SOLUBILITY RULES

The following are the solubility rules for common ionic solids. If there two rules appear to
contradict each other, the preceding rule takes precedence.
1. Salts containing Group I elements (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) are soluble . There are few
exceptions to this rule. Salts containing the ammonium ion (NH4+) are also soluble.
2. Salts containing nitrate ion (NO3-) are generally soluble.
3. Salts containing Cl -, Br -, or I - are generally soluble. Important exceptions to this rule
are halide salts of Ag+, Pb2+, and (Hg2)2+. Thus, AgCl, PbBr2, and Hg2Cl2 are
insoluble.
4. Most silver salts are insoluble. AgNO3 and Ag(C2H3O2) are common soluble salts of
silver; virtually all others are insoluble.
5. Most sulfate salts are soluble. Important exceptions to this rule include CaSO4, BaSO4,
PbSO4, Ag2SO4 and SrSO4 .
6. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group I elements are
soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group II elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are slightly soluble.
Hydroxide salts of transition metals and Al3+ are insoluble. Thus, Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3,
Co(OH)2 are not soluble.
7. Most sulfides of transition metals are highly insoluble, including CdS, FeS, ZnS,
and Ag2S. Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and lead sulfides are also insoluble.
8. Carbonates are frequently insoluble. Group II carbonates (CaCO3, SrCO3, and BaCO3)
are insoluble, as are FeCO3 and PbCO3.
9. Chromates are frequently insoluble. Examples include PbCrO4 and BaCrO4.
10. Phosphates such as Ca3(PO4)2 and Ag3PO4 are frequently insoluble.
11. Fluorides such as BaF2, MgF2, and PbF2 are frequently insoluble.

WORKSHEET
1. Classify each of the substances as being soluble or insoluble in water.

a. KBr = i. silver acetate =

b. PbCO3 = j. copper (II) sulfide =
c. BSO3 = k. Mg3(PO4)2 =
d. zinc hydroxide = l. KOH =
e. sodium acetate = m. NiCl2 =
f. silver iodide = n. NH4OH =
g. cadmium (II) sulfide = o. Hg2SO4 =
h. zinc carbonate = p. PbI2 =
.
2. Identify the two new compounds which form if the solutions, as suggested by the
following table, were mixed. CIRCLE the names of the compounds which would
precipitate from the solutions.
 KBr Na2CO3 CaS NH4OH

AgNO3

BaCl2

Al(NO3)3

CuSO4

Answers to Solubility Rules Worksheet

3. Classify each of the substances as being soluble or insoluble in water.

a. potassium bromide – sol i. silver acetate – sol

b. lead (II) carbonate – insol j. copper (II) sulfide – insol
c. barium sulfate – insol k. Mg3(PO4)2 – insol
d. zinc hydroxide – insol l. KOH – sol
e. sodium acetate – sol m. NiCl2 - sol
f. silver iodide – insol n. NH4OH – sol
g. cadmium (II) sulfide – insol o. Hg2SO4 – insol
h. zinc carbonate – insol p. PbI2 – insol
.

4. Identify the two new compounds which form if the solutions, as suggested by the
following table, were mixed. CIRCLE the names of the compounds which would
precipitate from the solutions.

KBr Na2CO3 CaS NH4OH

AgBr + KNO3 NaNO3 + Ag2CO3 Ca(NO3)2 + Ag2S AgOH + NH4N
AgNO3
 KCl + BaBr2 NaCl + BaCO3 CaCl2 + BaS Ba(OH)2 + NH4
BaCl2
AlBr3 + KNO3 NaNO3 + Al2(CO3)3 Ca(NO3)2 + Al2S3 NH4NO3 + Al(O
Al(NO3)3
CuBr2 + K2SO4 Na2SO4 + CuCO3 CuS + CaSO4 (NH4)2SO4 + Cu
CuSO4

References:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry/Equilibria/Solubilty/Solub
ility_Rules
http://www.riverdell.org/cms/lib05/NJ01001380/Centricity/Domain/70/Worksheet%20-
%20Solubility%20Rules%20with%20Answers.doc

TABLE OF STANDARD POTENTIALS

This table is an alphabetical listing of common reduction half-reactions and their standard
reduction potential, E0, at 25 C, and 1 atmosphere of pressure.

The standard reduction potentials are all based on the standard hydrogen electrode. Standard
oxidation potentials can be calculated by reversing the half-reactions and changing the sign of
the standard reduction potential.

E0REDUCTION = - E0OXIDATION

Reduction Half-reaction Reduction Potential - E0 in Volts

Ag+ + e- → Ag 0.7996
Ag2+ + e- → Ag+ 1.980
Ag3+ + e- → Ag2+ 1.8
AgBr + e → Ag + Br
- -
0.0713
AgCl + e- → Ag + Cl- 0.2223
AgF + e → Ag + F
- -
0.779
AgI + e → Ag + I
- -
-0.1522
AgNO2 + e- → Ag + 2 NO2- 0.564
Ag2S + 2 e → 2 Ag + S
- 2-
-0.691
Ag2S + 2 H+ + 2 e- → 2 Ag + H2S -0.0366
 Al3+ + 3 e- → Al -1.662
Br (aq) +2 e → 2 Br
2 - -
1.0873
Br2(ℓ) +2 e- → 2 Br- 1.066
Ca2+ + 2 e- → Ca -2.868
Cd + 2 e → Cd
2+ -
-0.4030
Cl2 + 2 e- → 2 Cl-(g) 1.3583
Cr + 2 e → Cr
2+ -
-0.913
Cr + e → Cr
3+ - 2+
-0.407
Cr3+ + 3 e- → Cr -0.744
Cr2O7 + 14 H + 6 e → 2 Cr + 7 H2O
2- + - 3+
1.36
Cu+ + e- → Cu -3.026
Cu2+ + e- → Cu+ 0.153
Cu + 2 e → Cu
2+ -
0.3419
Cu3+ + e- → Cu2+ 2.4
F2 + 2 H + 2 e → 2 HF
+ -
3.053
F2 + 2 e → 2 F - -
2.866
Fe2+ + 2 e- → Fe -0.447
Fe + 3 e → Fe
3+ -
-0.037
Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+ 0.771
2 H + + 2 e - → H2 0.0000
H2O2 + 2 H + 2 e → 2 H2O
+ -
1.776
I2 + 2 e- → 2 I - 0.5355
K +e →K
+ -
-2.931
Li + e → Li
+ -
-3.0401
Mg+ + e- → Mg -2.70
Mg + 2 e → Mg
2+ -
-2.372
Mn2+ + 2 e- → Mn -1.185
Mn3+ + e- → Mn2+ 1.5415
Na + e → Na
+ -
-2.71
Ni2+ + 2 e- → Ni -0.257
O2 + 2 H + 2 e → 2 H2O2
+ -
0.695
O2 + 4 H + 4 e → H2O
+ -
1.229
Pb2+ + 2 e- → Pb -0.1262
PbSO4 + 2 e → Pb + SO4 - 2-
-0.3588
Pt2+ + 2 e- → Pt 1.18
S + 2 e- → S2- -0.4284
 S + 2 H+ + 2 e- → H2S 0.142
SO4 + H2 + 2 e →
2- -
SO32- + 2 OH -
-0.93
Zn2+ + 2 e- → Zn -0.7618

References: https://www.thoughtco.com/table-of-common-standard-reduction-potentials-603964

STANDARD HEAT FORMATION

The molar heat of formation (also called standard enthalpy of formation) of a compound (ΔHf) is
equal to its enthalpy change (ΔH) when one mole of compound is formed at 25°C and 1 atm
from elements in their stable form. This is a table of the heats of formation for a variety of
common compounds. As you can see, most heats of formation are negative quantities, which
implies that the formation of a compound from its elements usually is an exothermic process.

Points To Remember for Enthalpy Calculations

 When using this heat of formation table for enthalpy calculations, remember the
following:
 Calculate the change in enthalpy for a reaction using the heat of formation values of the
reactants and products.
 The enthalpy of an element in its standard state is zero. However, allotropes of an
element not in the standard state typically do have enthalpy values.
 When you reverse the direction of a chemical reaction, the magnitude of ΔH is the same,
but the sign changes.
 When you multiply a balanced equation for a chemical reaction by an integer value, the
value of ΔH for that reaction must be multiplied by the integer, too.

Table of Heats of Formation

Compound ΔHf (kJ/mol) Compound ΔHf (kJ/mol)

AgBr(s) -99.5 C2H2(g) +226.7
AgCl(s) -127.0 C2H4(g) +52.3
AgI(s) -62.4 C2H6(g) -84.7
Ag2O(s) -30.6 C3H8(g) -103.8
Ag2S(s) -31.8 n-C4H10(g) -124.7
Al2O3(s) -1669.8 n-C5H12(l) -173.1
BaCl2(s) -860.1 C2H5OH(l) -277.6
BaCO3(s) -1218.8 CoO(s) -239.3
BaO(s) -558.1 Cr2O3(s) -1128.4
BaSO4(s) -1465.2 CuO(s) -155.2
CaCl2(s) -795.0 Cu2O(s) -166.7
CaCO3 -1207.0 CuS(s) -48.5
CaO(s) -635.5 CuSO4(s) -769.9
Ca(OH)2(s) -986.6 Fe2O3(s) -822.2
CaSO4(s) -1432.7 Fe3O4(s) -1120.9
CCl4(l) -139.5 HBr(g) -36.2
CH4(g) -74.8 HCl(g) -92.3
CHCl3(l) -131.8 HF(g) -268.6
CH3OH(l) -238.6 HI(g) +25.9
CO(g) -110.5 HNO3(l) -173.2
CO2(g) -393.5 H2O(g) -241.8
H2O(l) -285.8 NH4Cl(s) -315.4
H2O2(l) -187.6 NH4NO3(s) -365.1
H2S(g) -20.1 NO(g) +90.4
H2SO4(l) -811.3 NO2(g) +33.9
Reference:
HgO(s) -90.7 NiO(s) -244.3 https://www.thoughtco.com/common-
HgS(s) -58.2 PbBr2(s) -277.0 compound-heat-of-formation-table-
KBr(s) -392.2 PbCl2(s) -359.2
609253

KCl(s) -435.9 PbO(s) -217.9

KClO3(s) -391.4 PbO2(s) -276.6
KF(s) -562.6 Pb3O4(s) -734.7
MgCl2(s) -641.8 PCl3(g) -306.4
MgCO3(s) -1113 PCl5(g) -398.9
MgO(s) -601.8 SiO2(s) -859.4
Mg(OH)2(s) -924.7 SnCl2(s) -349.8
MgSO4(s) -1278.2 SnCl4(l) -545.2
MnO(s) -384.9 SnO(s) -286.2
MnO2(s) -519.7 SnO2(s) -580.7
NaCl(s) -411.0 SO2(g) -296.1
NaF(s) -569.0 So3(g) -395.2
NaOH(s) -426.7 ZnO(s) -348.0
NH3(g) -46.2 ZnS(s) -202.9