Familarising with sociology Socialization

Origins of Sociology Status and Role

Sociology and Common Sense Culture

Sociology And Science Deviance

Sociological Imagination Modernization

6 SOCIAL INequality

Social Groups Social Stratification

Social Institutions Gender Stratification

Communities Social Classes

 What is Sociology ?

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. It is

unlike any other subject since it studies human societies, which is known to everyone. ociology is an
exciting and illuminating field of study that analyzes and explains important matters in our personal
lives, our communities, and the world.

At the personal level, sociology investigates

the social causes and consequences of such things as

romantic love, racial and gender,identity, family conflict,
deviant behavior,aging, and religious faith. At the societal
level, sociology examines and explains matters like crime
and law, poverty and wealth, prejudice and discrimination,
schools and education, business firms, urban community,
and social movements. At the global level, sociology studies such phenomena as population growth
and migration, war and peace, and economic development. Inorder to learn sociology we need to
unlearn what we already know.Unfamiliarize to familiarize. It is about studying social relationships,
human behavior, interaction, social institutions, communities and also continuity and social
change.Sociology offers a distinctive and enlightening way of seeing and understanding the social
world in which we live and which shapes our lives. Sociology looks beyond normal, taken-for-
granted views of reality, to provide deeper, more illuminating and challenging understandings of
social life.

Origins of Sociology

Social Change and Sociology

Striking changes took place in Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.Three kinds
of change were especially important in the development of sociology: the rise of a factory-based
industrial conomy,the explosive growth of cities,and new ideas about democracy and political
rights.

By the end of the eighteenth century,inventors used new sources of energy—the power of
moving water and then steam—to operate large machines in mills and factories.Instead of
laboring at home or in small groups,workers became part of a large and anonymous labor
force,under the control of strangers who owned the factories.This change in the system of
production took people out of their homes,weakening the traditions that had guided community
life for centuries.

The Growth of Cities Across Europe, landowners took part in what historians call the enclosure
movement—they fenced off more and more farmland to create grazing areas for sheep, the
source of wool for the thriving textile mills.Without land,countless tenant farmers had little
choice but to head to the cities in search of work in the new factories. As cities grew larger, these
urban migrants faced many social problems, including pollution, crime, and homelessness.
Movingthrough streets crowded with strangers,they faced a new and impersonal social world.But
as cities grew,tradition came under attack

New Awareness of Society

The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was an even greater break with political and social
tradition.Huge factories, exploding cities, a new spirit of individualism—these changes combined to
make people more aware of their surroundings.The new discipline of sociology was born in
England,France,and Germany—precisely where the changes were greatest.
Sociology and Common Sense

- Many people mistakenly believe that sociology is the study of the obvious. They claim that
sociology is nothing but the application of common sense. But equating any science with
simple common sense could not be further from the truth! Common sense is not always
“common,” nor “sensible.”.Common sense is a particular viewpoint. This is the viewpoint of
the social group and the social environment in which we live. Our opinions, beliefs and
expectations about society and social relations are shaped by our social context. This is often
not wrong but is partial. It gives us partial reality. Maintains prejudices (pre-concieved
opinions or attitudes) and stereotypes (often grounded in stereotypes, fixed and inflexible
characterization of group of people). Sociology teaches us to see the world from many
vantage points- not just our own. Each vantage point provide partial view but when
compared we get the sense what the whole might be and what is hidden from the
view in specific standpoint.By understanding society it provides a social map on which you can
locate yourself.

EXAMPLE :

Sociology And Science

“Science refers to the logical ,systematic methods by which knowledge is obtained and to the actual
body of knowledge produced by these methods.”

Sociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction,
and culture.

It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation (a way of gaining knowledge
by means of direct and indirect observation or experience) and critical analysis (objective analysis of
facts to form a judgment) to develop a body of knowledge about social order, acceptance, and change.

A social science is concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society.
Moreover, a social science is a major category of academic disciplines which are, intrinsically, branches
of knowledge, incorporating expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies, inquiry, and
research areas.

Sociological Imagination
The sociological imagination is the practice of being able to “think ourselves away” from the
familiar routines of our daily lives in order to look at them with fresh, critical eyes. C. Wright
Mills, who created the concept and wrote a book about it, defined the sociological imagination
as “the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society."

The sociological imagination is the ability to see things socially and how they interact and
influence each other. To have a sociological imagination, a person must be able to pull away
from the situation and think from an alternative point of view. This ability is central to
one's development of a sociological perspective on the world.

How to Apply the Sociological Imagination

We can apply the concept of the sociological imagination to any behavior. Take the simple act
of drinking a cup of coffee, for example. We could argue that coffee is not just a drink, but
rather it has symbolic value as part of day-to-day social rituals. Often the ritual of drinking
coffee is much more important than the act of consuming the coffee itself. For example, two
people who meet “to have coffee” together are probably more interested in meeting and
chatting than in what they drink. In all societies, eating and drinking are occasions for social
interaction and the performance of rituals, which offer a great deal of subject matter for
sociological study.

The second dimension to a cup of coffee has to do with its use as a drug. Coffee contains
caffeine, which is a drug that has stimulating effects on the brain. For many, this is the reason
why they drink coffee. It is interesting sociologically to question why coffee addicts are not
considered drug users in Western cultures, though they might be in other cultures. Like
alcohol, coffee is a socially acceptable drug whereas marijuana is not. In other cultures,
however, marijuana use is tolerated, but both coffee and alcohol consumption is frowned upon.

Still, the third dimension to a cup of coffee is tied to social and economic relationships. The
growing, packaging, distributing, and marketing of coffee are global enterprises that affect
many cultures, social groups, and organizations within those cultures. These things often take
place thousands of miles away from the coffee drinker. Many aspects of our lives are
now situated within globalized trade and communications, and studying these global
transactions is important to sociologists.

Social Groups
.A social group is two or more people who identify with and interact with one another. Human beings
come together in couples, families,circles of friends,churches,clubs,businesses,neighborhoods, and
large organizations.Whatever the form, a group is made up of people with shared
experiences,loyalties,and interests.In short,while keeping their individuality, members of social groups
also think of themselves as a special “we.” Not every collection of individuals forms a group.People all
over the country with a status in common,such as women,homeowners, soldiers,millionaires,college
graduates,and Roman Catholics,are not a group but a category. Though they know that others hold the
same status,most are strangers to one another.Similarly,students sitting in a large stadium interact to a
very limited extent.Such a loosely formed collection of people in one place is a crowd rather than a
group.

Associations

An association is formed or created by people. It is a social group. Without people there can be
no association. It is an organized group. An unorganized group like crowd or mob cannot be an
association.

An association is group organised for the pursuit of an interest or group of interests in

common.

An association is not a community but an organisation within community.

Membership in an association has a limited significance. We belong to association only by virtue

of some specific interests that we possess.

Characteristics of Associations

it consists of a group of individuals.

Ii- the people are organised

there are certain rules and regulations for the conduct of activities of association.

these people carry out activities to attain certain goals.

 Community

Like the concept of society, the concept of community is ill-defined and loosely
used in social sciences. It is a term having numerous meanings both sociological
and non-sociological. It is used in an omnibus way to refer to a wide variety of
specific social units.

In common parlance, the word ‘community’ is used for a collection of people who
do related kinds of work, such as the “teachers community” or the “doctors
community”. It is also used to denote a collection of people who share something in
common as the “Hindu community”, the “Parsi community”, or the “Christian
community” without necessarily living in a particular area. Sometimes, it is used to
describe a supposedly coherent group, such as ‘international community. Such
loose use of the word ‘community is always misleading and indicate just to
amorphous mass.

A community exists:
(1) When a set of households is relatively concentrated in delimited geographical
area;

(2) Their residents exhibit a substantial degree of integrated social interaction; and

(3) They have a sense of common membership, of belonging together, which is not
based exclusively on ties of consanguinity.

. The three elements of community sentiment are:

• We-feeling

• Role-feeling
 • Dependency-feeling

 Examples: Retirement community

 Senior living communities
 The bisexual community
 Convent

Social Institutuions

A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic
societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in the same way, as does the person on
the street. Laypersons are likely to use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and
many other things as institutions.According to Sumner institution not only of the concept, idea or interest
but of a institution as well. By structure he meant an apparatus or a group of functionaries. Lester F Ward
regarded an institution as the means for the control and utilization of the social energy.L.T Hobhouse
describe institution as the whole or any part of the established and recognized apparatus of social life.
Robert Maclver regarded institution as established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group
activity.

The five primary institutions are found among all human groups.

Sociologists operating in terms of the functionalist model society have provided the clearest explanation of the
functions served by social institutions. Apparently there are certain minimum tasks that must be performed in
all human groups. Unless these tasks are performed adequately, the group will cease to exist. An analogy may
help to make the point. We might hypothesize that cost accounting department is essential to the operation of a
large corporation. A company might procure a superior product and distribute it then at the price that is
assigned to it; the company will soon go out of business. Perhaps the only way to avoid this is to have a careful
accounting of the cost of each step in the production and distribution process.

Functionalist theory

The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical
perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was
especially interested in how social order is possible or how society remains relatively stable.
Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of
the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society is
functional for the stability of the whole. Durkheim actually envisioned society as an
organism, and just like within an organism, each component plays a necessary part, but
none can function alone, and one experiences a crisis or fails, other parts must adapt to fill
the void in some way.

Within functionalist theory, the different parts of society are primarily composed of social
institutions, each of which is designed to fill different needs, and each of which has
particular consequences for the form and shape of society. The parts all depend on each
other. The core institutions defined by sociology and which are important to understanding
for this theory include family, government, economy, media, education, and religion.
According to functionalism, an institution only exists because it serves a vital role in the
functioning of society. If it no longer serves a role, an institution will die away. When new
needs evolve or emerge, new institutions will be created to meet them.

Example: Let's consider the relationships between and functions of some core institutions.
In most societies, the government, or state, provides education for the children of the family,
which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. The family is
dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise
and support their own families. In the process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying
citizens, who in turn support the state. From the functionalist perspective, if all goes well,
the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the
parts of society then must adapt to produce new forms of order, stability, and productivity.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory states that tensions and conflicts arise when resources, status, and power are
unevenly distributed between groups in society and that these conflicts become the engine
for social change. In this context, power can be understood as control of material resources
and accumulated wealth, control of politics and the institutions that make up society,
 and one's social status relative to others(determined not just by class but by race, gender,
sexuality, culture, and religion, among other things).

Conflict theory originated in the work of Karl Marx, who focused on the causes and
consequences of class conflict between the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of
production and the capitalists) and the proletariat (the working class and the poor).

Marx theorized that this system, premised on the existence of a powerful minority class (the
bourgeoisie) and an oppressed majority class (the proletariat), created class conflict because
the interests of the two were at odds, and resources were unjustly distributed among them.
Within this system an unequal social order was maintained through ideological coercion
which created consensus--and acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as
determined by the bourgeoisie. Marx reasoned that as the socio-economic conditions
worsened for the proletariat, they would develop a class consciousness that revealed their
exploitation at the hands of the wealthy capitalist class of bourgeoisie, and then they would
revolt, demanding changes to smooth the conflict. According to Marx, if the changes made
to appease conflict maintained a capitalist system, then the cycle of conflict would repeat.
However, if the changes made created a new system, like socialism, then peace and stability
would be achieved.

Example: Reservation is a great example of conflict theory. Earlier there was a social structure where
a caste of society was suppressed. This suppression resulted in a conflict between upper and lower class
of society. Lower class demanded reservation for their upliftment and they got it after huge struggle
and debates. This struggle was for welfare of their caste. They were given reservation and few of them
grew socially and economically.

Now a section of people from depressed class are developed in all aspects but they are still using the
advantage of reservation. This is giving birth to a new conflict between general and depressed class
because general class is blaming reservation based on caste for this. Supreme court said in a verdict of
2006 that there should be a concept of “creamy layer” in SC/ST reservation too. So that developed
section of that class can not enjoy perks of reservation. And this conflict between general and reserved
class may bring a change in social structure.

Symbolic Interactionism
The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework
of sociological theory. This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and
rely upon in the process of social interaction. Although symbolic interactionism traces its
origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the
meaning of their world, the American philosopher George Herbert Mead introduced this
perspective to American sociology in the 1920s.

Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people
impose on objects, events, and behaviors. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is
believed that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true.
Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretation. People
interpret one another’s behavior and it is these interpretations that form the social bond. These
interpretations are called the “definition of the situation.”

Some fundamental aspects of our social experience and identities, like race and gender, can be
understood through the symbolic interactionist lens. Having no biological bases at all, both
race and gender are social constructs that function based on what we believe to be true about
people, given what they look like. We use socially constructed meanings of race and gender to
help us decide who to interact with, how to do so, and to help us determine, sometimes
inaccurately, the meaning of a person's words or actions.

Example: why would young people smoke cigarettes even when all objective medical evidence
points to the dangers of doing so? The answer is in the definition of the situation that people
create. Studies find that teenagers are well informed about the risks of tobacco, but they also
think that smoking is cool, that they themselves will be safe from harm, and that smoking
projects a positive image to their peers. So, the symbolic meaning of smoking overrides that
actual facts regarding smoking and risk.

Socialization

Socialization is the process through which a person, from birth through death, is taught the
norms, customs, values, and roles of the society in which they live. This process serves to
incorporate new members into a society so that they and it can function smoothly. It is guided
by family, teachers and coaches, religious leaders, peers, community, and media, among others.
Socialization typically occurs in two stages. Primary socialization takes place from birth
through adolescence and is guided by primary caregivers, educators, and peers. Secondary
socialization continues throughout one's life, and especially whenever one encounters new
situations, places, or groups of people whose norms, customs, assumptions, and values may
differ from one's own.

Example: School is an important area of socialization for children, adolescents, and even
young adults when they are in university. In this setting, one might think of the classes and
lessons themselves as the content, but really, in terms of socialization, the content is
information we are given about how to behave, follow rules, respect authority, follow schedules,
take responsibility, and meet deadlines. The process of teaching this content involves social
interaction between teachers, administrators, and students in which rules and expectations are
posted in writing, regularly spoken allowed, and behavior is either rewarded or penalized
depending on whether it is aligned or not with those rules and expectations. Through this
process, normative rule-abiding behavior is taught to students in schools.

Status and Roles

Most people associate status with the prestige of a person’s lifestyle, education, or vocation.
According to sociologists, Status describes the position a person occupies in a particular
setting. We all occupy several statuses and play the roles that may be associated with them.
A Role is the set of norms, values, behaviors, and personality characteristics attached to a
status. An individual may occupy the statuses of student, employee, and club president and
play one or more roles with each one.
Example: Status as student
Role 1: Classroom: Attending class, taking notes, and communicating with the professor
Role 2: Fellow student: Participating in study groups, sharing ideas, quizzing other students
Status as employee
Role 1: Warehouse: Unloading boxes, labeling products, restocking shelves
Role 2: Customer service: Answering questions, solving problems, researching information

Culture
Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of social life.
According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of language and
communication, and practices that people share in common and that can be used to define
them as a collective. Culture is the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the
material objects that together form a people’s way of life. Culture includes what
we think, how we act, and what we own. Culture is both our link to the past and
our guide to the future. To understand all that culture is,we must consider both
thoughts and things.Nonmaterial culture is the ideas created by members of a
society, ideas that range from art to Zen. Material culture, by contrast,is the
physical things created by members of a society, everything from armchairs to
zippers.

Given the extent of cultural differences in the world and people’s tendency to view
their own way oflife as “natural,”it is no wonder that travelers often find
themselves feeling uneasy as they enter an unfamiliar culture. This uneasiness is
culture shock, personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of
lifeSociologists see the two sides of culture—the material and non-material—as intimately
connected. Material culture emerges from and is shaped by the non-material aspects of culture.
In other words, what we value, believe, and know, and what we do together in everyday life,
influences the things that we make. But it is not a one-way relationship between material and
non-material culture. Material culture can also influence the non-material aspects of culture.

For example: a powerful documentary film (an aspect of material culture) might change
people’s attitudes and beliefs (i.e. non-material culture). This is why cultural products tend to
follow patterns. What has come before, in terms of music, film, television, and art, for example,
influences the values, beliefs, and expectations of those who interact with them, which then, in
turn, influence the creation of additional cultural products.

DEVIANCE

Deviance is the recognized violation of cultural norms. Norms guide almost all
human activities,so the concept of deviance is quite broad. One category of
deviance is crime,the violation ofa society’s formally enacted criminal law.Even
criminal deviance spans a wide range,from minor traffic violations to
prostitution,sexual assault,and murder.

Examples:The negative instances of rule breaking, such as stealing from a campus

bookstore, assaulting a fellow student, or driving a car while intoxicated. But we
also define especially righteous people—students who speak up too much in class
or people who are overly enthusiastic about new computer technology—as
deviant, even if we give them a measure of respect. What deviant actions or
attitudes,whether negative or positive,have in common is some element of
difference that causes us to think of another person as an “outsider”

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social stratification refers to the way people are ranked and ordered in society. In Western
societies, stratification is primarily seen and understood as a result of socioeconomic status,
which produces a hierarchy in which access to resources, and possession of them, increases
from the lower to the upper strata.

social stratification exists within smaller groups and other kinds of societies, too. For example,
in some, stratification is determined by tribal affiliations, age, or caste. In groups and
organizations, stratification may take the form of a distribution of power and authority down
the ranks, like in the military, schools, clubs, businesses, and even groupings of friends and
peers.

Regardless of whatever form it takes, social stratification represents an unequal distribution of

power. This can manifest as power to make rules, decisions, and establish notions of right and
wrong, as is the case with the political structure in the U.S, which has power to control the
distribution of resources; and the power to determine the opportunities, rights, and obligations
that others have, among others.

Social stratification, a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy, is

based on four important principles:

1. Social stratification is a trait ofsociety,not simply a reflection of individual differences. Many

ofus think ofsocial standing in terms ofpersonal talent and effort,and as a result,we often
exaggerate the extent to which we control our own fate
2.Social stratification carries over from generation to generation. We have only to look at how
parents pass their social position on to their children to see that stratification is a trait of
societies rather than individuals.

3.Social stratification is universal but variable. Social stratification is found everywhere.Yet

what is unequal and how unequal it is varies from one society to another

4. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well. Any system of inequality
not only gives some people more than others but also defines these arrangements as fair.

GENDER STRATIFICATION

Gender refers to the personal traits and social positions that members ofa society attach to
being female or male.Gender,then,is a dimension of social organization,shaping how we
interact with others and how we think about ourselves.More important,gender also involves
hierarchy, ranking men and women differently in terms of power, wealth,and other
resources.This is why sociologists speak of gender stratification,the unequal distribution of
wealth,power,and privilege between men and women. In short, gender affects the opportunities
and challenges we face throughout our lives.

Stratification occurred in different ways like a widow remarriage was not something to even
think about. Sati practice was also common i.e. the women were obliged to end their lives
after husband death. The decision making freedom was not amounting for women of the
society. Joan Acker was the one sociologist who criticized the gender role in stratification.

There was an argument between feminist that whether a female position should be
recognized by her husband occupation and authority or her own position. In today’s time, a
female position is studied as a separate category. The stratification between the genders
can be seen in different ways. For example, it is a traditional thinking that mechanical
branch is suitable for boys only, thus the number of girls in this branch is much lesser than
other engineering branches. Likewise in many companies, there is the difference in
payment of men and women being placed at the same level. There is one more example
where the number of female employees at a company is lesser than men.