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ALGEBRA - Formulas & Shortcuts
5. Factor Theorem
1. Algebraic Expression (x  a) is a factor of f(x) iff f(a) = 0 (where a is any constant)
Degree = 4 e.g. f(x) = x3 + 6x2 – 19x – 24 & f(3) = 0
So (x – 3) is a factor of f(x)
4x3 + 11x2y2 – 5y2 + 7xy -10 Constant
Term Variables Coefficient
6. Some Important Results
2. Important Algebraic Identities
2 2 2
(i) xn + an is divisible by x + a if n is odd
(i) (a + b) = a + 2ab + b (ii) xn + an is never divisible by x – a
(ii) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 (iii) xn - an is divisible by x + a if n is even
(iii) (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2 (iv) xn - an is always divisible by x - a
(iv) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)
(v) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab 7. Linear Equation in One Variable
(vi) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
(vii) (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 ax + b = 0  x = -b/a
(viii) (a – b)3 = a3 – 3a2b + 3ab2 – b3
(ix) a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2) 8. Linear Equations in Two Variables
(x) a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
ax + by = c
(xi) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)
px + qy = r
If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
(i) a/p = b/q = c/r
3. Zero/Roots of a Polynomial Infinite Many Solutions
(Co-incident Lines l1 & l2)
The value of x which satisfies f(x) = 0
(ii) a/p = b/q  c/r
4. Remainder Theorem No Solution
(Parallel Lines l1 & l3)
When any algebraic expression f(x) is divided by (x  a),
the remainder is f(a) (where a is any constant) (iii) a/p  b/q
e.g. f(x) = x3 + 6x2 – 19x – 24 is divided by (x – 2) Unique Solution
Remainder = f(2) = -30 (Intersecting Lines l1 & l4)

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9. Linear Equation in Three or More Variables e.g. x + 10x – 11 = 0
Solve eliminating the variables by taking two equations at a S = -10, P = -11
time and reduce the number of variables subsequently {( + )2 – ( – )2 = 4}
e.g. x + y + 2z = 1, 2x + y + z = -1, x – y + z = 0
 = -11,  = 1
x = -1, y = 0 & z = 1

(iv) Discriminant Method

10. Quadratic Function/Equation
x = -b  (b2 - 4ac) (Discriminant = b2 – 4ac)
y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c f(x) = 0 (Equation)
2a

(i) Completing the Square Method  D < 0, roots are imaginary or unreal

f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
= a[(x + b/2a)2 – (b2 – 4ac)/4a2] = 0
e.g. x2 + 10x – 11 = (x + 5)2 – 36 = 0
 x = -11, 1

 D = 0, roots are real and equal

(ii) Splitting the Middle Term By Factorization Method
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = a(x - )(x - ) = 0
e.g. x2 + 10x – 11 = (x + 11)(x – 1) = 0
 x = -11, 1

(iii) Sum & Product of Roots Method

 D > 0 & D is a perfect square, roots are rational but
If  &  are the roots, unequal
Sum of roots =  +  = -b/a
Product of roots =  = c/a
Equation  x2 - Sx + P = 0

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(i) x = 1, y = 1
n
C0 + nC1 + nC2 + nC3 +…+ nCn = 2n
(ii) x = 1, y = -1
n
C0 - nC1 + nC2 - nC3 +……… = 0
(iii) Adding/Subtracting (i) and (ii)
n
 D > 0 & D is not a perfect square, roots are irrational C0 + nC2 + nC4 +… = nC1 + nC3 + nC5 +… = 2n-1

11. Cubic Equation

14. Polynomial Expansion
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
(x + y + z +… r terms)n
If , ,  be the roots of the equation
 +  +  = - b/a No. of terms = n+r-1Cr-1
 +  +  = c/a 15. Common roots of two different polynomial
 = - d/a f(x) = (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 5)(x – 6)(x – 9)
g(x) = (x – 1)(x – 4)(x – 7)(x – 10)
12. Higher Degree Equation
k0xn + k1xn-1 +…+ krxn-r +…+ kn-1x1 + kn = 0
If , , , … be the roots of the equation
 +  +  +  +… = - k1/k0
 +  +  +  +  +  +… = k2/k0
 +  +  +  +… = - k3/k0
Sum of Roots taken ‘r’ at a time = (-1)r kr/k0
… = kn/k0
Point of Intersection  f(x) – g(x) = 0
13. Binomial Expansion Common Roots  f(x) = g(x) = 0
(x + y)n = nC0 xn + nC1 xn-1 y1 + nC2 xn-2 y2 +
…+ nCr xn-r yr +…+ nCn yn
where, nCr = n!/(r! (n-r)!)
Tr+1 = nCr xn-r yr [(r+1)th term] 16. Finding solutions of equations by intersection of graphs
No. of terms = n + 1 e.g. x.3x = 1  (x) – (3-x) = 0

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c) Quadratic Functions
(x) (x – a)(x – b)  0, then b < x < a
(xi) (x – a)(x – b)  0, then x  b & x  a
(xii) x2  0
(xiii) If a > 1, a2 > a
0 < a < 1, a2 < a
(xiv) if x > 0 & a > b > 1, then ax > bx
So x.3x = 1 has only one solution at point P

d) Higher Degree Polynomial

(xv) (x - )(x - )(x - )(x - )(x - ) > 0
(x - )(x - )(x - )(x - )(x - ) < 0
17. Inequalities
a) Linear Functions
(i) If x > y, then (x  a) > (y  a)
(ii) If x > y, then ax > ay if a  positive
ax < ay if a  negative
(iii) If x > y, then 1/x < 1/y if a  positive
1/x > 1/y if a  negative
(iv) If x > y & a > b, then x + a > y + b
b) Absolute Value (Modulus) Plot the graph and deduce the range of values for which
(v) |x|  a, then –a  x  a inequality satisfies and mark the answer.
(vi) |x|  a, then x  -a & x  a e) Miscellaneous Type
(vii) |x + y|  |x| + |y| (Triangle Inequality)
(xvi) |y| + |x|  4
(viii) |x - y|  |x| - |y|
(ix) |x| - |y|  |x  y|  |x| + |y|

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(xvii) f(x) = |x + 1| + |x + 2+ |x – 1|
(iii) Absolute Value Function
y = f(x) = |x|

18. Functions
A function is a relation between a dependent variable y = f(x)
with independent variable x. For each value of x, there is one
and only one value of y. The values of x are called Domain
and values of y are known as Range

Types of Functions
(i) Constant Function
y = f(x) = a (iv) Polynomial Functions
Quadratic Function Cubic Function (x3)
y = f(x) = x2 y = f(x) = x3

(ii) Identity Function

y = f(x) = a
Rational Function

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y = f(x) = 1/x

(vii) Stepped Function

x2, for x < -3
y = f(x) = 2x + 4, for -3  x  4
(v) Greatest Integer Function 3x, for x > 4
y = f(x) = [x]

(viii) Composite Function

e.g. f(x) = 3x + 5 & g(x) = 2x2
(vi) Signum Function gof(x) = g(f(x)) = 2(3x + 5)2 = 18x2 + 60x + 50
1, if x > 0 fog(x) = f(g(x)) = 3(2x2) + 5 = 6x2 + 5
y = f(x) = |x|/x = 0, if x = 0
(x  0) -1, if x < 0 (ix) Iterative/Nested Functions
f(f(f(…f(x)))) = fn(x) = f1(fn-1(x))
e.g. f(x) = 2x – 1, f4(2) = f(f(f(f(2)))) = 17

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(x) Odd Function Even Function e.g. y = f(x) = 2x + 3, then x = (y-3)/2, so f-1(x) = (x-3)/2
f(-x) = - f(x) f(-x) = f(x) (Function should be Injective/One-One)
e.g. x3 – x e.g. x2 + 6

19. Exponentials
(i) Exponential Series
ex = 1 + x/1! + x2/2! + x3/3! +…+ xn/n! +…
e = 1 + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! +… (2 < e < 3)
(ii) Exponential Function
(xi) Injective or One-One Function y = f(x) = bx
A function f is injective from A to B iff f(x) = f(y) for x = y

(xii) Surjective or Onto Function

A function f is surjective iff for every y in B, there is atleast
one x in A such that f(x) = y

(xiii) Bijective (Injective + Surjective)

A function f is bijective if for every y in B, there is exactly
one x in A such that f(x) = y (iii) Properties of Exponentials
(xiv) Into Function 1) ax  ay = ax+y (a  b)x = ax  bx
A function f is into if there is atleast one y in B, which is 2) a-x = 1/ax
not connected with x in A
3) ax/ay = ax-y
4) a0 = 1
0x = 0 00 = Not Defined
5) (ax)y = ax  y

6)  ax  y
7) ax = bx  a=b (x  0)
(xv) Inverse of a Function
If y = f(x), then f-1(x) = y and now replacing x and y 8) ax = ay  x = y (a  0, 1)

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9) a > b x
 a>b>1 (x > 0) logb a
10) ax > ay  x < y (0 < a < 1) 9) loga x = 1/ logx a
10) loga b  logb c = loga c
11) loga x > loga y  x < y (0 < a < 1)
x > y (a > 1) x > y (a > 1)
20. Logarithms
(i) Logarithmic Series
loge (1 + x) = x – x2/2 + x3/3 –… (-1 < x  1)
21. Transformations
loge 2 = 1 – 1/2 + 1/3 – 1/4 +…
y = f(x) = x2
(ii) Logarithmic Function
(i) g(x) = f(x) + a = x2 + 4 h(x) = f(x) – a = x2 – 4
y
If b = x  y = logb x (x > 0)

(iii) Properties of Logarithms

1) loga (x  y) = loga x + loga y
2) loga (x/y) = loga x – loga y (ii) g(x) = f(x – a) = (x – 4)2 h(x) = f(x + a) = (x + 4)2
3) loga xk = k loga x
4) logak x = 1/k loga x
5) loga a = 1
6) loga 1 = 0 (a0 = 1)
7) loga ax = x  aloga x = x
8) loga x = logb x

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(iii) g(x) = f(x – a) + b = (x – 4)2 + 4

(vi) g(x) = f(x) = |x + 4| (Water & Mirror Image)

y = f(x) = |x + 4|
(iv) g(x) = f(x) = |x + 4| (Water Image)

22. Sequence & Series

(i) Arithmetic Progression (AP)
a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, a+4d,…
a  First Term d  Common Difference
Tn (nth term) = a + (n1) d = l (last term)
Sn (sum of n terms) = n/2 (a + l)
(v) g(x) = f(x) = |x + 4| (Mirror Image)
= n/2 [2a + (n-1) d]
Arithmetic Mean = (a + b + c + d +…)/n
Note-Three numbers in AP  a – d, a, a + d
Four numbers in AP  a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d

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(ii) Geometric Progression (GP) 2) (2n-1) = 1 + 3 + 5+…+ 2n-1 = n2
a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4,… 3) (2n) = 2 + 4 + 6+…+ 2n = n(n+1)
a  First Term r  Common Ratio
th (n1)
4) (n2) = 12 + 22 + 32 +…+ n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)
Tn (n term) = ar 6
Sn (sum of n terms) = a (1 – rn) (r < 1) 5) (n ) = 1 + 2 + 3 +…+ n = n(n+1) = n (n+1)
3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2

(1 - r) 2 4
= a (rn – 1) (r > 1)
(r – 1) 6) (an3 + bn2 + cn + d) = an3 + bn2 + cn + dn
(1 = n)
S (infinite terns) = a (r < 1)
(1 - r)
=  (r > 1) 23. Co-ordinate Geometry
n
Geometric Mean = abcd… (i) Distance Formula
Note-Three numbers in GP  a/r, a, ar Distance between two
Four numbers in AP  a/r , a/r, ar, ar 3 3 points (x1, y1) & (x2, y2)
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
(iii) Harmonic Progression (HP) (ii) Section Formula
a, b, c… are in HP The point that divide the line joining two given points
then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in AP (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) in the ratio m : n
Harmonic Mean = 2ab/(a+b) (for two numbers) (x, y) = mx2  nx1 , my2  ny1 (+)  Internally
Harmonic Mean = n mn mn (–)  Externally
1/a + 1/b + 1/c + 1/d+…
(iii) Mid Point Formula
(iv) AM  GM  HM (for positive numbers) (x, y) = x1 + x2 , y1 + y2
2 2
(v) Special Series (x1,y1)
1) n = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +…+ n = n(n+1) (iv) Centroid of a Triangle
c b
2 (x, y) = x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3
(x2,y2) a (x3,y3)

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3 3 y = mx + c y – y1 = m(x – x1)
c) Two-Point Form d) Two-Intercept Form
(v) Incentre of a Triangle y – y1 = y2 – y1 (x – x1) x/a + y/b = 1
(x, y) = ax1 + bx2 + cx3 , ay1 + by2 + cy3 x2 – x1
a+b+c a+b+c

(vi) Area of Triangle (x) Distance of a point (x1,y1) from a line ax + by + c = 0

= 1/2 [x1(y2 – y3) + x2(y3 – y1) + x3(y1 – y2)] d = ax1 + by1 + c
(a2 + b2)

(xi) Distance between two parallel lines

(vii) Parallelogram a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 & a2x + b2y +c2 = 0
(x, y) = x1 + x3 , y1 + y3 = x2 + x4 , y2 + y4 d= c1 – c2
2 2 2 2
(a2 + b2)

(x2,y2) (x3,y3) (xii) Equation of Circle

(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
r

(x,y) (h,k)
(x1,y1) (x4,y4)

(viii) Slope of a Line

m = y2 – y1 = tan  (x1  x2) Maxima & Minima
x2 – x1
m1 = m2 (parallel lines) (i) Quadratic Expression (Completing the Square Root)
m1  m2 = -1 (perpendicular lines) f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = a[(x + b/2a)2 – (b2 – 4ac)/4a2]
a) Case I: a > 0
(ix) Equation of a Line
f(x) = maximum when x = maximum
a) Slope-Intercept Form b) Point-Slope Form f(x) = minimum [-D/4a] when x = -b/2a

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Arithmetic Mean = AM = (a1 + a2 + a3 + ….... + an)/n
Geometric Mean = GM = (a1  a2  a3  .........  an)1/n
Harmonic Mean = HM = n/[(1/a1) + (1/a2) + (1/a3)
+…... +(1/an)]
a) AM > GM > HM (if all the numbers are not equal)
b) Case II: a < 0 b) AM = GM = HM (if all the numbers are equal)
f(x) = minimum when x = maximum
f(x) = maximum [-D/4a] when x = -b/2a
(v) Graphical Method
(ii) Discriminant Method a) Plot the graph of the given equation and find maximum or
2
e.g. f(x) = 2x + 3x + 4 = m (say) minimum value.
x2 + x + 3 e.g. f(x) = min (2 - 3x, x - 1) max f(x) = -1 for x = 1
 x2(m – 2) + x(m – 3) + (3m – 4) = 0
 1  m  23/11 (Discriminant > 0)

(iii) Sum-Product Method

a) For a, b, c, d… > 0 & a + b + c + d +… = constant,
a  b  c  d … = maximum when a = b = c = d =…
ax + by = Sum, find max. xm  yn
ax = by = S b) Find min. |x-a| + |x-b| + |x-c|
m n (m+n)
b) For a, b, c, d… > 0 & a  b  c  d … = constant,
a + b + c + d +… = minimum when a = b = c = d =…
xm  yn = Product, find min. ax + by
ax/m = by/n

(iv) Applications of AP, GP and HP :

Minimum value would be either at a, b, c or avg.(a,b,c)
For positive real numbers, a1, a2, a3, ..., an

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