General Chemistry

1
Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
Periodicity

Module 004 : Quantum Theory and Structure of

Atoms and Electronic Structure and Periodicity

For this week’s lecture, we will be giving a brief introduction to quantum

theory and the development of periodic table. Apart from this, the different
physical and chemical properties of the elements will be discussed in detail.
You will learn more about how ion radius, atom radius and electron negative
charge influence the properties of the elements.

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Understand how energy is quantized

2. Explain de Broglie and Bohr’s model
3. Understand quantum mechanics
4. Identify the different quantum numbers
5. Determine different kinds of atomic orbitals
6. Learn how to write and understand electron configurations
7. Enumerate the different groups of elements
8. Discuss how ionic radius, atomic radius and electron negative charge
affect the properties of an element
9. Identify the different variations in the physical and chemical properties of
the elements
10. Learn the general trends of elements in a periodic table

Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms

Planck’s Quantum Theory

Max Planck (1858 – 1947), a German physicist, discovered that energies are
being absorbed by atoms and molecules only in small amounts. He defined
the smallest quantity of energy that can be absorbed through electronic
radiation, as quantum.

The energy, E, of a particular quantum of radiant energy is described as:

E = hv

Course Module
where; h = Planck’s constant
h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js (joule-seconds)
v = radiation frequency
E = always expressed in integral/whole number multiples

Photoelectric Effect

Shortly after 5 years Planck proposed the quantum theory, his hypothesis
was used by Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955), to explain another theory, the
photoelectric effect. This theory explains that when certain metals are
exposed to light of at least a certain minimum frequency (also called the
threshold frequency), electrons are ejected from its surface.

No matter how intense the light is, no electrons will be ejected, if below the
threshold frequency. If above the threshold frequency, the brightness of the
light is directly proportional to the number of electrons ejected, while the
energies of the electrons are directly proportional to its frequency.

Using Planck’s quantum theory, Einstein stated that energies are also possess
by each photon, described as:
E = hv

where; v = frequency of light

Figure 1. The photoelectric effect; http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mod1.html;

May 1, 2017

Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962), a Danish physicist, postulated that the
electron moves around its nucleus in circular orbits which can only have
certain allowed radii. The electron is only allowed to occupy orbits of specific
energies.
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
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Energies that an electron in hydrogen atom can occupy, is express as:

1
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 )
𝑛

where; RH = Rydberg constant for the hydrogen atom

RH = 2.18 x 10-18 J
n = principal quantum number (integer 1, 2, 3….); n decreases as the
electron comes closer to the nucleus

Negative energy means that the energy in an electron of an atom is lower

than the energy of free electron. A free electron is an electron which is
infinitely located far from the nucleus. The energy of a free electron is zero.

Ground state or ground level is defined as when n = 1. This is the most

stable energy state. Excited state or excited level refers to the state or level
which have higher energy than the ground state (i.e. n = greater than 1).

The farther away the electron is from the nucleus, the higher the excited
state is. However, Bohr’s model cannot explain the spectra of atoms which
are heavier than hydrogen.

Figure 2. The Rutherford-Bohr model of the hydrogen atom (Z=1) or a hydrogen-like ion (Z > 1);
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model; May 1, 2017

Course Module
 Dual Nature of Electron
In 1924, Louis de Broglie (1892 – 1977), a French physicist, stated the if light
waves behave like a stream of particles, then electrons can have wave
properties. Electrons act like a standing or stationary wave. He also stated
that, if electrons in a hydrogen atom act like a standing wave, then the length
of the wave must exactly fit the circumference of the orbit.

Figure 3.De Broglie and the Bohr model: Waves on a String (a) Waves on a string have a wavelength
related to the length of the string, allowing them to interfere constructively. (b) If we imagine the
string bent into a closed circle, we get a rough idea of how electrons in circular orbits can interfere
constructively. (c) If the wavelength does not fit into the circumference, the electron interferes
destructively; it cannot exist in such an orbit.;
https://www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks/boundless-physics-textbook/atomic-physics-29/the-
early-atom-185/de-broglie-and-the-bohr-model-692-6303/images/waves-on-a-string/; May 1, 2017

Quantum Mechanics
Bohr’s theory was a significant finding with regard to the atomic model and
specific energies of electrons in particular, but it did not account for the
particle and wave-like properties of matter and atoms having more than one
electron.
The quantum mechanical model was then proposed by Erwin Schrödinger
(1887–1961), where he defied the previous suggestion that an electron
moves around the nucleus in a defined path. Instead, he focused on the idea
that an electron moves like a wave. Such behavior of electrons makes it
impossible to pinpoint its exact location and path, which was further defined
through the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This principle explains that
it is uncertain to know both the momentum (p) and the position of a particle.
Mathematically:
ℎ
∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
Periodicity

where ∆x and ∆p are uncertainties of the position and momentum. Such

conclusions make it impossible to attempt physical measurements of an
electron’s position and momentum.
Although we may never be able to identify the exact position of an electron in
an atom, we can still locate a specific region where it can be found. Electron
density describes this probability, where a particular region in an atom can
be identified.
This region is further illustrated through the atomic orbital or a wave
function, in which a given volume and space around the nucleus is said to be
where an electron is most likely found.
An orbital is branded by three parameters called quantum numbers,
describing the energy and the three-dimensional region around the nucleus
where an electron can be found.

Quantum Numbers
Three quantum numbers are used to the size, shape, and orientation in
space of orbitals where electrons can be found:
 The principal quantum number (n);
 The angular momentum quantum number (l); and
 The magnetic quantum number (m).
One quantum number explains electron behavior – the spin quantum number
(s).
All numbers combined complete the quantum number, describing a specific
electron.
The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital. It also
indirectly describes the energy of an orbital (true with hydrogen).
The angular quantum number (l) describes its shape. It can either be
spherical (l=0), polar (l=1) or cloverleaf (l=2). More complex shapes can
happen as this number goes higher. The value of l is designated by letters,
such as:
l 0 1 2 3 4 5
Name of orbital s p d f g h
(The name of orbital goes alphabetical after f)
The magnetic quantum number (m) describes its orientation. Unlike
spheres, orbitals with polar or cloverleaf shapes can point in any direction.
The spin quantum number (s) describes the electron spin, either clockwise
or counter-clockwise.

Course Module
 In writing these numbers:
 All quantum numbers are integers (0, 1, 2, 3, and so on)
 Principal quantum number (n) – cannot be zero (1 above)
 Angular quantum number (l) – any integer between 0 and n – 1
 The magnetic quantum number (m) – any integer between -l and +l
 The spin quantum number (s) – +½ or -½

Atomic Orbitals
With the three quantum numbers identified for any atom, we can now
determine the number and structure of orbitals it may have. The table below
details all possible combinations of the quantum numbers (n=1 to n=4):

Figure 4. All possible quantum number combinations for n=1 to n=4

;http://cbseportal.com/exam/images/quantum-numbeers5.gif; May 2, 2017)

Atomic orbitals are illustrated through a boundary surface diagram,

depicting the regions where 90 percent of total electron density is found.
Detailed below are the boundary surface diagrams of the different quantum
number combinations and thus the orbitals:
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
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Figure 5. Boundary surface diagrams of atomic orbitals; https://i.stack.imgur.com/EHl1o.png; May 2, 2017)

sOrbital
All s orbitals are spherical in shape. They differ in sizes, becoming larger as
the principal quantum number increases.

pOrbital
All p orbitals are polar or dumbbell-like in shape. It has two lobes on
opposite sides of the nucleus. All p orbital look the same, except for their
orientations in space. They also become larger as the principal quantum
number increases.

dOrbital
All d orbitals, compared to s and p orbitals, have two different shapes. Four of
them assumes the cloverleaf shape, with four lobes. One is like the p orbital,,
but with a donut-shaped region in the xyplane.
All other orbitals of higher principal quantum numbers (f and above) have
more complex shapes and combinations.

Orbital Energies
Energy levels for orbitals determine the actual arrangement of electrons in
atoms. Electrons will first fill the most stable orbitals. This would depend not
only on the principal quantum number and the angular quantum number,
but also to certain properties such as repulsion between electrons in orbitals
and the total energy to use in order to fill an orbital. In summary, the figure
below details the order of orbitals to be filled with electrons:

Course Module
 Figure 6. Order of atomic orbitals to be filled with electrons in a many-electron atom;
https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi
3r9_5sNXTAhWITLwKHVuFBXwQjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shmoop.com%2Fbonds-o ; May 2, 2017

Electron Configuration
With all four quantum numbers, we can now determine all orbitals possibly
being occupied by electrons in an atom, through the electron configuration.
The electrons fill the orbitals through a scheme called the Aufbau
(“building-up”) principle, which deals with increasing energy of subshells:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f

In the periodic table:

Figure 7. Electron configuration and the periodic table;

https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/general/quantum_numbers/quantum_table1.gif; May 2,
2017
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
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In writing, write the orbitals occupied by electrons, then numbers in

superscript for each orbital to identify the number of electrons.
e.g., H: 1s1, N: 1s22s22px12py1 2pz1
Another way to write placement of electrons is an orbital diagram, in which
each orbital is represented by a square, and the electrons as arrows pointing
up or down (indicating the electron spin). In Hund’s rule, when electrons
are placed in a set of orbitals of equal energy, they are spread out as much as
possible to give as few paired electrons as possible.

    
e.g., O: 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz1
2 2 2 1

Rules for assigning maximum number of electrons to orbitals (given n):

1. The principal quantum number (n) also dictates the number of
subshells (two values of l)
2. The number of orbitals is determined by the angular quantum
number (l), computed as 2l + 1.
3. Only two electrons can be placed in each orbital
4. Use 2n2 to compute for the maximum number of electrons an atom
can have.

The following describes properties of electrons in atoms, based from their

electron configurations:
1. Pauli exclusion principle – no electrons in an atom can have the
same combined quantum numbers
2. Each orbital can only have two electrons, with different spins (s).
3. Hund’s rule - arrangement of electrons with the highest number of
parallel spins are most stable
4. Atoms with unpaired electrons are paramagnetic, while atoms with
paired electrons are diamagnetic.
5. In hydrogen, the energy of the electron is the principal quantum
number (n). For other non-hydrogen like atoms, the energy depends
on both n and l.
6. In atoms with the same n, the smallest l is nearest the nucleus, and
therefore harder to break as compared to higher l.

Course Module
Development of the Periodic Table

The development of the periodic table began during the nineteenth century.
The discovery of atomic masses of each element allowed chemists to
organize the different elements in a periodic table. Furthermore, chemists
believed that by grouping them on the basis of their atomic masses, they
were also able to cluster elements with the same chemical behaviour. This
was based on the rationale that chemical behaviour and atomic mass had a
strong correlation.
A few chemists had tried to decode the relationship of each element
according to their atomic mass and other relevant properties. John Newlands
in 1864 attempted to explain the relationship of the elements on his law of
octaves. The law of octaves explained that when the atomic masses of the
elements are arranged in ascending order, elements falling in every eight
position were deemed to have the same properties. The weakness of
Newland’s law of octave was its inapplicability to other elements beyond
calcium.
The work of Dimitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer provided a more
encompassing tabular arrangement of the elements in a periodic table. It was
in 1869 that the two chemists developed a classification system that
addressed the inadequacies of earlier methods of arranging the elements.
Mendeleev’s was able to enhance the law of octaves in two important ways.
Firstly, the new classification system of Mendeleev allowed the elements to
be grouped together in a much accurate manner. Secondly, it allowed the
prediction of the properties of unknown elements such as in the case of
Gallium (Ga).
The element Gallium, prior to its discovery, was called eka-alu,imu,.
Mendeleev, using his proposed classification system, had predicted a few of
the characteristics of Gallium. In the time Gallium was discovered, its
predicted properties was indeed very much similar to its actual element
properties.
Though Mendeleev’s work paved way to better classification system, several
inconsistencies were documented. This led to the discovery of other element
property that influencing the arrangement of the elements in the periodic
table. This essential property that affects arrangement of elements was the
atomic number. Henry Mosley elucidated the role of atomic number and how
it influenced the arrangement of the elements in a periodic table. Mosley
discovered that atomic number had the same pattern as atomic mass. It
increases in a similar manner with atomic mass. The contribution of Mosley
provided a way in reorganizing the elements in a more accurate and logical
manner such as in the case of argon.

Periodic Classification of the Elements

Figure below shows the periodic table of elements. Below are the key points
in understanding the periodic table of elements. Elements can be divided into
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
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four on the basis of the filled subshell type. These four categories are the
representative elements, the noble gases, the transition metals, the
lanthanides and actinides. The chemical reactivity of the four types of
elements are determined by their valence electron. The valence electrons of
an atom are also referred to as the outermost electrons. On the other hand,
core electrons are all nonvalence electrons in an atom.

Figure 8.The Periodic Table of the Elements; https://sciencenotes.org/wp-

content/uploads/2015/07/PeriodicTableWorks.png; May 2, 2017

Representative Elements
 Also known as the main group elements
 Belong to Group 1A to 7A
 Elements in this group have s or p shells that are not completely filled
 Valence electrons occupy highest n shell
 Valence electrons pattern showed similarity among this group of
elements. It can be observed that all representative elements have the
same number and type of electrons

Noble Gases
 Group 8A elements
 Characterized by a completely filled p subshell except for helium
 Elements in this group has an electron configuration of ns2np6,
whereas n is the principal quantum number

Course Module
  Only helium has a different configuration compared to other noble
gases. Its electron configuration is 1s2
 Noble gases exhibited almost similar behaviour. These elements such
as in the case of helium and neon are fairly stable that can be
attributed to their completely filled ns and np subshells

Transition Metals
 Also known as the d-block transition elements
 Elements in Group 1B and 3B through 8B
 This group of elements can be differentiated from other elements in
the periodic table by observing their d subshells. Transition elements
have incompletely filled d subshells as well as readily produce cations
with incompletely filled d subshells
 Another characteristic is that valence electron configuration is not
always similar within the group

Lanthanides and Actinides

 Referred to as the f-block transition elements
 The f-subshells are incompletely filled-up

Periodic Variation in Physical Properties

Physical properties of elements may vary among the different groups of
elements. These variations in their physical properties have effects on the
behaviour of elements. The subsequent section will discuss the effective
nuclear charge, atomic radius and ionic radius as the essential periodic
variations that have effects on the physical properties of the elements in the
periodic table.

Effective Nuclear Charge

 The effective nuclear (Zeff) is the nuclear charge felt by an electron when
both the actual nuclear charge (Z) and the repulsive effects of the other
electrons are taken into account. The effective nuclear charge can be
determined by using the formula below:

Zeff = Z – σ

Where,
Z = actual nuclear charge
σ = shielding constant

 The proximity of the core electrons to the nucleus as compared to the

valence electrons allowed greater shielding effects on valence electrons.
This is in comparison on how valence electrons shield one another.
 The trend of effective nuclear charge is increasing as one goes from top to
bottom of a particular group of element in a periodic table.
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
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Atomic Radius
 Basis in defining the size of an atom
 Referred to as one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two
adjacent metal atoms or in a diatomic molecule
 Figure below shows the periodic trend of atomic radii of each element

Figure 9.Atomic Radii Trend in the Periodic Table;

https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_general-chemistry-principles-patterns-and-applications-
v1.0/section_11/bd05f43d0392ab934fc21044ccca1cfd.jpg; April 23, 2017

 In summary, atomic radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei in

two adjacent atoms given that these atoms form an extensive three-
dimensional network when they are connected to each other.
Furthermore, the atomic radius of elements with simple diatomic
molecules is one-half the distance between the nuclei of the two atoms in
a specific molecular entity.

Ionic Radius
 Referred to as the radius of a cation or an anion
 The size of an ionic compound is influenced by the sizes of its cation or
anion
 When an atom acquires an additional electron, and forms an anion, the
electron cloud sphere expands. This happens when nuclear charge stay
the same and the repulsion leads to the expansion of the electron cloud.
On the contrary, the reduction in the number of the electrons in an atom
leads to a decreased in the size of the electron cloud domain, resulting to
a smaller cation. Figure below shows the sizes of the cations and anions
of some elements.

Course Module
Figure 10.Comparison of radii of neutral atoms and their ions;
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3311/3391006/blb0803.html; April 23, 2017

Variation of Physical Properties Across a Period and Within a Group

 Physical properties of elements within a periodic group can be
predicted easily given that the elements are in their physical state.
Example of a physical property that can be predicted is the melting
point of an element. For the element krypton, its melting point can be
determined by simply computing for the average of the two elements
adjacent to krypton, namely argon and xenon.
 Metallic properties of elements vary in a periodic group. Transition of
metals to metalloids to nonmetals starts from the leftmost across a
period. Examples of this are sodium and chlorine. Sodium, a very
reactive metal, is the first element in the third period. On the other
hand, chlorine located in the second to the last element of the same
period mentioned is a very reactive non-metal.

Ionization Energy
 The minimum energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous
atom in its ground state
 Expressed in kJ/mol
 Ionization energy is a reflection of how stable an atom’s outermost
electrons is
 As ionization energy becomes higher, the harder for it for an electron
of an atom to be removed
 An electron is more difficult to remove in a positively charged ion
 Ionization energy is classified into first (I1), second (I2)and third
ionization energy (I3)
 Ionization energy is derived from an endothermic process hence it is
expressed in a positive value
 Ionization energies of elements have an increasing trend across a
period. The ionization energy increases as atomic number becomes
larger. This is attributed also to the nuclear charge of an atom
wherein as atomic number increases nuclear charge become stronger
and more effective. Hence, electrons are being held tightly
 General Chemistry
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
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 In the periodic table, Group IA elements have the lowest ionization

energies. On the other hand, elements from Group 2A have the higher
first ionization energies. Electron configurations plays an important
role in how strong the ionization energy needed to remove an
electron.
 Metals have low ionization energies compared to non-metals. While
for the metalloids, their ionization energies fall between the two
previously mentioned group of elements.

Electron Affinity
 Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to receive additional
electrons.
 It is also defined as the negative of the energy change that occurs
when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form
an anion
 It should be noted that an electron affinity is positive if the reaction
that happens is an exothermic in nature. Consequently, the electron
affinity is negative if the reaction is endothermic.
 Expressed in kJ/mol
 A positive electron affinity denotes that greater capacity of an atom of
a particular element to accept an electron

Figure 11.Electron affinities of some elements;

http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Periodic/Affinity/Period05.htm; April 23,
2017

Course Module
  In general, the electron affinity increases from left to right across a
period. Group 7A has the highest electron affinities. However, when
comparing the electron affinities of metals and non-metals, electron
affinity is higher among the non-metals.

Periodic Variation in Chemical Properties

General Trends in Chemical Properties

 The chemical behavior the elements can be determined by knowing
their diagonal relationships. This relationship exists between pairs of
elements belonging to different groups and periods. Hence, diagonal
relationships are the similarities that can be observed from pairs of
elements that do not belong to same group or period.
 Diagonal relationship can be seen in lithium, beryllium and boron and
their corresponding diagonal pairs in the periodic table. Lithium, for
example, shares same chemistry with its diagonal pair magnesium.

Electron
Group Configurat Variations/ Characteristics
ion
Hydrogen 1s1  Has single valence electron
 Traditionally shown in Group 1A
 Forms uninegative ions
Group 1A ns1 , n≥2  Alkali metals
Elements  Low ionization energy
 Very reactive in nature
 Rarely can be found in its pure form
Group 2A ns2 , n≥2  Alkaline earth metals
Elements  Less reactive than alkali metals
 Metallic character increases from top to
bottom
 Reactivity with water varies depending on
the element and form of water
 Reactivity towards oxygen increases from Be
to Ba
Group 3A ns2np1 , n≥2  All elements except for boron (metalloid) are
Elements metals
 Metallic elements from both unipositive and
tripositive ions
 Unipositive ions fromed by metals from this
group are more stable than tripositive ions
Group 4A ns2np2 , n≥2  Carbon- non-metal
Elements  Silicon and germanium – metalloids
 Metallic elements of this group do not react
with water but react with acids
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Quantum Theory and Structure of Atoms and Electronic Structure and
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Group 6A ns2np4, n≥2  Oxygen, sulfur and selenium- non-metals

Elements  Tellerium and polonium- metalloids
 Forms a large number of molecular
compounds with non-metals
Group 7A ns2np5, n≥2  Nonmetals
Elements  General formula is X2
 Characterized by their high ionization
energies and large electron affinities
 Has the ability to form many molecular
compounds among themselves
Group 8A ns2np6, n≥2  Atoms of elements in this group have
Elements completely filled outer ns and np subshells
 Group with the highest ionization energies
 Also known as the inert gases
 No tendency to accept electrons

In summary, the figure below shows the general trends of elements in terms
of their physical and chemical properties. These tips will help you remember
easily the general trends of the different physical as well as chemical
characteristics of the elements.

Figure 12.General trends of elements in a periodic table;

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3313/3392904/blb2201.html; May 2, 2017

Course Module
Glossary
angular momentum quantum number: describes the shape of orbital
atomic orbital: wave functions which mathematically describe the position
and energy of electron in an atom
atomic radius: defines the size of an atom; e-half the distance between the
two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms or in a diatomic molecule
electron:located outside the atom’s nucleus; negatively charged (-1)
electron affinity: ability of an atom to receive additional electrons
electron configuration: how electrons are distributed among many orbitals
of an atom
free electron: electron which is infinitely located far from the nucleus;
energy is zero
ionization energy: minimum energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom in its ground state
ionic radius: radius of a cation or an anion
magnetic quantum number: describes the orientation of orbital
metalloids: possess properties of both metals nonmetals
orbital energy: energy level of orbital which describes the arrangement of
electrons in an atom
principal quantum number: describes size of orbital
photons: light particles
quantum: smallest quantity of energy that can be absorbed through
electronic radiation
spin quantum number: describes electron spin
threshold frequency: minimum frequency of light which causes
photoelectric effect
valence electrons: outermost electrons

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals

Brown, T.L., LeMay Jr., H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P.M.,
Stoltzfus, MW; 2015; Chemistry – The Central Science (13th Edition); Upper
Saddle River, NJ; Pearson Education, Inc.
Chang, R.; 2010; Chemistry (10th Edition); New York; McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
Petrucci, R.H., Herring, F.G., Madura, J.D., Bissonnette, C. (2011). General
Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications (10th edition). Toronto:
Pearson Canada
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Online Supplementary Reading Materials

How to write electron configurations for atoms of any element;

http://www.wikihow.com/Write-Electron-Configurations-for-Atoms-of-
Any-Element; May 2, 2017
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations:
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/quantum.h
tml, May 2, 2017
Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals:
http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c120/quantnum.html; May
2, 2017
Dynamic Periodic Table; http://www.ptable.com/; May 2, 2017
The Periodic Table of the Elements;
http://science.widener.edu/~svanbram/ptable_6.pdf; May 2, 2017
The Periodic Table;
http://www.nust.na/sites/default/files/documents/Chapter%206_Periodic
%20Table.pdf; May 2, 2017
The Periodic Table; http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table; May 2, 2017

Online Instructional Videos

The History of Atomic Chemistry;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thnDxFdkzZs; May 1, 2017
The electron;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcKilE9CdaA&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtPHzzY
uWy6fYEaX9mQQ8oGr&index=5; April 26, 2017
The Electron; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcKilE9CdaA; May 1,
2017

Electron Configurations;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJlEH5Jz80w&list=PL166048DD75B05
C0D&index=6; May 1, 2017
Electron Configurations 2;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YURReI6OJsg&list=PL166048DD75B05
C0D&index=7; May 1, 2017
Orbitals;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yBrp8uvNAhI&list=PL166048DD75B0
5C0D&index=4; May 1, 2017

Course Module
More on orbitals and electron configuration;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FmQoSenbtnU&list=PL166048DD75B0
5C0D&index=5; May 1, 2017
Valence electrons;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TZA171yxY4&list=PL166048DD75B0
5C0D&index=10; May 1, 2017
The Periodic Table; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0RRVV4Diomg;
May 1, 2017
Groups of the Periodic Table;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDHg7Vgzses&list=PL166048DD75B0
5C0D&index=11; May 1, 2017
Periodic Table Trends: Ionization Energy;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywqg9PorTAw&list=PL166048DD75B
05C0D&index=12; May 1, 2017
Other Periodic Table Trends; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XMLd-
O6PgVs&list=PL166048DD75B05C0D&index=13; May 1, 2017
Atomic Radius, Ionization Energy and Electonegativity,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hePb00CqvP0, April 21, 2017
The Periodic Table; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hePb00CqvP0,
April 21, 2017
General Trends of Elements in a Periodic Table;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFnOVch8gIA; April 22, 2017
The periodic table - classification of elements;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_f8bB1kf6M; April 26, 2017