

MuQADDAMA.

Mantiq kis ko kahte hain ?

Mantiq ko ilm kab kahna chahiye, aur/on» kab ?

Kya aql faqat ek hi taur ae natija sahih nikal sakti bai ?
Ilm i Mantiq ke sikhne se aql meg kya kaifiyat paida hoti hai ?
Ilm i Mantiq ke haqq men baz admi kya samajhte hain ?
Ilm i Mantiq ibtida men kin logon men tha ?
Auwal yih ilm kis qaum men ijad~h.ua ?
Yih ilm silsilawar is zamfine tak kis tarah pahuncha ?
Is ilm ke mashhur musannifon ka nam, aur un ka zamana
karo ?
J
bavan

Filhal ahl i Islam men yih Urn kis surat par pay a jata hai ?
.Aizan, Hiiiauon mcuJ

HISSA I.
Ilm i Mantiq zihn se kaun si surat men ilaqa rakhta hai
Zihn kya shai hai ?

Hawas i khamsa ka nam lo ?

Mahsus kis ko kahte hain ; maqul kis ko kahte hain ?
Ilm i Mantiq zihn ke kaun se tin amaron se mutaalliq hai ?
Tasauwur kis ko kahte hain ?
Tasdiq kis ko kahte hain ? Tasdiq ko qaziya kis halat meg kahte
hain ?

Palil aur burhan kis ko kahte hain ?

Haur, aur muqabala karna, quwat i tafriqa, aur quwat i jinsi kaun
si zihni quwaton ko kahte hain ?
Quwat natiqa ka kuchh bay an karo?
Laf z ki tarif karo ?
Dalalat ka bayan karo ?
Pahlf Fasi.
Tasauwur ki tarif aur us ki qismen bayan karo ?
284 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

Section II.
What is a simple term?— a complex term?— proper term?— singu
lar term ?—common term ? — collective term ?— abstract term? —
concrete term? —absolute term? —relative term? — univocal
term? — equivocal term? — synonymous terms? — contradictory
terms ? — compatible terms ? —opposite terms.
What is the meaning of " significates ?"

Section III.
What is genus, species, differentia?
Name and. define the different kinds of genera, &c.
On what does correct classification depend ?
What are property and accident?
How is property divided, — accident also ?

Section IV.
Of what is a definition made up?
How many kinds of definition are given?
What are the rules for definitions ?

PART II.
Section I.
What is a proposition ?
How are propositions formed ?
What is the subject? — predicate ? — copula ?
What is a simple proposition — a compound, proposition? — an
affirmative proposition? —a negative proposition? — a universal
proposition? — a particular proposition? —a categorical proposi
tion? —a hypothetical proposition ? — a disjunctive proposition ?—
a conjunctive proposition.
What is meant by the matter of a proposition ?
What is necessary matter, — impossible matter, — contingent
matter ?
Give the rules for the three kinds of matter.
 JMTIEA'N KE LIYE SUWA'LA'T. 285'

Dn'SKr Fasl.
Tasauwur aur lafz meg kya farq hai ?
Lafz i mufrad, aur murakkab, aur kulli, aur juzi, kis ko kahte
hain?
Lafz kaun si halat meg " tamam" aur " na-tamani" kaha jata
hai?
Afrad kisjko kahte haiu?
Lafz bin-nisbat, kis halat men kaha jata hai ?
Lafz i mushtarak, aur gair-mushtarak, aur mutaradif ki tarif
bayan karo ?
Lafz i mutanaqiza, aur mutazadda men kya farq hai ?
Ti'srf Fasl.
Jins aur nau ki tarif bayan karo ?
Aqsaiu i jins bayan karo, aur uu ki misal do ?
Taqsim i ajnas aur anwa kis bat par munhasar hai ?

Fasl kis ko kahte haiy ?

Arz kis ko kahte hain ?
Us ki qismen maa misalon ke batlao ?
Umum o khusus kis ko kahte hain ?

Chautht Fasl.
Muarrif kis ko kahte hain ?
Muarrif ki tarkib meg kaun kaun chizen dakhil hain ?

Muarrif kai taur par ho sakta hai ?

Qawajd i muarrif bayan karo ?

HISSA II.
Pahlf Fasl.
Qaziya kis ko kahte hain, maa misal ke bayan karo ?
Mauzu aur mahmul aur nisbat i hukmiya kis ko kahte hain ?
Qazion ki qismen bayan karo ?
Madda kis ko kahte hain ?
Madda meg kai sflrateg hain ?
Madda i nisbat ke qawajd bayan karo !
286 QUESTIONS FOB REVIEW.

Section II.
What is meant by the distribution of terms ?

Onwhat does the distribution of the subject depend?— of tha

predicate ?
Are there any exceptions in the distribution of terms?
Give the four rules for the distribution of terms.
AVhat improvement did Sir Wm. Ilauiilton propose?
Section III.
What is the conversion of a proposition ?
What is meant by exposita and converse ?
When is conversion illative; when apparent?
Iu
how many ways may conversion be illative? Illustrate them.
What is the rule for conversion.
Section IV.
What is opposition ?
What are contraries ? — sub-contraries? — subalterns ? — contradic
tories ?

PART III.
Section I.
What is reasoning !

When is the same called au argument ?

What are premisses?
What is the conclusion?
Define an argument ?
What is a syllogism?
Of what is the syllogism made up ?
Which is the major premiss, and which the minor ?
What is the major term ? —the minor? — the middle ?
What is "Aristotle's dictum" ?
Give the axioms for the syllogism.
Give the eight rules for testing syllogisms.
Section II.
AVhat is figure ?
What constitutes the first figure ?— the second P— the third ?— the
fourth ?
Illustrate the special use of the different figures.
Section III.
What is mood ?
What is the numbers of valid moods in each figure ?
 IUTIUA'N KE LITE SUlVALAT. 28 <

Dg-Esr Fasl.
Ilm i Mantiq men lazf i ham kis ko kahte haiy ?
Mauzu ki kulliyat aur juziyat kis bat par mauquf hai ?
.Aur mahmul ki ?
Kaun se char qawaid kam ke waste hain ?

TrsEr Fasl.
Aks kis ko kahte hain ?

Makusa aur gair-makusa kis ko kahte hain ?

Aks kaun si siirat meg sahih hoga ?

Aks kai qism ke hain ; in ke nam maa misal ke bayin karo ?

Aks karne ka qaida kya hai ?

. Chauthi' Fasi.
Kaqiz kis ko kahte hain ?
Naqiz kai tarah par hota hai, maa misal bayan karo -

Xaqiz ke qawaid bayan karo ?

HISSA III.
Pahli' Fasl.
Dalil ki tarif bayan karo ?
Dalil men kaun se do juz i ala hain, har ek ka nam maa tarif aur
misal bayan karo 1
Qiyas kis ko kahte hain ?
Jvatija kis ko kahte hain ?
Qiyas ke juzon ka bayan karo
Akbar aur asgar aur hadd i ausat kis ko kahte hain ?
Qaul i Arastatalis kis ko kahte hain ?
Qiyas ke qanun i badihi bayan karo ?
A'th qaide jo waste janchne qiyas ke hain, bayan karo.

Du'SRi' Fasl.
Shakl kis ko kahte hain ?
Charon shaklon ka bayan karo ?
Charon shaklon ke qaide batlao ?
Har ek shakl ke istiamal ki siirat bayan karo.
TrsEr Fasl.
Zarb kis ko kahte hain ?
Har shakl men kitni sahih zarhen hain?
288 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
Which are called the perfect raoods and why ?

What is reduction 1
How many kinds of reduction are there ?
Section IV.
"What is a hypothetical argument ?
What is a hypothetical s3'llogism ?
What is the antecedent ? the consequent ?
What is a conjunctive syllogism ?
Give the three rules for the conjunctive syllogism.
What is a constructive argument?
What is a destructive argument ?
How may a conjunctive syllogism be reduced to a simple categor
ical one ?
What is a disjunctive syllogism ?
Give the rule for disjunctives ?
What is the dilemma ?
What is a simple dilemma ? a complex dilemma?
What is the difference between the dilemma and any conjunctive
syllogism ?
How may the dilemma be tested ?

Section V.
What is an enthymeme ?
How may the syllogism be constructed from the enthymeme ?

Give the rule.

What is the sorites?
What is the form of the argument in the sorites ? [page 196.]
Give the rule for testing the sorites.
Give the rule for resolving the sorites.
What is the " Goclenian sorites 1" The hypothetical sorites ?
How is the hypothetical sorites reduced ?

PART IV.
What is meant by applied logic ?

Illustrate this subject.

Section I.
What is a fallacy ?
In what part of the syllogism may fallacies occur ?
How are fallacies divided ?
 IMTIHA'N KE LIYE SUWA'LXT. 289

Zurub i kamila kin ko kahte haig ?

Khulf kis ko kahte haig f

Khulf kai taur par hota hai ?

Chautiii' Fasl.
Qiyas i shartiya kis ko kahte haig ?
Usko ittisali kab kahte haig, aur infisali kab ?
Muqaddam aur tali kis ko kahte haig !
Qiyas i ittisali ke tin qaide batlao.
ftiyas i ittisali ko musbita kab kahte aur manfiya kab ?
Qiyas i ittisali ko hamliya ki taraf kaise pherte Lain \
ftiyas i infisali ka kya qaida hai ?
Qiyas murakkab i shartiya kis ko kahte haig 1
Is qiyas ki kai suraten haig ?
Is qiyas ki sihhat daryaft karne ke waste kaun qaida hai ?

Panchwi-n Fasl.
Qiyas i mukhaffaf kis ko kahte haig ?
Is qiyas se pura qiyas kyugkar ban sakta hai ?
Is ka qajda bay an karo.
Qiyas i musalsal kis ko kahte haig ?
Qiyas i musalsal men dalil ki kya siirat hai ?
Qiyas i musalsal ke jagchne ke liye kya qaida hai ?
Qiyas i musalsal ko pure qiyasog meg lane ke liye kya qaida hai?
Qiyas i musalsal ka aks bayan karo.
Qiyas i musalsal i shartiya Ids ko kahte haig ?
Qiyas i musalsal i shartiya, hamliya kyugkar banate hain \

HISSA IV.
Mantiq i istiamali se kya murad hai ?
Is bat ki misal do.
Pahh' Fasl.
Mugalta kis ko kahte haig ?
Mugaltog ki taqsim karo ?
In mugaltog ka maa misal bayan karo, yane hadd i ausat juzi,
290 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
State the number and forms of fallacy that may occur under the
first division.
Illustrate the undistributed middle — the illicit process ! — negative
premisses—affirmative conclusion from a negative premiss and
vice rersa — more than three terms in the argument.
What is the ambiguous middle ?
State the ways in which the ambiguous middle may arise?
"What is the rule for detecting and removing this error 2
"What is the fallacy of composition ? —of division ?
"What are non-logical fallacies ?
How are they divided ? .
Define and illustrate the petito principii— arguing in a circle —
non causa pro causa.
State how each of these fallacies is to be met.
What is the argunientum ad hominem ? The argumentum ad
populum. The fallacy of shifting ground ? The fallacy of
objections The fallacy of proving only a part
? ?
How may each of these fallacies be met ?
Give the rules for the examination of an argument.

Section II.
"What is induction ?

On what is the inductive process founded ?

On what does the completeness of the induction depend ?
How is science formed ?
Show how inductions can be reduced to syllogistic forms.
What is deduction, and show how it differs from induction ?
What is reasoning from example ?
Give the meaning of the word analogy and illustrate its various
applications.
What is reasoning from analogy ?
Show wherein reasoning from analogy resembles and wherein it
differs from deduction and reasoning' from example.
Show how reasoning from analogy can be reduced to the syllogis
tic form.
Illustrate how reasoning from analogy may be misused.
What is reasoning a priori ?
Give some illustrations of this form of reasoning.
Define reasoning a posteriori and illustrate its use.
Define reasoning a fortiori and illustrate its use.
Kanie now the various modes of reasoning.
What is required to make one a logical reasoner ?
State some of the special benefits derived from the study of logic.
 IMTIHA'N KE LIYE SUWALA'T. 291

kulliyat i najaiz akbar ya asgar ki,— muqaddamat i salibe,

natija i mujiba muqaddame salibe se, ya baraks is ke,— ek qiyas
men tin juzon se ziyada ka hona.
Hadd i ausat i mushtarak kis ko kahte hain ?
Alfaz mushtarak kyunkar bo jate bain ?
Hadd i ausat i mushtarak ke liye kya qaida hai ? .

Mugalta e arzi kis ko kahte hain ; is ki misal do?

Mugalta e taqsim aur jama ka maa misal bayan karo ?

Mugalta e manawi kis ko kahte hain ?
Us ki taqsim kaisi hai ?
In mugalton ka maa misal bayan karo ; yane muqaddama aur
natije ek hi hona, — daur i tasalsul, — wajh i gair muwajjih, —
mugalta e tamalluq-amez, — mugalta e tagaiyur i mazmun, —
mugalta iatirazon ka, — mugalta subut juzi ka.
In mugalton ke zahir karne ke liye kaun kaun qaide hain, har
ek ka bayan karo ?
Un qawaid i amm ka, jo Tvaste daryaft karno sihhat dalilon ke
hain, bayan karo.

DtT'SKI' Fasl.
Istiqra kis ko kahte hain ?
Wuh kis yaqln par mauquf hai ?

Istiqra kis halat men kamil hai ?

Kaun se ilm, istiqra se hasil hote hain ?

Istikhraj kis ko kahte hain, aur wuh istiqra ke kis batmen khilaf
hai ?

Dalil men tamsil kaise late hain ?

Mantiq men qarina kis ko kahte hain ?

ttarina kai taur par hota hai ?

Qarine se dalil lana, kis bat men istikhraj aur tamsil ke khilaf
hai?
Is bat ki misal do, ki qarine ki dalil qiyas ki surat men a jawe ?
Qarine ki dalil men kaisi khabardari ehahiye ?
.[Hat se malul sabit karna kis ko kahte hain ?
Is ki misal do.
Malul se illat sabit karna" kis ko kahte hain ?
Is ki misal do.
Adna se ala ko sabit karna kis ko kahte hain ?
Ilm i mantiq meg pukhtagi hasil karne ke liye kaun sa tariqa
ehahiye ?
Ilm i mantiq se zihn ko kaun se fawaid hasil hote hain ?
 INDEX
OF

Logical terms and Technical words.

......
....
.....
Absolute terms. Alfaz bila nisbat
Ab.-ci«sion infinite. Maniat ul-khuld
Ab. tract terms
Abstra: tion. Quwat i Tafriqi
. .

.
.32
.
Page.

34
30
22

.....
Accident KUassa 46

....
Affirmative proposition. Qaziya mujiba . . CO

A fortiori 272
Ambiguous middle. Hadd i ausat mushtarik . , 120,222

....
„ terms. Alffe i mushtarak . . . 32.220
Analogy- Qarina 264

....
Antecedent. Muqaddam. 174
Attention. Dhyan ya gaur . . . .20
A posteriori reasoning. Maliil se illat sabit karna . 272
Apprehension. Tasauwur 18,26

A priori reasoning. Illat se malul sabit karna > 270

Argument. Dalil, burluin 102

...
Argumentum ad hominem- Mugfilta i tamalluq-amez 238

„ adpopnlum . . • ,240
Aristotle's dictum- Qaul i Arastatalis . . . 112

Begging the question. Muqaddamaaurnatijaek hi bona 230

.....
Categorematic (words). Tamam 28

......
Categorical prODOSition. Quziya i hamliya . . 06

.....
~
Class defined 42
Classification. Ajnas, anwa wg. . . .38
,18
Cognition. Tasauwur . . , ,

Collective term. Kullf 30

Common term- Kullf
Compatible term 34
Comparison. Muq&bila karna , . . .20
Composition, fallacy of- Mugalta i jama .. 228
.58
. .

Compound proposition. Qaziya i murakkab .

 ....
291 INDEX.
Page.

....
Conception. Tasauwur . . ; 26
Conclusion. Natija 102
Concrete terms 30
Constructive argument. Dakl i musbita. 17S
Consequent. Tali 171
Contingent matter. Nisbat i masawat . 63

Contradictory opposition. Mutauaqiza. 92

Contradictory terms. Mutauaqiza 32
Crniraposition. conversion by 86
Contrary opposition- Mutauaqiza 92
,, terms. ,, 34

Converse- Makusa 82
Conversion, simnle. Aks i Mustawi
,, by limitation or per accidens. Aks i Must awi. 84
,, bynegation- Aks i naqi'z
Convertend. . . . . 82
Copula.
Niabat i Hnkmiya 66
Induction. Iatikbraj 262
Definition. Muarrif so
Destructive argument. Dalfl i manfij-a 173
Dictum, Aristotle's. Qaul i Aristatilis. 112
Differentia. Fasl a
Dilemma. Qiyas murakkab shartiya 18*
Disjunctive proposition. Qaziya munfasila 60
Distribution of terms- Kam . 72
Division, fallacy of. Mugalta i taqsim . 22S
Elenchus. Matlub, Natija 23S
Enthymeme. Qiyas i mukhaffaf . 192
Equivoqal term- Lafz i mushtarak 32
Essence of a species. Zat, Mahiyat . 44
'
Example, reas oning by. TamsQ' . 262
Exposita. Rtir makusa . 82

Extension of genus and species- 40

Fallacies. Mugalta 210
Fallacy of division and composition. M. taqsim o j

....
i228
,, of objections. Mugalta iatirazon ka . 244

....
„ jof proving only a part. M. subut i juz£ 246
,, of shifting ground. M. i tagaiyur i mazamin 242
Fallacia accidentis. Mugalta i am 224
Figure. Shakl 138
Generalization. Khass se amm nikalna . 22
Genus- Jins 33
Goclenian sorites- Qiyas i musalsal ka aks 200
Hypothetical proposition. Qaziya shartiya. 66
Hypothetical syllogism. Qiyas i shartiya 171
 INDEX. 295

....
Page.
Ignoratio elenchi. Natija gair matlub . 238
Aks i sahib. 82
Illative conversion-
Illicitprocess. i na-jaiz
Kulliyat 128,210

....
62
Indefinite proposition. Qaziya muhmala
251
Induction. Istiqra
Inseparable accident. Arz i lazim
46
ki nisbate 40
Intention and extension- Uinum o Khusus
238
Irrelevant conclusion. Natija gair-matlub
18,56
Judgment. Tasdiq
22
Language- Boh', zuban
6
Logic, defined- Ilm i mantiq ki tarif
42
Lowest species. Nau i safil

....
106
Major and minor terms. Akbar aur Asgar
premisses- Kubra
o sugra .
,, ,,
manawi 212,230
Material fallacies. Mugalta i
.

Madda 68
Matter of propositions.

....
106
Middle term. Hadd i ausat
ti
Minor term- Asgar
. 158
Mood. Zarb .

.....
zaruri bil ijdb. 68
Necessary matter. Nisbat
Negation, conversion by- Aksinaqiz
84

....
52
Nominal definition

....
18,28
Notion. Tasauwur, tnafhum 244
iatirazon ka .
Objections, fallacy of. Mugalta
34
• Opposite terms
90
Opposition. Naqiz
92
i, table of
166
Ostensive reduction
i

....
,
Particular Proposition. Qaziya juziya
62
128
„ premisses, fallacy of

....
aur natija ek hi' hona 230
Petition Principii. Maqaddama
84
Per accidens, Convers ion by .

.....
Panch kulh' 46
Predicables, classes of. .
66
Predicate. Mahmul
Mahmul ka kam. 76,80
distribution of. .

102
Premisses. Maqaddamat
Proper names- Ism i kh.iss aur marifa. . 30
44
Property. Arz

....
Proposition, definition of- Qaziya ki tarif 18,56

.....
>) kinds of- Aqsam i qazaya . 58

i> quality of. Qaziou ka kaif. 60

)» quantity of- Qaziogkakam 62

Mahmul ka kam 66
Quantification of the Predicate-
Dalfl karua. 18,103
Reasoning.
52
Real definition
296 INDEX.
Page.
Reduction. Khulf . ; ; 104

....
Relative terms- Alfa/. bin nisbat 32
Separable accident. Arz i mufariq 40
Significates. Afaid (Pi. of fard.) 30
Simple apprehension. Tasauwur kami. 18,26
„ terms. Alfuz i mufrad 28

....
Singular terms. 30
-. proposition- Qaziya mnfrada . 74
Sorites- Qiyis i musalsil . r.a
,, Goclenian. Qiyas ka aks 200
Species. Anna. (PI. of nau.) 38
Subaltern gsnus 12
„ opposition. Mutanaqiza 92
Subcoutrary. Mutanaqiza
Subject, of propositions. Mauzu 56
Snbordiuate genus- Jins i adna -12

Syllogism, defined. Qiyas ki tarif 104

,, conjunctive ,, Ittisilf 174
,, disjunctive. Infi»<Uf 182
,, hypothetical shartiya 174
Summum genus. Jins ul ajnas . . 42
Syncatsgorematic. Lafz na-tarnam 28
Synonyms. Alfaz mutiradif 32
Terms, absolute- Alfaz i bila nisbat
,, abstract 30
,, common ,, Kullf .

„ compatible 34
,, complex ,, Murakkab 28

....
,, concrete 30
,, contrary. Mutazidda 34
,, contradictory. Mutanaqiza 32
,, equivocal. Mushtarak . It
,, proper. ,, Khass ya marifa 30
,, opposite 34
,, simple. Mufrad . 2S
,, singular Mufrad. 30
,, synonymous. Mutaradif 32
>, universal. Kullf. 30
,, uni vocal- Gair mushtarak . 32
Undistributed middle. Hudd i ausat juzf 122,214
Universal Proposition. Qaziya i Kulliya. 62
,, term. Kullf. 30
Univocal term. Mufrad ya gair musbtarak 32
Words, what. Alfaz ki tarif 24
 PIHRIST I ISTILA'H^T.

Safha. Safha.
Adna se ala ko sabit karna, ... 273 Dalfl manfia, musbita, 179

Afrad, ... 31 Daur i tasalsul, 233

Ajnas aur anwd, ... 39 Dhyan ya gaur, 21

Akbar, ... 107 Fasl, 45

Aks, ... 83 Gair makusa, 83

,, i SahiTt, )j
Gair musbtarak, 33

,, i Mustawf, ... 85 Hadd i ausat, 107

„ i NaqiZ) ... 87 ,, „ Jurf, 123,215

Alfaz, ,.. 23 ,, ,, Mushtarak, 121

lilla ... Hadd i tam, 53

„ nisbat, 33
,, Bin nixMt, J) ,, i uaqis,
,, Gair musbtarak, ... 33 Easm i tam,
,, Jim, ... 31 ,, i naqis,
„ Kbass, marifa, ... 31 Hawass i Kl.amsa,
,, Kullf, ... 31 Illat so mahil sabit karna,

„ Mufrad, ... 29 Istikhraj,

,, Murakkab, Istiqra,
,, Mushtarak, ... 33 Jins,
,, Mutanaqiza, ... 7, ,, i adni,
,, Mutazadda, ... 35 ,, i al.i,
„ Mutaradif, ... 33 ,, i baid,
,, Na-tam am, ... 29 ,, ul ajnas,
,, Tamam, ,, i Mutasawia,
Anwa, ... 39 ,, qarib,
Arz, ... 45 Kaif i (jaziya,
,, i Lazim, ... 47 Eam,
,, i Mutant], Kubia,
Asgar, ... 107 Kullf,
Eoh', zuban, ... 23 Kulli, panch
Burhan, 19,103 Kulliyat i najaiz-,
Ball, ... Khassa,
103
JDalalat, ... 25 Kbass so amm nikalua,
,, wazaf, .. Khass, lafz,
25
iltizami Khult',
mutabiq f, Midda,
tazammuni> Madia],
dm, It 3
19> Maliiyat, zat,
 FIUR 1ST I 1ST1L All AT.

Safiia. Safha.
Mahmul, ... 57 Nisbnt i bis salb, ... 69
,, ka Kam, ... 67 ,, i tasitwi, 49,69
Mahsus, ... 17 ,, Tabayun, .. 49
Makiisa, ... 815 ,, Umum 0 Klmsus mntlaq,
Malul illat sabit karna,
se ... 273 ,, Umuin 0 IaLusus mill waj bin, , ,
Mantiq ki tarif, ... 9 Qaziya, 19,57
Muarrif, ... 51 ,-, Hamliya, ... 67
Mujiba, qaziya, ... 61 ,, Juziya, ... 63
Maqul, ... 17 ,, Muhmila, .. 03
Musbtarak, lafz, ... 33 ,, Mufrada, ... 59
Mugalta, ... 211 ., Mujiba, ... 61
,, aril, ... 225 „ Muni.sila, ... 67
„ iatirazon ka, ... 245 ,, Murakkab, ... 59
,, ijama, ... 229 ,, Muttasilu, .. 67
,, imanawi, 213,231 ,, Saliba, .. 61
,, subtlt i juzi, ... 247 ,, Sbartiya, .. 67
,, i suri, ... 213 Qariua, .. 2G5
,, i tagaiyur i lnazniun, ... 243
Qaul i Arastatiilis, .. 113
,, itaqsim, ... 229 QiyAs, .. 105
,, i tauialhiq amuz, ... 239 ,, Hamliya, .. 175
Muqaddam, ... 175
,, Infisali, ... 183
Muqaddam.it, ... 105
,, Ittisali, ... 175
Mauzii, ... in
„ Mukbaffaf, .. 193
Muqaddama nur natija ek bi bona, 231
,, Murakkab sliavtiya, .. 185
Muqabila karna, .. 21
,, Musalsal, .. 197
Mutunaqiza, 33, 91
,, Shartiya, ... 175
Mutazadda, ... 35
,, ka aks, .. 201
Mustawi, aks, .. 85
Quwat i tafeiqf, ... 23
Mutaradif, ... 33
Shakl, .. 139
K.,qi'z, ... 91
Sugra,
,, ka naqsha, ... 93
Tali, .. 175
Nau, ... 39
Tamsfl, ... 263
,, i mutasawia, ... 43
19,57
Tasdi'q,
,, i safil, ... 43
Tasauwur, 19,27
Natija, ... 1(15 ki
Uinuni 0 khusus nisbat, 41, 49
Natija gair roatlub, ... 239 ... 159
Zarb,
Nisbat i bukmiya, ... 57
„ ibilijab, ... 69
 ,^-^

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