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CISC-102
Fall 2017
Week 5

Relations (See chapter 2. of SN)

An ordered pair of elements a,b is written as (a,b).

NOTE: Mathematical convention distinguishes between 


“( )” brackets -order is important – and “{ }” -- not ordered.

Example: {1,2} = {2,1}, but (1,2) ≠ (2,1).

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Product sets

Let A and B be two arbitrary sets. The set of all ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B is

called the product or Cartesian product or cross product of A and B.

1

The cross product is denoted as:

A × B = {(a,b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B }

and is pronounced “A cross B”. It is common to denote A × A as A2.

A “famous” example of a product set is R , that is the product of the Reals, or the two
2

dimensional real plane or Cartesian plane -- x and y coordinates.

1 Réne Descartes French philosopher mathematician (1596 - 1650)

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Relations

Definition: Let A and B be arbitrary sets. A binary relation, or simply a relation from A to B is a

subset of A × B.

( We study relations to continue our exploration of mathematical definitions and notation. )

Example: Suppose A = {1,3,6} and B = {1,4,6}

A × B = {(a,b) : a ∈ A, and b ∈ B } 


= {(1,1),(1,4),(1,6),(3,1),(3,4),(3,6),(6,1),(6,4)(6,6)}

Example: Consider the relation ≤ on A × B where A and B are defined above. The subset of A ×

B in this relation are the pairs:

{(1,1),(1,4),(1,6),(3,4),(3,6),(6,6)}

That is, a pair (a,b) is in the relation ≤ whenever a ≤ b.

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Vocabulary
When we have a relation on S × S (which is a very common occurrence) we simply call it a
relation on S, rather than a relation on S × S.

Let A = {1,2,3,4}, we can define the following relations on A.

R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (4,4)}

R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}

R3 = {(1,3), (2,1)}

R4 = ∅

R5 = A × A = A2 (How many elements are there in R5 ?)


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Properties of relations on a set A

Reflexive: A relation R is reflexive if (a,a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A.


Symmetric: A relation R is symmetric if whenever (a1, a2) ∈ R then (a2, a1) ∈ R.

Antisymmetric: A relation R is antisymmetric if whenever (a1, a2) ∈ R, and a1 ≠ a2, 


then (a2, a1) ∉ R.

An alternate way to define antisymmetric relations (as found in Schaum’s Notes) is:

Antisymmetric: A relation R is antisymmetric if whenever (a1, a2) ∈ R and (a2, a1) ∈ R 


then a1 = a2.

NOTE: There are relations that are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric or both symmetric and

antisymmetric.

Transitive: A relation R is transitive if whenever (a1, a2) ∈ R and (a2, a3) ∈ R then (a1, a3) ∈ R.


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Let A = {1,2,3,4}, we can define the following relations on A.

R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (4,4)}

NOT reflexive, NOT symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive

R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}

reflexive, symmetric, NOT antisymmetric, transitive

R3 = {(1,3), (2,1)}

NOT reflexive, NOT symmetric, antisymmetric, NOT transitive

R4 = ∅

NOT reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive

R5 = A × A = A2 (How many elements are there in R5 ?)

reflexive, symmetric, transitive.

Consider the relation

R6 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,3),(2,2), (3,3)}

NOT reflexive, NOT symmetric, NOT antisymmetric, NOT transitive

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Consider the relations <, ≤, and = on the Natural numbers. (less than, less than or equal to, equal

to)

The relation < on the Natural numbers {(a,b) : a,b ∈ N, a < b} is:

NOT reflexive, NOT symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive

The relation ≤ is on the Natural numbers {(a,b) : a,b ∈ N, a ≤ b} is:

reflexive, NOT symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive

The relation = on the Natural numbers {(a,b) : a,b ∈ N, a = b} is:

reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive

Partial orders and equivalence relations

A relation R is called a partial order if R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.

A relation R is called an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. 


Functions as relations

A function can be viewed as a special case of relations.

A relation R from A to B is a function if every element a ∈ A belongs to a unique ordered pair

Properties of the Integers
(a,b) in R.
Let a,b ∈ ℤ then
1. if c = a + b then c ∈ ℤ
2. if c = a - b then c ∈ ℤ
3. if c = (a)(b) then c ∈ ℤ
4. if c = a/b, b ≠ 0, then c ∈ ℚ

If a & b are integers the quotient a/b may not be an integer. For example if c = 1/2, then c is not
an integer.

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On the other hand with c = 6/3 then c is an integer.

We can say that there exists integers a,b such that c = a/b is not an integer.

We can also say that for all integers a,b, b ≠ 0, we have c = a/b is a rational number.

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Divisibility

Let a,b ∈ ℤ, a ≠ 0.
b
If c =
a is an integer,
or alternately if c ∈ ℤ such that b = ca
then we say that a divides b or equivalently,

b is divisible by a, and this is written
a∣b

NOTE: Recall long division:

Referring to the long division example, b = 32, is the divisor a = 487 is the dividend. The
quotient q = 15 and the remainder r = 7.

In this case b does not divide a 


or equivalently a is not divisible by b.

This can be notated as:

b∤a
and we can write a = bq + r or, 487 = (32) (15) + 7

Division Algorithm Theorem

Let a,b ∈ ℤ, b ≠ 0 there exists q,r ∈ ℤ, such that:

a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < | b |

NOTE: The remainder in the Division Algorithm Theorem is always positive.

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Notation

The absolute value of b denoted by

|b|
is defined as:
| b | = b if b ≥ 0
and | b | = -b if b < 0.

Therefore for values

a = 22, b = 7, and a = -22, b = -7 we get

22 = (7)(3) + 1

but

-22 = (-7)(4) + 6.

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Divisibility Theorems.

Let a,b,c ∈ ℤ. If a ∣ b and b ∣ c then a ∣ c.

Proof:

Suppose a ∣ b then there exists an integer j such that

(1) b = aj

Similarly if b ∣ c then there exists an integer k such that

( 2) c = bk

Replace b in equation ( 2) with aj to get

( 3) c = ajk

Thus we have proved that if a ∣ b and b ∣ c then a ∣ c. ◻

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Divisibility Theorems.

Let a,b,c ∈ ℤ. If a ∣ b then a ∣ bc.

Proof:
Since a ∣ b there exists an integer j such that

b = aj, and bc = ajc for all (any) c ∈ ℤ.

ajc
It should be obvious that a ∣ ajc ( = jc is an integer)
a

so a | bc . ◻

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Divisibility Theorems.

Let a,b,c ∈ ℤ. If a ∣ b and a ∣ c. Then a ∣ (b + c) and

a ∣ (b - c).

Proof:

Since a | b there exist a j ∈ ℤ such that b = aj.

Since a | c there exist a k ∈ ℤ such that c = ak.

Therefore b + c = (aj + ak) = a(j + k).

Obviously a | a(j + k) so a ∣ (b + c).

Similarly a | a(j - k) so a ∣ (b - c). ◻

More Divisibility Theorems.

If a | b and b ≠ 0 then | a | ≤ | b|.

If a | b and b | a then | a | = | b |.

If a | 1 then | a | = 1.


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Prime Numbers
Definition: A positive integer p > 1 is called a prime number if its only divisors are 1, -1, and p, -
p.

The first 10 prime numbers are:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, ...

Definition: If an integer c > 2 is not prime, then it is composite. Every composite number c can
be written as a product of two integers a,b such that a,b ∉ {1,-1, c, -c}.

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Determining whether a number, n, is prime or composite is difficult computationally. A simple

method (which is in essence of the same computational difficulty as more sophisticated methods)
checks all integers k, 2 ≤ k ≤ √n to determine divisibility.

Example: Let n = 143

2 does not divide 143

3 does not divide 143
4 does not divide 143
5 does not divide 143
6 does not divide 143
7 does not divide 143
8 does not divide 143
9 does not divide 143
10 does not divide 143
11divides 143, 11 × 13 = 143


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Theorem: Every integer n > 1 is either prime or can be written as a product of primes.

For example:

12 = 2 × 2 × 3.

17 is prime.

90 = 2 × 5 × 3 × 3.

143 = 11 × 13.

147 = 3 × 7 × 7.

330 = 2 × 5 × 3 × 11.

Note: If factors are repeated we can use exponents.

48 = 24 × 3.

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Theorem: Every integer n > 1 is either prime or can be written as a product of primes.

Proof:
(1) Suppose there is an integer k > 1 that is the largest integer that is the product of primes.
This then implies that the integer k+1 is not prime or a product of primes.




(2) If k+1 is not prime it must be composite and:


k+1 = ab, a,b ∈ ℤ, a,b ∉ {1,-1, k+1, -(k+1)}.


(3) Observe that |a| < k+1 and |b| < k+1, because a | k+1 and b | k+1. We assume that k+1 is
the smallest positive integer that is not prime or the product of primes, therefore |a| and |b|
are prime or a product of primes.


(4) Since k+1 is a product of a and b it follows that it too is a product of primes.


(5) Thus we have contradicted the assumption that there is a largest integer that is the product of
primes, and we can therefore conclude that every integer n > 1 is either prime or written as a
product of primes. ◻


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Mathematical Induction (2nd form)

Let P(n) be a proposition defined on a subset of the Natural numbers (b, b+1, b+2, ...) such that:

i) P(b) is true 

(Base)
ii) Assume P(j) is true for all j, b ≤ j ≤ k. 

(Induction Hypothesis)
iii) Use Induction Hypothesis to show that P(k+1) is true.

(Induction Step)

NOTE: Go back to all of the proofs using mathematical induction that we have seen so far and
replace the assumption
(1) Assume P(k) is true for k ≥ b. (b is the base case value) by
(2) Assume P(j) is true for all j, b ≤ j ≤ k.”

and the rest of the proof can remain as is.

Assumption (2) above is stronger than assumption (1). Sometimes this form of induction is
called strong induction.

NOTE: A stronger assumption makes it easier to prove the result. 


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Let P(n) be the proposition:

Pn i
i=1 2 = 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n = 2n+1 2

Theorem: P(n) is true for all n 2 N.

Proof:

Base: P(1) is 2 = 22 2 which is clearly true.

Induction Hypothesis: P(j) is true for j, 1 ≤ j ≤ k.
Induction Step:
k+1
X
2i = 2k+1 2 + 2k+1
i=1 (because P(k) is true)

= 2(2k+1 ) 2
k+2 

=2 2 ⧠

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Theorem: Every integer n > 1 is either prime or can be written as a product of primes.

Proof: (Mathematical Induction of the 2nd form) Let P(n) be the proposition that all natural
numbers n ≥ 2 are either prime or the product of primes.

Base: n = 2, P(2) is true because 2 is prime.

Induction Hypothesis: 

(1) Assume that P(j) is true, for all j, 2 ≤ j ≤ k.
Induction Step: Consider the integer k+1.

(2) Observe that if k+1 is prime P(k+1) is true, so consider the case where k+1 is composite. That
is: k+1 = ab, a,b ∈ ℤ, a,b ∉ {1,-1, k+1, -(k+1)}.
(3) Therefore, |a| < k+1 and |b| < k+1. 

So |a| and |b| are prime or a product of primes.
(4) Since k+1 is a product of a and b it follows that it too is a product of primes.
(5) Therefore, by the 2nd form of mathematical induction we can conclude that P(n) is true for
all n ≥ 2. ◻


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Well-Ordering Principle

In our initial proof that shows that integers greater than 2 are either prime or a product of primes
we assumed that if that wasn’t true for all integers greater than 2, then there was a smallest
integer where the proposition is false. (we called that integer k.) This statement may appear to be
obvious, but there is a mathematical property of the positive integers at play that makes this true.

Theorem: Well Ordering Principle: Let S be a non-empty subset of the positive integers. Then S
contains a least element, that is, S contains an element a ≤ s for all s ∈ S.

• Observe that S could be an infinite set.

• Well ordering does NOT apply to subsets of ℤ, ℚ, or ℝ. It is a special property of the positive
integers.

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NOTE: The Well Ordering Principle can be used to prove both forms of the Principle of
Mathematical Induction.

In essence the statement “use the proposition P(k) to show that P(k+1) is true” uses an
underlying assumption:

“Should there be a value of n where the proposition is false then there must be a smallest
value of n where the proposition is false”

In all of our induction proofs so far the value k+1 plays the role of that smallest value of n where
the proposition may be false. For all other values j, b ≤ j ≤ k, we can assume that P(j) is true. In
the induction step we show that P(k+1) is also true, in essence showing that there is no smallest
value of n where the proposition is false. And by well ordering this implies that the result is true
for all values of n.

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Theorem: There exists a prime greater than n for all positive integers n. (We could also say that
there are infinitely many primes.)

Proof: Consider y = n! and x = n! + 1. Let p be a prime divisor of x, such that p ≤ n. This implies
that p is also a divisor of y, because n! is the product of all natural numbers from 1 to n. So we
have p | x and p | y. According to one of the divisibility theorems we have
p | x - y. But x - y = 1 and the only divisor of 1 is -1, or 1, both not prime. So there are no prime
divisors of x less than n. And since every integer is either prime or a product if primes, we either
have x > n is prime, or there exists a prime p, p > n in the prime factorization of x. ◻

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Theorem: There is no largest prime.

(Proof by contradiction.)

Suppose there is a largest prime. So we can write down all of the finitely many primes as:
p ,p ,...,p
{ 1 2 !}.

Now let n = p 1 ⇥ p2 ⇥ · · · ⇥ p ! + 1 .
Observe that n must be larger the p! the largest prime. Therefore n is composite and is a
product of primes. Let pk denote a prime factor of n. Thus we have
pk ∣ n

And since pk ∈ { p1 , p2 , . . . , p!} we also have

pk ∣ (n-1)

We know that pk ∣ n and pk ∣ (n-1) implies that pk ∣ n - (n-1) or pk ∣ 1. But no integer divides 1
except 1, and 1 is not prime, so pk ∣ 1 is impossible, and raises a mathematical contradiction. This
p
implies that our assumption that ! is the largest prime is false, and so we conclude that there
is no largest prime. ◻

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