Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

A Field Guide

NM Pasiecznik1, PJC Harris1,2 and SJ Smith2

HDRA, Coventry, UK

2004

1 2
International Research Department School of Science and the Environment
HDRA Coventry University
Ryton Organic Gardens Priory Street
Coventry CV8 3LG Coventry CV1 5FB
UK UK

Tel: +44 (0)24 7630 8200 Tel: + 44 (0)24 7688 8349

Fax: +44 (0)24 7663 9229 Fax: +44 (0)24 7688 8702
Email: npasiecznik@hdra.org.uk Email: p.harris@coventry.ac.uk
Website: www.hdra.org.uk Website: www.coventry.ac.uk
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Acknowledgements

We thank the numerous people world-wide who facilitated the collection of leaf samples,
including Ousman Diagne (Senegal), Dr Ayed Omari (Jordan), Mendes Carvalho (Cape
Verde) and JC Tewari (India). Also, special thanks to Jo Billington for her patience in
measuring all the samples, and to Katel Cadoret and Melissa Harvey for co-ordinating
the production of this guide. For use of additional illustrations we acknowledge Gaston
Cruz (University of Piura, Peru), LN Harsh (CAZRI, India) and Paulo Cesar Lima
(EMBRAPA-CPATSA, Brazil).

This publication is an output from a research project funded by the United Kingdom
Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries.
The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID. (R7295) Forestry Research
Programme.

Copies of this, and associated publications are available free to people and organisations
in countries eligible for UK aid. Copyright restrictions exist on the reproduction of all or
part of the field guide. Requests for publications, reproduction and further information
should be directed to the authors.

Front cover photographs

top left – mature P. pallida, Piura, Peru (G Cruz);
top right – P. juliflora leaves (PJC Harris);
bottom left – P. pallida leaves and pods (G Cruz);
bottom right – multistemmed P. juliflora, Gujarat, India (NM Pasiecznik).

Back cover photographs

top left – P. pallida leaves (LN Harsh)
top right – P. glandulosa and unripe pods (LN Harsh)
middle left – P. juliflora leaves (PJC Harris),
middle right – P. chilensis leaves and thorns (HDRA)
bottom left – P. juliflora interfoliar gland (PJC Harris)
bottom right – P. juliflora pods (PJC Harris)

© 2004 HDRA Publishing. Typographic design by Steve Hammett

Printed by Emmerson Press, Farmer Ward Road, Kenilworth, UK.

ii
Correct citation

Pasiecznik, NM, PJC Harris and SJ Smith. 2004. Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species: A
Field Guide. HDRA, Coventry, UK. ISBN 0 905343 34 4.

Other project outputs

Pasiecznik, NM, P Felker, PJC Harris, LN Harsh, G Cruz, JC Tewari, K Cadoret and LJ
Maldonado. 2001. The Prosopis juliflora - Prosopis pallida Complex: A Monograph.
HDRA, Coventry, UK. 162p. ISBN 0 905343 30 1.

Tewari, JC, PJC Harris, LN Harsh, K Cadoret and NM Pasiecznik. 2000. Managing Prosopis
juliflora (Vilayati Babul): A Technical Manual. CAZRI, Jodhpur, India and HDRA,
Coventry, UK. 94p. (English and Hindi versions). ISBN 0 905343 27 1.

Cadoret, K, NM Pasiecznik and PJC Harris. 2000. The Genus Prosopis: A Reference
Database (Version 1.0): CD-ROM. HDRA, Coventry, UK. ISBN 0 905343 28 X.

iii
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Glossary

Acuminate. Tapering toward the end into a long and sharp point.
Acumen. The point of an acuminate leaf.
Acute. Having a sharp point.
Apex. The tip of a leaf, at the opposite end from the stalk.
Apiculum. A sharp point at the end of the pod.
Ciliate. With regularly arranged hairs projecting from the margin.
Compressed. Flattened.
Elliptic. Broadening at about the centre and narrowing equally towards each end.
Emarginate. Having a shallow notch at the apex.
Falcate. Curved, sickle shaped.
Glabrous. Without hairs.
Interfoliar gland. Gland between the leaflets on the secondary rachis.
Internodal. Between two adjacent nodes.
Interpetiolar gland. Gland located where secondary rachis joins the petiole or
primary rachis.
Lanceolate. Long and thin and broadest below the middle, tapering to a sharp point.
Oblong. Longer than it is broad, and having mostly parallel sides.
Obtuse. Having a blunt or rounded end.
Ovate. Egg shaped.
Petiole. The main stalk of a leaf, taken here as the distance from the junction with the
stem to the tip of the leaf, i.e. petiole plus primary rachis.
Pinna. (Pl pinnae) First division of the leaf. Each single Prosopis leaf is divided into
pinnae, and each pinna is divided into leaflets.
Pinnate. A leaf composed of more than three leaflets arranged in two rows along a
common stalk or secondary rachis.
Pubescent or Puberulous. Covered with a down or fine hair.
Raceme. A flower head composed of individually stalked flowers that are arranged
along a single main axis.
Secondary rachis. The axis of a pinna in a multi-pinnate leaf.
Stipe. Stalk of pod.
Stipitate. Having a short stalk or stalk like base.
Subacute. Having a fairly sharp point.
Sub-compressed. Almost, but not quite, flattened.
Sub-cylindric. Almost, but not quite, cylindrical.
Subfalcate. Only slightly curved or sickle shaped.
Subterete. Almost cylindrical and rounded in cross section or only slightly, ridged,
grooved or angled.
Torulose. With small swellings, beaded.
Undulate. Having wave-like undulations.

iv
Contents

Acknowlegements ii
Glossary iv

Introducing Prosopis 1

The need for a field guide 1

A valuable tree with multiple uses 2
An invasive weed, an unwelcome guest 3
The spread of Prosopis 4
Taxonomy of the genus Prosopis 5
The problem of identifying Prosopis in the tropics 6

Identifying Prosopis 7

Using this guide 7

Life-size leaf samples 10
Typical tree forms 14
Tree characters 15
Leaf characters 16
Pod characters 17
Identifying P. juliflora and P. pallida 18
Keys to differentiating P. juliflora and P. pallida 19

Species descriptions 20

Prosopis juliflora 20
Prosopis pallida 21
Prosopis glandulosa 22
Prosopis velutina 23
Prosopis alba 24
Prosopis chilensis 24
Prosopis africana 25
Prosopis cineraria 26
Prosopis farcta 26
Other Prosopis species 27

Selected bibliography 28

Notes 30

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Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Wood products Non-wood

products

Firewood Flour (for bread

Charcoal and biscuits)
Pod syrup
Coffee substitute
Fence posts / poles Seed gum
Tool handles

Animal feed
Sawn timber
Furniture Honey
Flooring Wax
Craft items Exudate gum

Figure 1. Prosopis products commercialised in their native ranges and occasionally

where introduced.

vi
 Introducing Prosopis

Introducing Prosopis

The need for a field guide

There are many problems facing foresters, farmers, development workers, researchers,
ecologists and politicians when deciding what to do with exotic Prosopis in their country.
Is it a valuable resource requiring promotion and planting, or an invasive weed worthy
only of wholesale eradication? This apparent paradox is only touched upon here, but the
debate has certainly become a heated one, with millions spent each year on both planting
and pulling up Prosopis. However, before any strategy is decided, it is necessary to be
absolutely certain which Prosopis species is being dealt with in each case.

There are many Prosopis species, each with its own characteristics. Where they were
introduced, few records and poor identification have led to many populations being
incorrectly named. In several regions, errors made at the time of introduction persist
today due to continued taxonomic confusion even amongst the experts. This has created
countless problems in planning eradication and biological control programmes, carrying
out further introduction, selection or genetic improvement, and improving management
and utilisation of the trees.

Knowing which species is present is very important, particularly with Prosopis, but this is
not always easy. If it were so simple, there would be no mis-identification and no need for
this field guide. Foresters have mixed up some of the names, and some taxonomists can’t
agree. Several species look very similar, others may adopt different habits or tree shapes
depending on the site, or if they are cut or browsed. Also, leaves from a single tree or
species can vary considerably in size. Finally, many species cross with each other creating
hybrid populations with intermediate characteristics.

Taxonomists can tell the difference by looking very carefully at the flowers and leaves,
and recently scientists have accurately identified species by analysing the DNA. However,
while these methods are helpful to the experts in their laboratories, they are not much use
to the forester, who needs to be able to identify Prosopis trees quickly in the field. This
guide aims to do just that, by allowing a comparison of leaves and other useful
morphological characters of the eight most frequent tropical species, and a key to
differentiating the two most common, and most often confused species, P. juliflora and P.
pallida.

There will always be exceptions, hybrids and peculiar trees that don’t seem to ‘fit’, but
this field guide will at least resolve some of the long standing Prosopis mis-identifications,
where the trees have been introduced across Africa, Asia and Australia. Linked with
increased knowledge from their respective native ranges, it is hoped that this will then
help to lay the foundations on which future management strategies can be based.

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Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

A valuable tree with multiple uses

Prosopis are amongst the most common tree species to be found in the dry tropics. They
are native to arid and semi-arid zones of the Americas, Africa and Asia, with several
American species widely introduced throughout the world over the last 200 years. In
recent decades these ‘exotic’ Prosopis have attracted much attention. They are extensively
planted as fast-growing and drought tolerant fuel and fodder trees, but in many countries
they have also spread out of control as invasive weeds. However, because they grow wild
and in abundance on common lands, they are a ‘free’ resource, especially important to
poor farmers and the landless.

The wood is an excellent fuel, and the use and trade of firewood and charcoal is an
important part of the rural economy in many parts of the native range and some countries
where introduced. Trees harvested for fuel are coppiced, and resprout vigorously after
cutting, leading to the formation of a bushy habit. Straight branches are used for fence
posts and poles in construction of shelters and homes. Sawn timber has a pleasant colour
and grain, and shrinks little on drying. It is used for making furniture and flooring,
notably in the USA and Argentina. The wood is also used for tool handles and other
household items.

Prosopis produce abundant quantities of often sweet fruit pods, readily consumed by all
manner of livestock and wild animals. This can result in widespread dispersal of seeds.
Mature trees produce 20-100 kg of nutritious pods every year. These are a valuable
fodder and can be either browsed or collected and fed whole, or processed as a feed for all
livestock from chickens to camels. The fruit of several native species is made into various
foods and drinks, some ‘rustic’ foods and delicacies, and these are important in local
nutrition and trade. Industrial processing of the pods can produce seed gums for use as a
thickening agent in food preparation, dietary fibre and ethanol as a biofuel.

Honey produced from the trees, which have long and abundant flowering, is of the
highest quality. The exudate gum produced from wounds in the bark is comparable to
commercial gum arabic (from Acacia senegal) and can be found in large quantities. The
leaves of most introduced species are rarely browsed by livestock, an advantage in
establishment, with only native Indian, African and a few American species valued for
leaf fodder. Leaves are occasionally gathered and used as a mulch or compost on
agricultural fields, with some noted fungicidal and insecticidal qualities. The bark is a
source of tannins, dyes and fibres, and various plant parts are used in the preparation of
medicines, mostly for eye, skin and stomach problems.

Prosopis can survive on inhospitable sites where little else can grow, tolerating some of the
hottest temperatures ever recorded, and on poor, even very saline or alkaline soils. Because
they are nitrogen-fixing trees, Prosopis have also been noted to improve the fertility and
physical characters of soils in which they grow. They are deep-rooted, allowing trees to
reach water tables and grow and fruit even in the driest of years providing an invaluable
buffer during droughts. Many species appear to require access to a water table to survive,
and some people believe they are responsible for the depletion of ground water reserves.

2
 Introducing Prosopis

An invasive weed, an unwelcome guest

There are reports, from almost every country where they are introduced, of exotic Prosopis
invading agricultural and pasture land, nature reserves, waterways, roadsides and wasteland.
It is ironic that the positive characteristics that lead to their widespread introduction are
the same ones that have also enabled them to escape from cultivation and rapidly colonise
large areas. The stout thorns of some species and the tendency to become bushy in form
when cut or browsed can lead to the formation of impenetrable thickets.

Seed can be spread by water, but animals eating the pods are the main means of spread.
Seeds survive passage through the guts of most animals and the hard seed coat is softened
in the process, aiding germination. This is seen especially with cattle, which will spread
viable seed widely, whereas goats and pigs kill many of the seeds eaten. On fertile sites,
Prosopis seedlings may be out-competed by grasses and other plants or removed during
cultivation. However, on degraded, bare, overgrazed land of low fertility, Prosopis has a
competitive advantage, and will quickly spread. Dense, impenetrable thickets are often
formed, severely reducing the growth and availability of palatable forage plants.

Both man and animals dislike the thorns and these make Prosopis a particularly undesirable
weed. Thorns of common species are in pairs, commonly 1-5 cm long and with a thick
base, though some species have thorns over 20 cm long while others are thornless. A
broken branch on the ground will always have thorns pointing upwards, which are able
to pierce car tyres and all but the stoutest of footwear, and are a danger to the feet of all
animals. Prosopis pollen has also been reported to cause allergic reactions.

Some Prosopis species in the Americas have become serious weeds in their native ranges.
Millions of hectares of land have been invaded, especially in the Chaco region of
Argentina and Paraguay (notably P. ruscifolia), and in the south-western USA and Mexico
(P. glandulosa and P. velutina), Native shrub species are also weeds in the Americas
(numerous) and the Middle East (P. farcta). Where introduced into sub-tropical zones,
there are major invasions in dry regions of South Africa and Australia (mainly P. glandulosa
and/or P. velutina), where they are declared a noxious weed. In tropical regions, P. juliflora
and/or P. pallida have also become weeds in the Caribbean, the Sahel (notably Sudan),
East and southern Africa, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and several Atlantic and Pacific
islands.

Eradication programmes have been attempted in many countries, using manual,

mechanical, chemical and biological techniques, but with only limited success to date.
However, in other countries, Prosopis continues to be an important arid zone plantation
species, and the principal source of firewood and fodder in dry rural areas of India,
Pakistan, Mauritania, Cape Verde, Haiti, and important in many others. There is an
emerging consensus that weedy stands are best controlled by conversion to productive
agroforestry systems - improved management and utilisation, or control through
exploitation. Still, the identity of the invading species in many of these countries is not
always certain, hampering development.

3
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

The spread of Prosopis

The first records of Prosopis introduction are those to West Africa and Pacific islands in or
before the 1820s, to India and Pakistan in the 1870s, and to Australia and South Africa
before 1900. There have been, however, many other unrecorded introductions before
and since, evident by the fact that Prosopis is now found in dry regions of most African
and Asian countries. For a full history of Prosopis introductions, see Pasiecznik et al
(2001).

Figure 2. Approximate native and present distribution of the genus Prosopis

Black - approximate natural distribution (at 1500)
Grey – Approximate spread of introduced Prosopis species by the year 2000
N.B The figure doesn’t show the reduction in the range of many native species due to deforestation
in some areas such as North Africa and South America.

In the dry tropics, of all introduced Prosopis, only P. juliflora and P. pallida perform well,
consistently and significantly better than all other species. Both are now naturalised
wherever they have been introduced and are by far the most common Prosopis species in
tropical desert regions. Trials show, however, that P. pallida is generally faster growing,
more erect in habit and less thorny than P. juliflora.

In sub-tropical and Mediterranean zones world-wide, several frost tolerant species, notably
P. glandulosa and P. velutina from North America, and P. alba and P. chilensis from South
America have exhibited good growth and survival, though only the North American
species appear to have escaped from cultivation. Several other species have shown promise,
and other potentially useful species remain untested.

In recent decades, of the many species of Prosopis that have been introduced in performance
trials around the world, some are notable by their very poor survival and growth. It
appears that P. africana, P. cineraria, P. pubescens and P. tamarugo are generally not suitable
for planting outside of their respective native ranges.

4
 Introducing Prosopis

Taxonomy of the genus Prosopis

Prosopis is a genus of trees and shrubs in the legume family (Leguminosae, sub-family
Mimosoideae), native to arid and semi-arid regions of the Americas, Africa and Asia.
They are characterised by feathery foliage like acacias or mimosas and tiny yellow (or
white) flowers gathered into spikes (or balls). They are mostly thorny and have thick
pods (from long and yellow to short and black), which never split naturally, either on the
tree or once fallen.

The last complete taxonomy of the genus by Burkart (1976) described 44 species and
numerous varieties, divided into five distinct sections (see below). Within each section,
it appears that most species can interbreed, leading to the creation of hybrid populations,
more and more of which continue to be described as new species, varieties or forms. The
vast majority of Prosopis species (40 out of 44) and varieties described are American,
including 30 from section Algarobia, which has most of the common and confused
species.

Species of the genus Prosopis Linnaeus emend. Burkart (from Burkart 1976), with trees
(i.e. species which can attain a height of at least 7 m) marked in bold, most of which are
of economic importance.

I. Section PROSOPIS P. hassleri Harms

P. cineraria (L.) Druce P. denudans Bentham
P. farcta (Solander ex Russell) MacBride P. ruizleali Burkart
P. koelziana Burkart P. castellanosii Burkart
P. calingastana Burkart
II. Section ANONYCHIUM P. humilis Gillies ex Hooker & Arnott
P. africana (Guill., Perr. & Rich.) Taubert P. rojasiana Burkart
P. rubriflora E.Hassler
III.Section STROMBOCARPA P. campestris Grisebach
P. strombulifera (Lam.) Bentham P. pallida (H. & B. ex Willd.) H.B.K.
P. reptans Bentham P. affinis Sprengel
P. abbreviata Bentham P. articulata S.Watson
P. torquata (Cavanilles ex Lagasca) DC. P. elata (Burkart) Burkart
P. pubescens Bentham P. tamaulipana Burkart
P. palmeri S.Watson P. chilensis (Molina) Stuntz emend.
P. burkartii Muñoz Burkart
P. ferox Grisebach P. juliflora (Sw) DC.
P. tamarugo F. Philippi P. nigra (Grisebach) Hieronymus
P. caldenia Burkart
IV. Section MONILICARPA P. laevigata (H. & B. ex Willd.)
P. argentina Burkart M.C.Johnston
P. flexuosa DC.
V. Section ALGAROBIA P. glandulosa Torrey
P. sericantha Gillies ex Hooker & Arnott P. alpataco R.A.Philippi
P. kuntzei Harms P. alba Grisebach
P. ruscifolia Grisebach P. velutina Wooton
P. fiebrigii Harms P. pugionata Burkart
P. vinalillo Stuckert

5
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

The problem of identifying Prosopis in the tropics

Hybridisation and genetic variation. Prosopis species are mostly self incompatible, meaning
they must cross with another tree to produce fruit. This is a strategy to increase genetic
variability and adaptability to a wide range of sites. A single Prosopis species may exhibit
a tree or a bush form, and be thorny or thornless, with larger or smaller leaves, straight or
curved pods depending on inherent genetic variability or just where it is growing. The
wide variation is compounded by the fact that many species can hybridise.

Changing taxonomical ‘ranks’ and names. Is a distinct population of trees a species, sub-
species, variety, form or just a landrace? Doubts about this create numerous problems
which also continue to trouble Prosopis taxonomists. There are two main schools of
thought. The predominant one to date has been ‘rank-raising’, where populations may be
called species even if differences are slight, leading to an ever-increasing number of
species and varieties being described. The older, ‘rank-reducing’ concept referred to the
same populations as only varieties, forms or races of a few, over-arching species.

Don’t always trust the given name or old books. Some older, now rejected botanical names
or synonyms still continue to be used. While they were likely to be corrected in the
native range, where introduced, people tended to continue to use confusing synonyms.

Some common mis-identifications

1 P. glandulosa / P. velutina / P. juliflora. The North American P. glandulosa and P. velutina

used to be called P. juliflora var. glandulosa and P. juliflora var. velutina. When they were
introduced, the variety name may have been omitted and the seed sown as ‘P. juliflora’.
Without correction, this error persisted in many countries, notable particularly in
areas with winter frosts where P. juliflora is unlikely to survive. Also, hybrid stands of P.
glandulosa and P. velutina have been identified in the USA, Australia and South
Africa.

2 P. chilensis / P. juliflora. Early taxonomists gave the name P. chilensis to several other
Prosopis species in the native Americas including P. glandulosa and P. pallida as well as
P. juliflora, but which has since been corrected. Throughout Africa, however, the name
P. chilensis was also given to early introductions of several Prosopis species, and this mis-
identification persists. The problem continues, notably in Sudan and the Sahel,
exacerbated by botanical and field guides merely repeating the original name in use,
and further distribution of P. juliflora seed which is still incorrectly called P. chilensis.

3 P. pallida / P. juliflora. Many foresters and taxonomists still appear uncertain of the
morphological distinction between these two species, seen with the continued mis-
identification of large areas of introduced Prosopis. Naturalised stands of P. pallida in
Brazil, Cape Verde, Senegal, Mauritania and possibly elsewhere are still incorrectly
classified as P. juliflora. However, there are parts of the native range where the exact
identity of the species (or hybrids) present is also in question and research is in progress.

6
 Identifying Prosopis

Identifying Prosopis

Using this guide

Identifying Prosopis species - first steps

It is the objective of this field guide to aid in the identification of tropical Prosopis, in
particular P. juliflora and P. pallida, by comparing leaves, thorns, pods and tree form. For
distinguishing Prosopis from other species of Acacia, Leucaena, Mimosa, Parkinsonia etc,
refer first to general forestry or botanical fields guides. If there is an accepted botanical
name given for the Prosopis in the area, compare the naming authority found after the
species name with the lists of common synonyms given in the species descriptions. Also,
check the countries where each species have been noted to occur, but this can only give
an indication of the species present due to changing names and previous mis-
identification.

Simple comparisons of leaves and other characters

Leaves picked from any Prosopis tree can be held against the life-size examples of the
leaves of the eight most common tropical species found in this field guide. While this
provides a guide, the wide variation in leaf size requires further comparisons to confirm
such simple identification. Tree form can also be compared to the examples in this guide
as a further indication, as can a comparison of the simple descriptions given.

Taking and analysing plant measurements

It is recommended that leaf samples be taken from the population to be identified, also
pods, flowers etc., and measured, for comparing with the comparative morphology tables
and / or the species keys to confirm which species is present. This requires that some plant
material must be collected and stored in the right way.

Collecting material in the field

1 Ensure that any tree sampled is representative of the surrounding population; preferably
taking from several trees, each separated by at least 50 m.
2 Take only healthy, fully mature and open leaves; preferably from halfway up the
crown. Never pick juvenile leaves from seedlings, young trees or coppice regrowth, as
these have characteristics different from adult leaves from the same tree.
3 Immediately press the leaves flat between two pieces of paper, marking date, location
and any details regarding the tree and its environment. Preserve samples if possible,
with full collection details.
4 If available, also collect a few pods, flowers and thorns. Note tree form, possibly
making a simple sketch.

Measuring and analysing

For each character (e.g. number of leaflets, pod length etc.), take the average value from
as many different measurements as possible from samples of a single tree.

7
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Separating species from different sections of Prosopis

The sole native African species P. africana (section II, Anonychium) is completely
thornless, with broad, flat black pods and large leaves and leaflets, while the native Asian
species P. cineraria and P. farcta (section I, Prosopis) have short prickles like roses, short
round brown/black pods and very small leaves and leaflets. In contrast, most American
species (sections III-V), especially those that have been widely introduced, have straight,
paired thorns, long yellow pods, but a range of leaf and leaflet sizes. Species in section III
(Strombocarpa), though very rarely introduced, can be differentiated from those in section
V (Algarobia) by having very thin and sometimes curved spines, short spiralled pods and
generally smaller leaves and leaflets.

Identifying sub-tropical and truly tropical species

Having eliminated species of other sections, we are left with section Algarobia, containing
the bulk of the economically important and frequently mis-identified species. While it
may be possible to tentatively identify species from comparison with the examples of
life-size leaves, this can be checked by taking measurements and looking at the data in
the comparative morphology tables. Leaf measurements will generally provide the best
basis for differentiating species, but this should be confirmed by comparing measurements
of the flowers, pods and the trees in general.

Differentiating P. juliflora and P. pallida

This is the principal and final problem addressed by this field guide, in an attempt to
confirm the presence of P. pallida in many regions where only P. juliflora is recorded. A
page of comparative descriptions is provided which highlight the main differences between
the two species. While P. juliflora leaves are generally larger, there is so much variation
that simple keys are also given that allow for accurate identification. The first key requires
the counting of interfoliar glands, only possible with a x10 hand lens. If a lens is
unavailable, use leaf measurements alone with the second key to ensure correct identity.

Identity of Prosopis species uncertain – re-assess or take further samples

Even after using all the descriptions and keys in this field guide, it may not be possible to
correctly identify the species present in all cases. This may be due to one of several
reasons:

● It is not a Prosopis after all, but belongs to another genus. Refer to a general tree
identification book.
● It is one of the minor / sub-tropical Prosopis species not detailed in this field guide.
Refer to the keys of Burkart (1976) or Burkart and Simpson (1977).
● It is a hybrid, possibly with charactersitics intermediate between its parents. Take
further samples from other trees in the area and try to assess the parent species.
● Juvenile or unrepresentative leaves were used, giving uncertain results. Take further
samples from other trees and re-assess.

If still in doubt, particularly with a P. juliflora / P. pallida identification problem, a sample

of leaves and seeds, illustrations of tree habit, thorns and pods, with collection details,
can be sent to the authors.

8
 Identifying Prosopis

Taxonomic terms
It is not the aim of this field guide to provide a comprehensive list of taxonomical terms,
but the following examples will allow the user to compare the samples taken with the
information provided in the tables and keys. For more detailed descriptions of specific
terms, please refer to the glossary.

secondary rachis middle 4 leaflets

to measure
(length, width,
distance between) leaflet width

pinna distance between leaflets

leaflet length

petiole

Figure 3. A representative Prosopis leaf, showing correct botanical names and places to measure
for leaf parts.

Figure 4. Enlarged view of a) an interfoliar gland and b) an interpetiolar gland on a P. juliflora

leaf (x 20)

9
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Life-size leaf samples

P. juliflora

P. pallida

Figure 5. Life sized leaf samples

10
 Identifying Prosopis

Life-size leaf samples

P. africana

P. cineraria

P. farcta
Figure 5 continued

11
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Life-size leaf samples

P. glandulosa

P. velutina

Figure 5 continued

12
 Identifying Prosopis

P. chilensis

P. alba

Figure 5 continued

13
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Typical tree forms

P. juliflora P.juliflora/P. pallida P. pallida

P. chilensis P. alba P. glandulosa

P. velutina P. africana P. cineraria

Figure 6. Typical tree form of Prosopis species during early establishment (2-12 years). Adapted
from Lima et al (1996)

While tree form is very variable, depending on a host of environmental and management
factors, notable differences are observed between species on the same site, protected from
browsing and cutting (see above).

14
 Identifying Prosopis

Table 1. Tree characteristics. Adapted from Burkart (1976)

Height Trunk Branches Thorn Foliage Flower/

(m) type & raceme
length length (cm)

P. juliflora 3-12 - spreading, solitary glabrous, 7-15

sometimes or paired somewhat
shrubby 0.5-5.0 cm pubescent

P. pallida 8-20 to 60 - thornless pubescent 8-15

cm or thorns or at least
girth < 4.0 cm ciliate

P. glandulosa 3-9 - - mostly glabrous 5-14

solitary,
1-4.5 cm

P. velutina to 15 short, drooping, 1-2 cm pubescent, 5-15

to 1 m rounded more or
girth crown less on
all parts

P. alba 5-15 short, rounded thornless glabrous 7-11

to 1m crown or scarce,
girth 2-4 cm

P. chilensis 3-10 short rounded conical, glabrous, 7-12

crown to 6 cm rarely
ciliate

P. africana 4-20 - - entirely glabrous 5-9

thornless or finely
pubescent

P. cineraria to 6.5 - - internodal glabrous or 5-13

prickles puberulous
(as in
Rosa spp.)

15
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Table 2. Leaf characteristics. Adapted from Burkart (1976)

Pairs Pinnae Leaflet Leaflet Distance Leaflet

of length pairs per length & apart shape
pinnae (cm) pinna width
(mm)

P. juliflora 1 to 3, 3-11 6-29 6-23 x adjacent, emarginated

rarely 4 1.6-5.5 or leaflet or obtuse
width apart

P. pallida 2 to 4, 1.5-6 6-15 2.5-8.3 adjacent oblong-

rarely 1 x1.4-4.0 but not elliptic
touching, to ovate
or a little
distant

P. glandulosa 1 or 2 6-17 6-17 20-63 x distant, linear

1.5-4.5 7-18 mm or
apart oblong

P. velutina 1 or 2, 2-9 12-30 4-13 x adjacent obtuse

sometimes 3 2.0-4.0

P. alba 1 to 3 6-14 25-50 5-17 x adjacent linear,

1.0-2.0 acute or
subacute

P. chilensis 1 or 2, 8-24.5 10-29 11-54 x distant, long-

sometimes 3 1.1-3.0 4-12 mm linear
apart

P. africana 1 to 4 6-15 4-13 13-35 x - ovate-

4.0-15.0 lanceolate

P. cineraria 1 to 3 2-7 7-14 4-15 x - ovate

2.0-4.5

16
 Identifying Prosopis

Table 3. Pod characteristics. Adapted from Burkart (1976)

Colour Pod Seeds Pod Margins, Tip

length per shape cross- shape
& width pod section
(cm)

P. juliflora straw- 8-29 x to 25 straight parallel, stipitate

yellow 0.9-1.7 or compressed and
to brown curved acuminate

P. pallida straw- 10-25 x to 30 straight parallel, long or

yellow 1.0-1.5 or sub- short
curved compressed stipitate,
acuminate

P. glandulosa straw- 8-20 x 5-18 straight, compressed short stipe

yellow 0.7-1.3 rarely to subterete and strong
or tinged subfalcate acumen
violet

P. velutina yellow, 8-16 x 10-17 straight shallowly stipe

sometimes 0.6-1.0 or falcate undulate, 2-10 mm,
reddish flattened beak
2-11mm

P. alba straw- 12-25 x 12-30 falcate parallel, stipitate

yellow 1.1-2.0 to ring- compressed and
shaped acuminate

P. chilensis straw- 12-18 x 20-32 nearly parallel, stipitate

yellow 1.0-1.8 straight, compressed and
falcate or acuminate
subfalcate

P. africana brown 10-20 x many - subterete, -

to 1.5-3.3 ovate-
blackish, compressed
shiny

P. cineraria - 8-19 x - elongate, sub- stipe

0.4-0.7 slender cylindric- 8-20 mm
torulose long

17
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Identifying P. juliflora and P. pallida

Tree form varies from erect with few branches to distinctly shrubby and multi-stemmed.
Erect forms are more common in Ecuador and Peru, and also in inland sites throughout
the native range. P. pallida appears somewhat more erect than P. juliflora but significant
site effects blur any distinction. Variations in height and branch form are not consistent.

Bark of P. juliflora is rough and fissured while that of P. pallida is noted as finely fissured,
and the inner bark of P. juliflora becomes yellow after exposure and is slightly bitter to
taste, while that of P. pallida is orange-brown and bitter.

Thorns exhibit large variations in their size and presence. The thornless P. juliflora var.
inermis and P. pallida forma pallida occur only in Peru and Ecuador, overlapping in range
with other thorny forms and varieties, including P. juliflora var. horrida with the longest
thorns of all. In the common Caribbean and Central American P. juliflora var. juliflora,
thornlessness is rare and longer, stouter thorns are common, particularly in coastal areas.

Leaves of P. pallida tend to be smaller than those of P. juliflora, seen clearly when compared
with their flower spikes or racemes (which are approximately the same length in both
species). P. juliflora leaves are often the same length as the racemes, but in P. pallida the
leaves are generally half the length of the racemes.

Leaflet length of P. pallida is less than 11 mm, typically 5-8 mm, while P. juliflora leaflets
are generally longer. There is also noted variation within P. juliflora, with the largest
leaflets from Central American material (> 15 mm long), 10-15 mm long in P. juliflora
from Colombia, Venezuela and the Caribbean, and P. juliflora from Peru and Ecuador
intermediate between P. pallida and Colombian P. juliflora. Leaflet length is a good
indicator but the wide variation observed in the field requires the use of other characters.

Space between leaflets is greater in P. juliflora, which tend to be spaced apart, up to a

little more than their own width, while those of P. pallida are adjacent.

Pubescence is variable, but foliage of P. pallida tends to be more pubescent than that of
the commonly glabrous P. juliflora, with intermediate pubescence seen in P. juliflora in
Peru and Ecuador and in introduced material. It is also known to vary in different
environments.

Glands are present at the junction of the pinnae in both P. juliflora and P. pallida, but P.
juliflora also has many more glands at the junction of the leaflets, but with some variation.

Pods are similar in both species, but in northern Peru, those of P. pallida tend to have
straight edges (parallel margins), while P. juliflora pods often do not. P. pallida pods usually
have a curved apiculum about 5-15 mm long, whereas in P. juliflora such an apiculation
is shorter or absent. It is also thought that P. pallida pods are generally sweeter than P.
juliflora.

18
 Identifying Prosopis

Keys to differentiating P. juliflora and P. pallida

These keys were developed following the positive identification of certain trees as P.
juliflora or P. pallida using DNA (RAPDs) and chromosome numbers (ploidy). Statistical
analysis of leaves from these trees could then be used to group almost all the other leaf
samples taken as belonging to one species or the other, which was confirmed by further
molecular analysis. Data from all the samples was then used to derive the keys given
below, with the aim of using as few characters as possible that are easy to measure in the
field. There will, however, still be exceptions, including material from Ecuador and
neighbouring regions that has intermediate characters, possible hybrids between P. juliflora
and P. pallida or hybrids including other species.

The first key uses number of interfoliar glands as the first principal character for
differentiating the two species. This, however, requires the use of a x10 hand lens or
microscope, which may not be available. Also, attention!, these glands are not present in
juvenile material. Number of leaflet pairs, leaflet length and petiole length (taken here
as the distance form the junction with the stem to the tip of the leaf; i.e. petiole plus
primary rachis), then complete the key, allowing for accurate identification. The second
key uses only characters that can be measured easily in the field, possibly using only the
rulers and grid squares in the back of this guide; leaflet pairs per pinna, leaflet length and
petiole length. Such a key, however, is only as good as the samples on which it is based,
and it can be expected to be improved with the on-going analysis of many additional
samples.

Key 1 - Lens key (requiring use of x10 hand lens)

1a Interfoliar glands per pinna < 2 P. pallida

1b Interfoliar glands per pinna > 6 P. juliflora
1c Interfoliar glands per pinna 2 - 6 2
2a Leaflet pairs per pinna ≥ 15 P. juliflora
2b Leaflet pairs per pinna < 15 3
3a Leaflet length ≤ 9.6 mm P. pallida
3b Leaflet length > 9.6 mm 4
4a Petiole length ≤ 50 mm P. juliflora
4b Petiole length > 50 mm P. pallida

Key 2 - Non lens key

1a Leaflet pairs per pinna ≥ 15 P. juliflora

1b Leaflet pairs per pinna < 15 2
2a Leaflet length ≤ 9.6 mm P. pallida
2b Leaflet length > 9.6 mm 3
3a Petiole length ≤ 50 mm P. juliflora
3b Petiole length > 50 mm P. pallida

Figure 7. Keys to differentiating P. juliflora and P. pallida

19
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Species descriptions

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Synonyms: Acacia juliflora (Sw.) Willd., Algarobia juliflora (Sw.) Benth. ex Heyne, Mimosa
juliflora Sw., Neltuma juliflora (Sw.) Rafinesque, Prosopis vidaliana A. Naves, Prosopis
cumanensis (H.&B. ex Willd.) H.B.K., Prosopis dominguensis DC., Prosopis dulcis var.
dominguensis (DC.) Benth.

Common names: Mesquite, mexican thorn, cashaw (English); algarrobo, mezquite, trupillo,
espino real, cuji yaque (Spanish); bayahonde (French Caribbean), vilayati babul (Hindi,
Punjabi).

Importance: It is probably the most widespread and infamous species of Prosopis, being
both an invasive weed and a major source of fuel and fodder. In hot, arid regions where
little else will grow, P. juliflora is highly valued, providing 70-90% of the fuelwood needs
in parts of Central America, the Sahel and India, and its pods are an important fodder.

Distribution: P. juliflora is native to Central America, the Caribbean and northern South
America, occupying an intermediate region between North and South American ‘centres’,
where most species are concentrated. The limits of the range are, however, uncertain, and
may change with new classifications at either extreme. P. juliflora in Mexico overlaps
with P. glandulosa and P. laevigata, while in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru it overlaps with
P. pallida. Molecular studies are needed to resolve the inter-relationships of these
populations. It has become naturalised in most dry, frost-free regions of Africa, Asia and
Australasia.

Habitat: Native Central American and Caribbean populations are generally coastal,
with some extensions inland along rivers or dry valleys, and are sometimes found at
higher elevations. It is often abundant, in thickets on sand dunes or coastal flats, up to
200 m altitude. Above this, it becomes rare dry thorn scrub, but occasionally weedy
above 600 m. Where introduced, it occupies a wide range of sites including highly saline
/ alkaline soils.

General description: P. juliflora is generally thorny, often branching close to the ground,
with a shrubby appearance, spreading branches and a wide, flat-topped crown.

Variation: This species probably has the largest genetic variation of all Prosopis, if all
present populations continue to be described as P. juliflora. Coastal forms are generally
very thorny and spreading in habit, unsuitable for plantations, but unfortunately, may
have been the source for much of the material introduced world-wide. There appears to
be several races, with the Central American P. juliflora different from that in the Caribbean,
Colombian and Venezuela, but also wide variation within. Also, in Ecuador and Peru, P.
juliflora var. inermis (thornless), P. juliflora var. horrida (very thorny) and a P. juliflora X P.
pallida hybrid have been described. A detailed and systematic study is urgently required.

20
 Species descriptions

Prosopis pallida (H. & B. ex Willd.) H.B.K.

Synonyms: Acacia pallida H. & B. ex. Willd., Mimosa pallida (Willd.) Poiret, Prosopis
limensis Bentham.

Common names: Algarrobo (Spanish); huarango, guarango, thacco, taco (Quechua - Peru);
kiawe (Hawaii), algarobeira (Portuguese), caroubier (French Pacific islands).

Importance: Common names in native Peru translate as ‘the tree’ or ‘ the one’, and recorded
exploitation of P. pallida dates back 4500 years. While use as a timber (beams, sleepers)
has decreased, it is still a major source of firewood and charcoal, and pods are browsed or
gathered, stored and traded as a valuable dry-season livestock fodder. Very sweet pods are
also made into flour for cakes and bread, and a thick, molasses-like syrup in Peru. Peru is
the origin of the accessions that have shown the fastest growth and most erect form in
tropical arid zone field trials. P. pallida has been introduced for fuel and cattle fodder, but
has also become a noxious weed, especially in Brazil, Australia and South Africa. In its
native range, deforestation threatens the as yet little studied genetic base.

Distribution: Native from southern Peru, to Ecuador and southern Colombia. The
widespread forests of recorded history have, however, largely disappeared, and remaining
pockets of ancient woodland (some with trees over 1000 years old) are still being cut for
charcoal. Where introduced, it has often been confused with P. juliflora, notably in north
east Brazil, Cape Verde, and parts of Senegal and Mauritania.

Habitat: It is a species mostly of the arid, coastal belt in Peru and Ecuador, including large
inland areas of low elevation in the north. Rainfall is very low but there is permanent
groundwater from the Andes, coastal fogs and occasional high rainfall (‘El niño’) years
that aid establishment. It extends up river valleys into dry, isolated, montane regions, and
shares similar habitat preferences and floral and faunal associations with P. juliflora.

General description: Old P. pallida trees may be thorny or thornless, young trees often erect,
with one or two clear trunks or multi-stemmed, while older trees develop a broad crown
and pendulous branches that can touch the ground.

Variation: There is considerable variation in P. pallida, which has been very little studied
in terms of production and silviculture. Very thorny and completely thornless populations
are noted as distinct forma pallida and forma armata, while other different populations
have also been identified in north Peru and Ecuador as different forms of P. pallida or
different varieties of P. juliflora, or hybrids. There is also wide variation in terms of tree
habit, with erect trees with few branches, to spreading forms crawling along the ground.
Pod quality is also highly variable. Some trees yielding pods with 50% sugar, erect form
and thornlessness have recently been selected and cloned. Further detailed study is urgently
required.

21
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Prosopis glandulosa Torrey

Synonyms: Prosopis juliflora var. glandulosa (Torrey) Cockerell, Prosopis juliflora var. torreyana
(Benson), Prosopis juliflora var. constricta Sargent.

Common names: Honey mesquite (English), mezquite (Spanish).

Importance: This is the most widespread North American Prosopis. Native to the USA and
Mexico, P. glandulosa was a valuable source of food, fodder, fuel and timber to Amerindians
and early colonists, while today it is only occasionally exploited for charcoal, hardwood
timber and forage. It is, however, much better known where native or naturalised, as an
aggressive invader of pasture land, and the brunt of decades of failed attempts at
eradication, notably in Texas. It is not recommended for further introduction.

Distribution: P. glandulosa has the widest range of Prosopis species native to North America,
with var. glandulosa found in Texas and north east Mexico, and var. torreyana in the south
west USA, Baja and Sonora. The varieties overlap in eastern Texas and western Chihuahua.
It has been widely introduced in field trials around the world, and while not well adapted
to tropical regions, P. glandulosa may have become naturalised in parts of North and
Sahelian Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. It has invaded large parts of Australia
and Southern Africa.

Habitat: P. glandulosa is found on a variety of soils, but is particularly common along

valleys, and on better sites almost pure woodlands are found. P. glandulosa is a pioneer
species with other woody legumes (e.g. Acacia farnesiana, Parkinsonia aculeata), invading
disturbed or degraded land. Northerly accessions are essentially temperate while those at
the southern extreme are sub-tropical. P. glandulosa var. glandulosa is native to the more
humid eastern part of the native range towards the Gulf of Mexico, while var. torreyana
prefers the drier climate found in the western part approaching the Pacific.

General description: Some trees can reach 20 m tall, most 3 to 9 m, with a twisted bole up
to 1 m in diameter. In closed stands, trees have a short trunk with numerous branches,
sometimes drooping. Trees are almost always thorny.

Variation: Such a wide natural range brings with it large variations in environmental
preference and morphology. Within the range of the smaller leaved var. torreyana lies P.
velutina, with smaller leaves still, and shrubby, thorny P. articulata and P. juliflora to the
south. Within the larger leaved var. glandulosa there are populations that differ only in
their very spreading and thorny habit, classified as var. prostrata. To the south of both in
central Mexico lies P. laevigata. Hybrid populations are found in areas where any two
species co-exist, which have a range of intermediate morphological characteristics, and
continued hybridisation has been recorded. Superior accessions in terms of rapid growth,
high pod yield or high pod sugar have been selected in the USA.

22
 Species descriptions

Prosopis velutina Wooton

Synonyms: Prosopis juliflora var. velutina (Wooton) Sargent

Common names: Velvet mesquite (English)

Importance: Accessions of P. velutina have been identified that produce pods with over
30% sugar content. Pods were an important source of human and animal food, and the
trees provided fuel and small timber in native American cultures; but today it is of
limited use. It is recorded as an invasive weed throughout its native range and everywhere
where it has been introduced, and is not recommended for any further introductions.

Distribution: P. velutina is native to the Sonoran desert and neighbouring areas, southern
Arizona in the USA, Sonora in Mexico and neighbouring states. P. velutina has been
introduced to many countries but does not appear adapted to truly tropical environments,
with poor growth and high mortality. In sub-tropical and Mediterranean regions, however,
it performs well, and naturalised populations are recorded. It is occasionally widespread
and weedy, for example in southern Africa and Australia.

Habitat: P. velutina is native to some of the hottest and driest parts of North America, and
its native range appears to be expanding, with the tree showing adaptability to other
environments. Like many other Prosopis, it is often found along dry river beds and is
thought to require a water table to survive the long dry seasons.

Description: It is a shrub or small tree, occasionally up to 15 m, generally multi-stemmed.

Leaves and leaflets are considerably smaller than neighbouring P. glandulosa and are
distinctly hairy, like velvet, giving rise to its common and scientific names. It has a very
extensive root system, recorded as deep as 40 m.

Variation: P. velutina has no varieties and is quite distinct from neighbouring species.
However, due to its ability to freely hybridise with other Algarobia species, notably the
neighbouring P. glandulosa, individuals with intermediate characteristics are found where
the native ranges overlap. Hybrid populations of P. velutina X P. glandulosa are also
recorded where both are exotic invasive species in Australia and South Africa. Molecular
studies confirm the very closely relationship between these and other North American
species, and it has been suggested that speciation has been a relatively recent event.

23
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Prosopis alba Grisebach

Synonyms: Prosopis siliquastrum (Cav.) DC var. longispina Philippi, Prosopis atacamensis

Phil.

Common names: Algarrobo blanco (Spanish).

Importance: It is regarded as a high quality timber for furniture and flooring in Argentina,
and sweet pods are made into flour and beverages, and are a valuable fodder.

Distribution: It is found in northern Argentina and parts of Uruguay, Paraguay and southern
Peru and Bolivia, but over-exploitation has reduced its native range.

Habitat: It is found from sub-tropical plains in the south, to montane regions in the north.

Genetic variation: A variety has long been recorded, that of P. alba var. panta Grisebach,
which according to molecular studies, is more closely related to other Prosopis species
than to P. alba itself, suggesting considerable genetic variation. Many completely thornless,
high yielding and high pod sugar accessions have been selected from field trials in
Argentina and the USA.

Prosopis chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz emend. Burkart

Synonyms: Prosopis chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz, Prosopis siliquastrum (Lag.) DC.

Common names: Algarrobo de Chile, algarrobo (Spanish).

Importance: P. chilensis is an importance source of timber in its native range.

Distribution: It is native to both sides of the Andes, from central and northern Chile,
southern Peru and Bolivia, to north western Argentina. Some plantations have been
established in Africa and India, but it is not thought to have naturalised outside of its
native range.

Habitat: It is native to a broad range of altitudes and climates.

Variation: A variable species, mostly very thorny but can also be completely thornless,
with shrubby and erect tree forms and considerable variation in leaf size.

24
 Species descriptions

Prosopis africana (Guill., Perr. & Rich.) Taubert

Synonyms: Prosopis lanceolata Bentham, Prosopis oblonga Bentham

Common names: Abu suruj, abu surung (Arabic), pau carvão (Portuguese), iron wood
(English), gele, gouele (Bambara), kiryia (Haussa), kohi, rimajogaahi (Peulh), som (Serer),
her (Wolof).

Importance: The wood is hard and durable with a fine grain, easy to carve and turn. It is a
valuable fuel, with charcoal equivalent to coal in heating value. Unlike most American
Prosopis, foliage is a palatable, sought-after dry season fodder, and seeds are fermented for
use as a seasoning. Almost all parts of the tree are used in medicine.

Distribution: P. africana is the only Prosopis species native to tropical Africa, in a zone
between the Sahel and savanna forests, from Senegal to Ethiopia in the north, Guinee to
Cameroon in the south, and from Egypt to Uganda in the east. It has, however, disappeared
from extensive parts of its native range due to over-exploitation. There are no records of
any successful introductions.

Habitat: It is a tree of open savannas, often found in association with those species sharing
the same range, e.g. Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa. Unlike other Prosopis species,
P. africana will not tolerate habitually dry sites, preferring 600-1500 mm annual rainfall.
It is found in moist but well-drained soils though it will tolerate seasonally waterlogged
sites. It is thought to depend on water tables in the dry season. It is frequently found on
fallow land. Cases of sudden death of mature trees in Cameroon are possibly due to
falling water tables.

Description: It is a tree, between 4 and 20 m high, with dark, scaly bark. Foliage is drooping
and similar to tamarind (Tamarindus indica) but lighter in colour. Pods are shorter and
thicker than those of Algarobia species, each containing around 10 rattling seeds. The
species is completely thornless.

Variation: This species is very different from all other Prosopis. No varieties, forms or land
races have been described, although some differences in pod shape have been noted,
indicating some variation. Being so different from other Prosopis, some taxonomists have
even considered whether it will remain a part of the genus.

25
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce

Synonyms: Prosopis spicigera L., Prosopis spicata Burmann.

Common names: Ghaf (Arabic), jand, kandi, khejri (Hindi, Urdu).

Importance: The tree is most valued for its foliage as a high quality fodder, being lopped
several times a year. Also, the pods are made into various foods, many being local delicacies
such as ‘sangri’ in India. P. cineraria is often found at wide spacing in agricultural fields
and forms an important part of dry zone agroforestry systems in India. It is a much slower
growing species than other Prosopis, has performed poorly in field trials outside its native
range and is not known to have become naturalised.

Distribution: The native range is broad, centring in the Thar desert of India and Pakistan,
but stretching south and east to Tamil Nadu and West Bengal respectively, and west to
Afghanistan and Iran, with large but isolated populations in Oman and Saudi Arabia.

Habitat: It is a tree of very dry conditions, often found on dunes or sandy plains. It has a
deep tap root, which reaches the water table, and some studies have suggested that it can
absorb moisture through its leaves. It tolerates light frosts, more so than the frost-sensitive
exotic P. juliflora. Recent cases of the sudden death of many mature P. cineraria in India are
thought to be due to over-exploitation of ground water for irrigation.

General description: Small tree up to 7 m tall, often with a straight bole to a height of 2 m
and a round crown, resulting from repeated lopping for fodder.

Variation: Studies have indicated considerable variation in growth rates and pod size and
composition, and range-wide seed collections and provenance trials have been conducted,
mostly in the north west of India.

Prosopis farcta (Solander ex Russell) MacBride

Synonyms: Lagonychium farctum (Solander ex Russell) EG. Bobrov, Prosopis stephaniana

(M. Bieb.) Kunth ex Sprengel.

Importance: It is a minor fodder, but generally viewed as not more than an invasive weed.

Distribution: The range of P. farcta is similar to that of P. cineraria from India to Iran, but
then stretches much further west and north. It is widespread in the Middle East, and
occurs also in Cyprus, Turkey, Ukraine (and other ex-USSR) and along the north African
coast as far as Algeria. No specific habitat preferences noted, with a broad climatic range.

General description: This is the only Prosopis shrub species native to some tropical regions.
Leaves and thorns are very similar to the closely related P. cineraria, the principal difference
being size. P. farcta often less than 1 m in height, rarely up to 3 m.

26
 Species descriptions

Other introduced Prosopis species

P. affinis. This species is native to Uruguay, eastern Argentina, and southern Brazil only.
Reports of it being native to Peru are incorrect. It has also been stated as introduced to
tropical zones in Brazil and India, both of which are unlikely.

P. articulata. High yielding accessions producing very sweet pods were selected in the
USA, and some have been included in field trials world-wide. It is not suitable for
tropical regions, and the large thorns and spreading habit suggest that this species should
not be further introduced.

P. caldenia. A sub-tropical to temperate tree native to Argentina, it has been planted in

tropical zones but while surviving, has not performed well. In its native range it can be
snow-covered in winter.

P. flexuosa. A sub-tropical species from Argentina, that has performed only poorly when
introduced to tropical regions.

P. kuntzei. Very rarely introduced, notable for its very long thorns (or spiny branches),
which, like those of the very weedy ‘vinal’ (P. ruscifolia) in Argentina, can exceed 30 cm
in length. No movement of seed of these species should be permitted.

P. laevigata. Another sub-tropical species from Mexico, it also performs poorly when
introduced to tropical regions.

P. nigra. This species has shown promise in field trials in tropical arid zones of India and
Cape Verde. There are, however, large variations in growth rate, form and thorniness of
the accessions tested, but this indicates that selection may yield promising material for
further planting.

P. pubescens. The American ‘screwbean’ is a strombocarpa species, identified by small,

dark spiralled fruit, and cannot interbreed with the bulk of the common Algarobia
Prosopis species. While there are records of it being planted in South Africa and India,
other trials have recorded 100% mortality.

P. tamarugo. Another strombocarpa species, native to the Atacama desert in northern

Chile, one of the most inhospitable regions of the world. Decades can pass without any
rainfall, and salt pans can be 10 m deep, while the tree appears to live on atmospheric
moisture and/or deep water tables. Massive deforestation of the native woodlands were
countered with large plantations established. Unfortunately, it appears to be specifically
adapted to only this environment, as almost all recorded introductions around the world
have failed. It does occasionally survive in greenhouses, but further introductions are not
recommended.

27
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Selected bibliography

BENSON, L. 1941. The mesquites and screwbeans of the United States. American Journal of
Botany 28:748-754.

BENTHAM, G. 1875. Revision of the suborder Mimoseae. The Transactions of the Linnean
Society of London 30:335-664.

BURKART, A. 1940. Materiales para una monografía del género Prosopis (Leguminosae).
Darwiniana 4:57-128.

BURKART, A. 1976. A monograph of the genus Prosopis (Leguminosae subfam. Mimosoideae).

(Part 1 and 2). Catalogue of the recognized species of Prosopis. Journal of the Arnold
Arboretum. 57:219-249 and 450-525.

BURKART, A. AND B.B. SIMPSON. 1977. The genus Prosopis and annoted key to the species of the
world. P. 201-215 in B.B. Simpson (Editor) Mesquite: Its Biology in Two Desert Ecosystems.
Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, USA.

CADORET, K., N.M. PASIECZNIK AND P.J.C. HARRIS. 2000. The Genus Prosopis: A Reference
Database (Version 1.0): CD-ROM. HDRA, Coventry, UK.

DÍAZ CELIS, A. 1995. Los Algarrobos. CONCYTEC, Lima, Peru.

FELKER, P. 1991. Prosopis alba and Prosopis chilensis: Subtropical semiarid fuel and fodder trees.
NFT Highlights 91-06. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Hawaii, USA.

FELKER, P. AND J. MOSS (Eds.). 1996. Prosopis: Semiarid Fuelwood and Forage Tree. Building for
the Disenfranchised. Center for Semi-Arid Forest Resources, Kingsville, Texas, USA.
Proceedings of a conference, 13-15 March 1996, Washington DC, USA.

FERREYRA, R. 1987. Estudio systemático de los algarrobos de la costa norte del Perú. Direccion de
Investigacion Forestal y de Fauna, Min. de Agricultura, Lima, Peru.

FOSBERG, F.R. 1966. Miscellaneous notes on Hawaiian plants-4. Bishop Museum Occasional
Papers 23:129-138.

FFOLLIOTT, P.F. AND J.L. THAMES. 1983. Handbook on taxonomy of Prosopis in Mexico, Peru and
Chile. FAO, Rome, Italy.

HABIT, M.A. AND J.C. SAAVEDRA (Eds.). 1990. The Current State of Knowledge on Prosopis
juliflora. FAO, Plant Production and Protection Division, Rome, Italy, II International
Conference on Prosopis, Recife, Brazil, 25-29 August, 1986.

28
 Selected bibliography

HARRIS, P.J.C., N.M. PASIECZNIK, S. SMITH, J. BILLINGTON AND L. RAMÍREZ. 2003. Differentiation of
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. and P. pallida (H. & B. ex. Willd.) H.B.K. using foliar characters and
ploidy. Forest Ecology and Management (in press).

HUNZIKER, J.H., L. POGGIO, C.A. NARANJO AND R.A. PALACIOS. 1975. Cytogenetics of some species
and natural hybrids in Prosopis (Leguminosae). Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology
17:253-262.

JOHNSTON, M. C. 1962. The North American Mesquites, Prosopis Sect. Algarobia

(Leguminosae). Brittonia 14:72-90.

LIMA, P.C.F., E.B. de OLIVEIRA AND S. do A. MACHADO. 1996. Equations for biomass estimation of
Prosopis species in the Brazilian semiarid region. Boletim de Pesquisa Florestal 32/33:67-79.

LITTLE, E.L. AND R.G. SKOLMEN (Eds.). 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and
Introduced). USDA Forest Service, Washington DC, USA, Agricultural Handbook No 679.

LITTLE, E.L. AND F.H. WADSWORTH. 1964. Common Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
USDA Forest Service, Washington DC, USA, Agricultural Handbook.

PASIECZNIK, N.M. 2001. Prosopis – management by exploitation, not eradication, required to

control weedy invasions. ACOTANC 2001, the 9th Australian Conference on Tree and Nut
Crops, 13-19 April 2001, Perth, Australia (www.AOI.com.au/acotanc/papers).

PASIECZNIK, N.M. AND M.T. SERRA 1999. Prosopis tamarugo: uniquely adapted to the Atacama
desert of northern Chile. FACT Sheet 99-06. FACT Net. Winrock, Arkansas, USA.

PASIECZNIK, N.M., P. FELKER, P.J.C. HARRIS, L.N. HARSH, G. CRUZ, J.C. TEWARI, K. CADORET AND L.J.
MALDONADO. 2001. The Prosopis juliflora - Prosopis pallida Complex: A Monograph. HDRA,
Coventry, UK.

PERRY, G. 1998. Prosopis. Flora of Australia 12:7-13.

RAMIREZ, L., A. de la VEGA, N. RAZKIN, V. LUNA AND P.J.C. HARRIS. 1999. Analysis of the
relationships between species of the genus Prosopis revealed by the use of molecular markers.
Agronomie Tropicale 19:31-43.

SANDISON, M.S. AND P.J.C. HARRIS 1991. Prosopis cineraria: a multipurpose tree for arid areas.
NFT Highlights 91-04. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Hawaii, USA.

SILVA, M.A. 1990. Taxonomy and distribution of the genus Prosopis L. P. 177-186 in M. A.
Habit and J. C. Saavedra (eds) The Current State of Knowledge on Prosopis juliflora. FAO,
Rome, Italy.

TEWARI, J.C., P.J.C. HARRIS, L.N. HARSH, K. CADORET AND N.M. PASIECZNIK. 2000. Managing
Prosopis juliflora (Vilayati Babul): A Technical Manual. CAZRI, Jodhpur, India and HDRA,
Coventry, UK.

VON MAYDELL, H.J. 1986. Trees and Shrubs of the Sahel. GTZ, Eschborn, Germany.
29
Identifying Tropical Prosopis Species

Notes

30