Carta Mundial Del Combustible PDF

Fifth Edition
European Automobile
WORLDWIDE
Manufacturers Association
Avenue des Nerviens 85
B-1040 Brussels, Belgium
Tel: +32 2 732 55 50
Fax: +32 2 738 73 10
www.acea.be
FUEL CHARTER SEPTEMBER 2013

Alliance of
Automobile Manufacturers
803 7th Street, N.W., Suite 300
Washington D.C., 20001
Tel: +1 (202) 326-5500
Fax: +1 (202) 326-5567
www.autoalliance.org
Truck and Engine

333 West Wacker Drive, Suite 810
Chicago, IL 60606
Tel: +1 (312) 929-1970
Fax: +1 (312) 929-1975
www.truckandenginemanufacturers.org
Japan Automobile
Jidosha Kaikan
1-30, Shiba Daimon 1-Chome
Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0012 Japan
Tel: +81-3-5405-6125
Fax: +81-3-5405-6136
For copies, please contact ACEA, Alliance, EMA or JAMA or visit their websites. www.japanauto.com
The Worldwide Fuel Charter provides fuel quality recommendations published by the members of the Worldwide Fuel Charter Com-
mittee as a service to worldwide legislators, fuel users and producers. It contains information from sources believed to be reliable; howe-
ver, the Committee makes no warranty, guarantee, or other representation, express or implied, with respect to the Charter’s sufficiency
or fitness for any particular purpose.The Charter imposes no obligation on any users or producers of fuel, and it does not prohibit use
of any engine or vehicle technology or design, fuel, or fuel quality specification. It is not intended to, and does not, replace engine and
vehicle manufacturers’ fuelling recommendations.
European Automobile Alliance of Automobile Truck and Engine Japan Automobile
Manufacturers Association Manufacturers Manufacturers Association Manufacturers Association
September 2013
Subject: Worldwide Fuels Harmonisation
Dear Worldwide Fuel Charter Recipient:
On behalf of vehicle and engine manufacturers from around the world, the Worldwide Fuel Charter Committee
is pleased to present the Fifth Edition of the Worldwide Fuel Charter. The Charter was first established in
1998 to increase understanding of the fuel quality needs of motor vehicle and engine technologies and to
promote fuel quality harmonisation worldwide in accordance with those needs. Importantly, the Charter
matches fuel specifications to the vehicle and engine specifications required to meet various customer needs
around the world.
The Fifth Edition introduces Category 5 for markets with highly advanced requirements for emission control
and fuel efficiency. As many countries take steps to require vehicles and engines to meet strict fuel economy
standards in addition to stringent emission standards, Category 5, which raises the minimum research octane
number (RON) to 95, will enable some gasoline technologies that can help increase vehicle and engine
efficiency. For diesel fuel, this category establishes a high quality hydrocarbon-only specification that takes
advantage of the characteristics of certain advanced biofuels, including hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO)
and Biomass-to-Liquid (BTL), provided all other specifications are respected and the resulting blend meets
defined legislated limits.
Other changes from the previous edition include a new test method for trace metals and an updated gasoline
volatility table. Significant changes relate to biodiesel: the Charter now allows up to 5% biodiesel by volume
in Category 4 diesel fuel, has new diesel fuel oxidation stability limits and includes an alternative oxidation
stability test method with correlations to other methods. The Charter also now references the E100 and
B100 Guidelines published by the WWFC Committee in 2009.
As countries move toward more stringent vehicle and engine requirements, fuel quality’s role in preserving
the functionality of vehicles and engines continues to grow. Sulphur-free and metal-free fuels remain critical
prerequisites for ultraclean, efficient and durable emission control systems. The most advanced vehicles and
engines require the best fuel quality – as represented in Category 5 – to meet their design potential.
We appreciate the many comments submitted on this new edition of the Charter; they have helped make
it a better document. We look forward to working with you to support harmonised specifications for the
continued benefit of society.
Ivan Hodac Mitch Bainwol Jed R. Mandel Yoshiyasu Nao

Secretary General President & CEO President President
ACEA Alliance EMA JAMA
worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ i _ September 2013

T E CH N
MEMB E IC
R LAIST
L BAC KG RO UND FO R H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
ACEA member companies

BMW Group, DAF Trucks NV, Daimler AG, FIAT SpA, Ford of Europe, General Motors Europe,
Hyundai Motor Europe, IVECO SpA, Jaguar Land Rover, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault SA,
Toyota Motor Europe,Volkswagen Group,Volvo Car Corporation,Volvo Group.
Alliance member companies

BMW Group, Chrysler Group, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Company, Jaguar Land Rover,
Mazda North America, Mercedes-Benz USA, Mitsubishi Motors, Porsche Cars North America,
Toyota Motor North America, Inc.,Volkswagen Group of America,Volvo Cars of North America.
EMA member companies

AGCO Corporation, American Honda Motor Co., Inc., Briggs & Stratton Corporation,
Caterpillar Inc., Chrysler Group LLC, Cummins Inc., Daimler Trucks North America LLC,
Deere & Company, Deutz Corporation, Fiat Powertrain Technologies S.p.A., Ford Motor Company,
General Motors Company, GE Energy – Waukesha Gas Engines, Hino Motors, Ltd.,
Isuzu Manufacturing Services of America, Inc., Kohler Company, Komatsu Ltd., Kubota Engine
America Corporation, Navistar, Inc., Onan–Cummins Power Generation, PACCAR Inc.,
Scania CV AB, Tognum America, Inc.,Volkswagen of America, Inc.,Volvo Group North America,
Wärtsilä North America, Inc.,Yamaha Motor Corporation,Yanmar America Corporation.
JAMA member companies

Daihatsu Motor Co. Ltd., Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd., Hino Motors Ltd., Honda Motor Co. Ltd.,
Isuzu Motors Limited, Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd., Mazda Motor Corporation, Mitsubishi Fuso
Truck and Bus Corporation, Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, Nissan Diesel Motor Co. Ltd.,
Nissan Motor Co. Ltd., Suzuki Motor Corporation, Toyota Motor Corporation,
UD Trucks Corporation,Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd.
Associate members
› Asociación de Fábricas de Automotores de Argentina (ADEFA)
› Associacion Mexicana de la Industria Automotriz, A.C. (AMIA)
› Brazilian Association of motor vehicle and motorised agricultural machinery manufacturers (ANFAVEA)
› Canadian Vehicle Manufacturers’ Association (CVMA)
› Chamber of Automotive Manufacturers of the Philippines, Inc. (CAMPI)
› China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM)
› Global Automakers
› Global Automakers of Canada (GAC)
› Indonesia Automotive Federation (IAF)
› Korean Automobile Manufacturers Association (KAMA)
› National Association of Automobile Manufacturers of South Africa (NAAMSA)
› Malaysian Automotive Association (MAA)
› Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)
› Thai Automotive Industry Association (TAIA)
› Vietnam Automobile Manufacturers Association (VAMA)
Supporting organisations:
› Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d’Automobiles (OICA)
worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ ii _ September 2013

T E CH
CON TN IC A L BAC KG RO UND FO R H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
E NTS
MEMBER LIST ii
ACRONYM LIST iv
INTRODUCTION 1
CATEGORY 1 Unleaded Gasoline 3
VOLATILITY CLASSES Unleaded Gasoline 8
VAPOUR/LIQUID RATIO Unleaded Gasoline 8
TEST METHODS Gasoline 9
CATEGORY 1 Diesel Fuel 10
TEST METHODS Diesel Fuel 15
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Gasoline 16
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Diesel Fuel 40
DATA SOURCES 60
worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ iii _ September 2013

AC R ONYM L IST
AAMA American Automobile Manufacturers FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Esters

Association, the U.S. trade association for FBP Final Boiling Point
Chrysler, Ford and GM from 1992 until 1998. FTP (US) Federal Test Procedure
ACEA Association des Constructeurs Européens FLTM Ford Laboratory Test Method
d’Automobiles (European automobile GHG Greenhouse Gas
manufacturers association) GTL Liquid fuel typically made from methane gas
AIAM Association of International Automobil using a gas-to-liquid/Fischer-Tropsch-type
Manufacturers, the former name of Global process
Automakers HC Hydrocarbons
Alliance Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers HFRR High Frequency Reciprocating Rig
AMA Accelerated Mileage Accumulation HVO Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
AQIRP Air Quality Improvement Research Programme IDID Internal Diesel Injector Deposits
(part of the US Auto Oil programme, 1989-1992) ICP-AES Inductively Coupled Plasma - Atomic Emission
ASTM ASTM International (formerly American Spectrometry
Society for Testing and Materials) IP Energy Institute (formerly Institute of
Biofuel Liquid transport fuel produced from biomass Petroleum)
Biomass Biodegradable fraction of products, waste and ISO International Organisation for Standardization
residues from biological origin IVD Intake Valve Deposits
BTL Liquid fuel made from biomass (‘Biomass to JAMA Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association
Liquid’) JARI Japan Automobile Research Institute
CCD Combustion Chamber Deposits JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
CDPF Catalysed Diesel Particulate Filter LEV Low Emission Vehicle
CEC Coordinating European Council for the LTFT Low Temperature Flow Test
Development of Performance Tests for Trans- MECA Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association
portation Fuels, Lubricants and Other Fluids METI Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (Japan)
CFPP Cold Filter Plugging Point MMT Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl
CI Cetane Index MtBE Methyl tertiary Butyl Ether
CN Cetane Number MON Motor Octane Number
CO Carbon Monoxide NF M Norme Française - Industrie du Pétrole
CO2 Carbon Dioxide (French Norm - Petroleum Industry)
CP Cloud Point NF T Norme Française - Industrie Chimique
CRC Coordinating Research Council (US) (French Norm - Chemical Industry)
CR-DPF Continuously Regenerating Diesel Particulate NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
Filter OBD On-Board Diagnostics
DECSE Diesel Emission Control – Sulfur Effects, OFP Ozone Forming Potential
research program of the US Department of Oxy Oxygen
Energy PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
DEF Diesel Exhaust Fluid (for SCR systems) pHe Acidity of ethanol
DI Distillation Index PM Particulate Matter
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German ppm Parts per million
Institute of Standardisation) PZEV Partial Zero Emission Vehicle
DPF Diesel Particulate Filter RON Research Octane Number
DVPE Dry Vapour Pressure Equivalence SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction
EMA Truck and Engine Manufacturers Association SULEV Super-Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle
EN European Norm TAN Total Acid Number
EPA Environmental Protection Agency (US) TGA Thermal Gravimetric Analysis
EPEFE European Programme on Emissions, Fuels THC Total Hydrocarbons
and Engine Technology (part of the European TLEV Transitional Low Emission Vehicle
Auto-Oil 1 programme, 1993-1995) TWD Total Weighted Demerits
EtBE Ethyl tertiary-Butyl Ether ULEV Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle
FAEE Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters VDE Vegetable Derived Esters
worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ iv _ September 2013

ITN
ETCH
RONDUC
IC A LTION
BAC KG RO UND FO R H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
The objective of the global fuels harmonisation effort is to develop common, worldwide recommendations
for quality fuels, taking into consideration customer requirements and the performance of vehicle and
engine emission technologies. These recommendations allow vehicle and engine manufacturers to provide
consistent fuel quality advice to policymakers who may want to control vehicle or engine emissions, whether
for the first time or to expand already implemented legislation. Regardless of the legislative context, access
to the recommended fuels will benefit consumers and their communities in all markets around the world.
Implementation of the recommendations will:

• Reduce the impact of motor vehicles on the environment by enabling reduced vehicle fleet emissions;
• Facilitate the delivery of optimised fuels for each emission control category, which will minimize vehicle
equipment complexities and help reduce customer costs (purchase and operation); and,
• Increase customer satisfaction by maintaining vehicle performance for a longer period of time.
Five different categories of fuel quality, described below, have been established for unleaded gasoline and
diesel fuel:
Category 1 :
Markets with no or first level requirements for emission control; based primarily on fundamental vehicle/
engine performance and protection of emission control systems, for example, markets requiring US Tier 0,
EURO 1 or equivalent emission standards.
Category 2 :
Markets with requirements for emission control or other market demands, for example, markets requiring
US Tier 1, EURO 2/II, EURO 3/III or equivalent emission standards.
Category 3 :
Markets with more stringent requirements for emission control or other market demands, for example,
markets requiring US LEV, California LEV or ULEV, EURO 4/IV (except lean burn gasoline engines), JP 2005
or equivalent emission standards.
Category 4 :
Markets with advanced requirements for emission control, for example, markets requiring US Tier 2,
US Tier 3 (pending), US 2007 / 2010 Heavy Duty On-Highway, US Non-Road Tier 4, California LEV II,
EURO 4/IV, EURO 5/V, EURO 6/VI, JP 2009 or equivalent emission standards. Category 4 fuels enable
sophisticated NOx and particulate matter after-treatment technologies.
Category 5 :
Markets with highly advanced requirements for emission control and fuel efficiency, for example, those
markets that require US 2017 light duty fuel economy, US heavy duty fuel economy, California LEV III or
equivalent emission control and fuel efficiency standards in addition to Category 4-level emission control
standards.
Requirements for all markets:

Fuel in the market will meet the quality specifications only if blendstock quality is monitored and good
management practices are used. The following requirements apply broadly to fuel systems in all markets:
• Additives must be compatible with engine oils, to prevent any increase in engine sludge or deposits of varnish.
• Ash-forming components must not be added.
• Good housekeeping practices must be used throughout distribution to minimize contamination from
dust, water, different fuels and other sources of foreign matter.
• Pipeline corrosion inhibitors must not interfere with fuel quality, whether through formulation or
reaction with sodium.
worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 1 _ September 2013

I N T RO DUC TION
• Dispenser pumps must be labelled adequately to help customers identify the appropriate fuels for their
vehicles.
• Fuel should be dispensed through nozzles meeting SAE J285, ‘Dispenser Nozzle Spouts for Liquid Fuels
Intended for Use with Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition Engines.’
• Ethanol used for blending with gasoline, and biodiesel (FAME) used for blending with diesel fuel, should
adhere to the E100 Guidelines and the B100 Guidelines, respectively, published by the WWFC Committee.
Engine and vehicle technologies typically achieve improved performance and lower emissions with higher
category fuels. These fuel quality recommendations are for the properties of the finished fuel as provided
to the customer. Internal quality control methods are not dictated or restricted as long as the fuel meets
these specifications. Where national requirements are more severe than these recommendations, those
national limits have to be met.
To meet ongoing environmental, energy and customer challenges, vehicle and engine manufacturers will
continue to develop and introduce advanced and innovative propulsion technologies that may require
changes in fuel quality. Category revisions will occur as needed to reflect such changes in technology, as
well as in petroleum refining, test methods and global market conditions.

C
T AT EG
E CH NO
ICRY
A L1BAC
KG UNLE A DFO
RO UND E DRGA
HASO
R LINE
M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
Markets with no or first level requirements for emission controls; based primarily on fundamental
vehicle/engine performance and protection of emission control system.
PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

Min. Max.
‘91 RON’ (1) Research Octane Number 91.0
Motor Octane Number 82.0
Oxidation stability minutes 360
Sulphur mg/kg (2) 1000
Trace metal (3) mg/kg 1 or non-detectable, whichever is lower
Oxygen (4) % m/m 2.7 (5)
Aromatics % v/v 50.0
Benzene % v/v 5.0
Volatility See Tables, page 8
Unwashed gums mg/100 ml 70
Washed gums mg/100 ml 5
Density kg/m3 715 780
Copper corrosion rating Class 1
Appearance Clear and bright; no free water or particulates
Carburettor cleanliness merit 8.0 (6)
Fuel injector cleanliness, Method 1, or % flow loss 10 (6)
Fuel injector cleanliness, Method 2 % flow loss 10 (6)
Intake valve cleanliness merit (6)
9.0
Footnotes:
(1) Three octane grades are defined for maximum market flexibility; availability of all three is not needed.
(2) The unit mg/kg is often expressed as ppm. Lower sulphur content preferred for catalyst-equipped vehicles.
(3) Examples of trace metals include, but are not limited to, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na, P, Pb, Si and Zn. Another undesirable element is Cl.. Metal-containing
additives are acceptable only for valve seat protection in non-catalyst cars; in this case, potassium-based additives are recommended. No
intentional addition of metal-based additives is allowed.
(4) Where oxygenates are used, ethers are preferred. Methanol is not permitted.
(5) By exception, up to 10% by volume ethanol content is allowed if permitted by existing regulation. Blendstock ethanol should meet the
E100 Guidelines published by the WWFC Committee. Fuel pump labelling is recommended for gasoline-ethanol blends to enable customers to
determine if their vehicles can use the fuel.
(6) Compliance with this requirement can be demonstrated by the use of proper detergent additives in comparable-base gasolines.

CAT EG
T E CH NO
ICRY
A L2BAC
KG U
RONLE
UNDA DFO
E DRGA
HASO
R LINE
Markets with requirements for emission controls or other market demands.

Min. Max.
Oxygen (4) % m/m 2.7 (5)
Olefins % v/v 18.0
Benzene % v/v 2.5
Sediment (total particulate) mg/l 1
Unwashed gums (6) mg/100 ml 70
Fuel injector cleanliness, Method 1, or % flow loss 5
Fuel injector cleanliness, Method 2 % flow loss 10
Intake-valve sticking pass/fail Pass
Intake valve cleanliness II
Method 1 (CEC F-05-A-93), or avg. mg/valve 50
Method 2 (ASTM D5500), or avg. mg/valve 100
Method 3 (ASTM D6201) avg. mg/valve 90
Combustion chamber deposits (6)
Method 1 (ASTM D6201), or % of base fuel 140
Method 2 (CEC-F-20-A-98), or mg/engine 3500
Method 3 (TGA - FLTM BZ154-01) % mass.@ 450°C 20
Footnotes:
(2) The unit mg/kg is often expressed as ppm.
(3) Examples of trace metals include, but are not limited to, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na, P, Pb, Si and Zn. Another undesirable element is Cl. No trace metal
should exceed 1 mg/kg. No intentional addition of metal-based additives is allowed.
(6) To provide flexibility (for example, to enable the use of detergency additives that increase unwashed gum levels), the fuel may comply with
either the Unwashed Gum limit or the Combustion Chamber Deposits limit.

C
T AT EG
E CH NO
ICRY
A L3BAC
KG UNLE A DFO
RO UND E DRGA
HASO
R LINE
Markets with more stringent requirements for emission controls or other market demands.

Min. Max.
Oxygen (4) % m/m 2.7 (5)
Olefins % v/v 10.0
Benzene % v/v 1.0
Particulate contamination, size distribution Code rating 18/16/13 per ISO 4406
Method 3 (TGA FLTM BZ154-01) % mass @ 450°C 20
Footnotes:

CAT E G O RY 4 U NLE A D E D GA S O LINE
Markets with highly advanced requirements for emission control; enables sophisticated NOx
and particulate matter after-treatment technologies.

Min. Max.
Oxygen (4) % m/m 2.7 (5)
Olefins % v/v 10.0
Benzene % v/v 1.0
Silver corrosion rating Class 1

Method 3 (TGA FLTM BZ154-01) % mass @ 450°C 20
Footnotes:
(5) By exception, up to 10% by volume ethanol is allowed if permitted by existing regulation. Blendstock ethanol should
meet the E100 Guidelines published by the WWFC Committee. Fuel pump labelling is recommended for gasoline-ethanol blends to enable
customers to determine if their vehicles can use the fuel.
(6): To provide flexibility (for example, to enable the use of detergency additives that increase unwashed gum levels), the fuel may comply
with either the Unwashed Gum limit or the Combustion Chamber Deposits limit.

C AT E G O RY 5 UNLE A D E D GA S O LINE
Markets with highly advanced requirements for emission control and fuel efficiency. Enables technologies
that can help increase vehicle and engine efficiency, in addition to enabling sophisticated NOx and particulate
matter after-treatment technologies.

Min. Max.
‘95 RON’ Research Octane Number 95.0
‘98 RON’ Research Octane Number 98.0
Oxygen (3) % m/m 2.7 (4)
Olefins % v/v 10.0
Benzene % v/v 1.0
Sulphur corrosion rating Class 1
Method 3 (TGA FLTM BZ154-01) % mass. @ 450°C 20
Footnotes:
(4) By exception, up to 10% ethanol by volume is allowed where permitted by existing regulation. Blendstock ethanol should meet the E100
Guidelines published by the WWFC Committee. Fuel pump labelling is recommended for gasoline-ethanol blends to enable customers to

T E CH
VO N ICITY
LATIL A L BAC
C LAKG
SSERO UND
S FO FOSRO LINE
R GA H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
ALL CATEGORIES
Class * A B C D E
Ambient Temp. Range, °C > 15 5 to 15 -5 to +5 -5 to -15 < -15
Vapour Pressure, kPa 45 - 60 55 - 70 65 - 80 75 - 90 85 - 105
T10, °C, max 65 60 55 50 45
T50, °C 77 - 100 77 - 100 75 - 100 70 - 100 65 - 100
T90, °C 130 - 175 130 - 175 130 - 175 130 - 175 130 - 175
EP, °C max. 205 205 205 205 205
E70, % 20 - 45 20 - 45 25 - 47 25 - 50 25 -50
E100, % 50 - 65 50 - 65 50 - 65 55 - 70 55 - 70
E180, % min 90 90 90 90 90
D.I., max 570 565 560 555 550
* ‘Class’ is based on the minimum expected ambient temperatures of the market and will vary by season.
Notes:
Ambient temperature ranges listed represent the condition the vehicle operator will encounter. Local regulations/standards may define classes
based on expected temperatures from varying historical or statistical information sources applicable to their locale.
D.I. (Distillation Index) = (1.5 * T10) + (3 * T50) + T90 + (11 * mass % of oxygen); temperatures are in degrees Celsius.
The D.I. oxygenate correction does not apply to ethers, but limited data on LEV/ULEV vehicles suggest that ethers may require a similar oxygenate
correction. The need for and the magnitude of the correction will be determined as more data become available. Preliminary data indicate that
vehicles may need further volatility controls beyond what is currently specified.
V A P O UR / L IQ UID R ATIO ( V/L) , T V/L =2 0
ALL CATEGORIES
Class Test Temperature, °C, min. Applicable Temperature, °C
1 60 ≥43
2 56 < 43
3 51 < 36
4 47 < 29
5 41 < 21
6 35 < 14
Vapour lock class is based on the 90th percentile maximum (applicable) daily temperature. The minimum test temperature of the gasoline for
V/L=20 is provided for each vapour lock class. Limits to TV/L=20 are required to prevent hot fuel handling problems such as vapour lock, as
discussed in the gasoline technical background under ‘Volatility.’ Additional information is provided in ASTM D4814.

T ES T M E TH O D S GA S O LINE
The latest test methods should be used unless otherwise indicated by specific method year. On those
parameters where ‘non-detectable’ is listed, the lowest possible levels are expected with no intentional
additions of the additive or contaminant. Where multiple methods are indicated, the manufacturer should
assure the product conforms to the most precise method listed.
PROPERTIES UNITS ISO ASTM JIS Other

Research Octane Number EN 5164 D2699 K 2280
Motor Octane Number EN 5163 D2700 K 2280-96
Oxidation stability (1) minutes 7536 D525 K 2287
Sulphur content mg/kg D2622 K 2541
20846 D5453
20884
Lead content mg/l D3237 K 2255 EN 237
Potassium (K) content mg/l NF M 07065
EN 14538
Trace metal content mg/kg ICP; ASTM D7111 modified
Phosphorus content mg/l D 3231
Silicon content mg/kg ICP-AES (Reference in-house
methods with detection limit
= 1 mg/kg)
Chlorine content mg/kg D7359 or D7536
Oxygen content % m/m D4815 K 2536 EN 13132
Olefin content (2) % v/v 3837 D1319 K 2536
Aromatic content (2) % v/v 3837 D1319 K 2536 EN 14517
Benzene content % v/v D5580 K 2536 EN 238
D3606 EN 14517
Vapour Pressure kPa D5191 K 2258 EN 13016/1 DVPE
Distillation: T10/T50/T90,
E70/E100/E180, End Point, residue 3405 D86 K 2254
Vapour/liquid ratio (V/L) °C D5188
Sediment (total particulate) mg/l D5452
Unwashed gums mg/100 ml 6246 D381 K 2261 May be replaced with CCD test
Washed gums mg/100 ml 6246 D381 K 2261
Density kg/m3 3675 D4052 K 2249
12185
Copper corrosion rating 2160 D130 K 2513
Silver corrosion rating D7671
Appearance D4176 Visual inspection
Carburettor cleanliness merit CEC F-03-T
Fuel injector cleanliness, Method 1 % flow loss D5598
Fuel injector cleanliness, Method 2 % flow loss D6421
Particulate contamination, size code rating 4406
distribution no. of particles/ml 4407 & 11500
Intake-valve sticking pass/fail CEC F-16-T
Intake valve cleanliness I merit CEC F-04-A
Intake valve cleanliness II avg. mg/valve
Method 1, 4 valve avg. CEC F-05-A
Method 2, BMW test D5500
Method 3, Ford 2.3L D6201
Combustion chamber deposits
Method 1 % of base fuel D6201
Method 2 mg/engine CEC F-20-A
Method 3 % mass @ 450°C FLTM-BZ154 (3)
(1) Updated procedures are needed to better measure oxygenated blends.

(2) Some methods for olefin and aromatic content are used in legal documents; more precise methods are available and may be used.
(3) This method is available at http://global.ihs.com.

T AT
C E CH
EGNO
IC A L1BAC
RY KG D
ROIEUND FO RL H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
S E L FUE
Markets with no or first level requirements for emission controls; based primarily on fundamental
vehicle/engine performance and protection of emission control systems.

Min. Max.
Cetane Number 48.0
Cetane Index (1) 48.0 (45.0) (1)
Density @ 15°C kg/m3 820 (2) 860
Viscosity @ 40°C mm2/s 2.0 (3) 4.5
Sulphur (4)
mg/kg 2000
T95 °C 370
Flash point °C 55 (5)
Carbon residue % m/m 0.30
CFPP or LTFT or CP °C Equal to or lower than the lowest
expected ambient temperature (6)
Water mg/kg 500
Oxidation stablity
Method 1 g/m3 25
Method 2a (Rancimat, modified) (7), or hours 30
Method 2b (Delta TAN) (7), or mg KOH/g 0.12
Method 2c (PetroOxy) (7) minutes 60
FAME (8) % v/v 5%
(9)
Other biofuels % v/v (9)

Ethanol/Methanol % v/v Non-detectable (10)
Ash % m/m 0.01
Particulate contamination, total see test method 10
Lubricity (HFRR wear scar dia. @ 60°C) micron 460
Footnotes:
(1) Cetane Index is acceptable instead of Cetane Number if a standardized engine to determine the Cetane Number is unavailable and cetane
improvers are not used. When cetane improvers are used, the estimated Cetane Number must be greater than or equal to the specified value
and the Cetane Index must be greater than or equal to the number in parenthesis.
(2) May relax the minimum limit to 800 kg/m3 when ambient temperatures are below -30°C.
(3) May relax the minimum limit to 1.5 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -30°C or to 1.3 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are
below -40°C.
(5) The minimum limit can be relaxed to 38°C when ambient temperatures are below -30°C.
(6) If compliance is demonstrated by meeting CFPP, then the maximum must be no more than 10°C less than cloud point.
(7) Methods 2a and 2b must be used with fuels containing FAME. Method 2c correlation data are based on fuels containing FAME.
(8) For FAME, both EN14214 and ASTM D6751, or equivalent standards, should be considered. Where FAME is used, the blendstock should meet
the B100 Guidelines published by the WWFC Committee, and fuel pumps should be labelled accordingly.
(9) Other biofuels include HVO and BTL. Blending level must allow the finished fuel to meet all the required specifications.
(10) At or below detection limit of the test method used.

CAT E G O RY 2 DIE S E L FUE L
Markets with requirements for emission controls or other market demands.

Min. Max.
Cetane Number 51.0
Cetane Index (1) 51.0 (48.0)(1)
Density @ 15°C kg/m3 820 (2) 850
Viscosity @ 40°C mm2/s 2.0 (3) 4.0
Sulphur (4)
mg/kg 300
Total aromatics % m/m 25
PAH (di+, tri+) % m/m 5
T90 (6) °C 340
T95 (6) °C 355
Final Boiling Point °C 365
Flash point °C 55
Water mg/kg 200
Oxidation stability
Method 1 g/m3 25
Biological growth (9) no growth
FAME (10) % v/v 5
Other biofuels (11) % v/v (11)

Total acid number mg KOH/g 0.08
Ferrous corrosion Light rusting
Ash % m/m 0.01
Particulate contamination, size distribution code rating 18/16/13 per ISO 4406
Injector cleanliness (Method 1) % air flow loss 85
Footnotes:
and the Cetane Index must be greater than or equal to the number in parentheses.
(2) May relax the minimum limit to 800 kg/m3 when ambient temperatures are below -30°C. For environmental purposes, a minimum of
815 kg/m3 can be adopted.
(3) May relax the minimum limit to 1.5 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -30°C or to 1.3 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -40°C.
(6) Compliance with either T90 or T95 is required.
(7) If compliance is demonstrated by meeting CFPP, then the maximum must be no more than 10°C less than cloud point.
(9) Alternative test methods, with appropriate limits for no biological growth, can be used.

T AT
C E CH
EGNO
IC A L3BAC
RY KG D
ROIEUND FO RL H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
S E L FUE
Markets with more stringent requirements for emission controls or other market demands.

Min. Max.
Cetane Number 53.0
Cetane Index (1) 53.0 (50.0)(1)
Density @ 15°C kg/m3 820 (2) 840
Viscosity @ 40°C mm2/s 2.0 (3) 4.0
Sulphur (4)
mg/kg 50
PAH (di+, tri+) % m/m 3.0
T90 (6) °C 320
T95 (6) °C 340
Flash point °C 55
CFPP or LTFT or CP (7) °C Equal to or lower than the lowest
expected ambient temperature
Water mg/kg 200
Oxidation Stability
Method 1 g/m3 25
(8)
Method 2a (Rancimat, modified) , or hours 35
Foam volume ml 100
Foam vanishing time sec. 15
(9)
Biological growth no growth
FAME (10) % v/v 5
Other Biofuels (11) % v/v (11)

Ash % m/m 0.01
Footnotes:
(2) May relax minimum limit to 800 kg/m3 when ambient temperatures are below -30°C. For environmental purposes, a minimum of 815 kg/m3
can be adopted.
(3) May relax minimum limit to 1.5 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -30°C or to 1.3 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -40°C.
(7) If compliance is demonstrated by meeting CFPP, then it must be no more than 10°C less than cloud point.
(9) Alternative test methods, with appropriate limits for “no biological growth,” can be used.

CAT E G O RY 4 DIE S E L FUE L
Markets with advanced requirements for emission control. Enables sophisticated NOx and PM
after-treatment technologies.
Min. Max.
Cetane Number 55.0
Cetane Index (1) 55.0 (52.0) (1)
Density @ 15°C kg/m3 820 (2) 840
Viscosity @ 40°C mm2/s 2.0 (3) 4.0
Sulphur (4)
mg/kg 10
T90 (6) °C 320
T95 (6) °C 340
Flash point °C 55 --
CFPP or LTFT or CP (7) °C Equal to or lower than the lowest
expected ambient temperature
Water mg/kg 200
Oxidation Stability
Method 1 g/m3 25
Foam volume ml 100
Biological growth (9) no growth
FAME (10) % v/v 5 (10)
Other biofuels (11) % v/v (11)

Ash % m/m 0.001 (13)
Injector cleanliness (Method 2) % power loss 2
Footnotes:
(1) Cetane Index is acceptable instead of Cetane Number if a standardized engine to determine the Cetane Number is unavailable and Cetane
improvers are not used. When Cetane improvers are used, the estimated Cetane Number must be greater than or equal to the specified value
(2) May relax the minimum limit to 800 kg/m3 when ambient temperatures are below -30°C. For environmental purposes, a minimum of 815 kg/m3 can be adopted.
(3) May relax the minimum limit to 1.5 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -30°C or to 1.3 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -40°C.
(13) Limit and test method are under review to assure DPF endurance.
C
T AT EG
E CH NO
ICRY
A L5BAC
KG D
ROIEUND
S E L FUE
FO RL H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
Markets with highly advanced requirements for emission control and fuel efficiency. Enables sophisticated
NOx and PM after-treatment technologies.

Min. Max.
Cetane Number 55.0
Cetane Index (1) 55.0 (52.0) (1)
Density @ 15°C kg/m3 820 (2) 840
Viscosity @ 40°C mm2/s 2.0 (3) 4.0
Sulphur (4)
mg/kg 10
T90 (6) °C 320
T95 (6) °C 340
Flash point °C 55 --
Water mg/kg 200
Oxidation stability, Method 1 g/m3 25
Foam volume ml 100
(8)
Biological growth no growth
FAME Non-detectable
Other Biofuels (9) (9)
Ash % m/m 0.001 (11)
Injector cleanliness (Method 2) % power loss 2
Footnotes:
(2) May relax the minimum limit to 800 kg/m3 when ambient temperatures are below -30°C. For environmental purposes, a minimum of
815 kg/m3 can be adopted.
(3) May relax the minimum to 1.5 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -30°C or to 1.3 mm2/s when ambient temperatures are below -40°C.
(11) Limit and test method are under review to assure DPF endurance.

T ES T M E TH O D S DIE S E L FUE L
The latest test methods should be used unless otherwise indicated by specific method year. On those
parameters where ‘no detectable’ is listed, the lowest possible levels are expected with no intentional
additions of this additive or contaminant. Where multiple methods are indicated, the manufacturer should
assure the product conforms to the most precise method listed.
PROPERTIES UNITS ISO ASTM JIS Other

Cetane Number 5165 D613 K 2280 D6890, D7170 (1)
Cetane Index 4264 D4737 K 2280

Density @ 15°C kg/m3 3675 D4052 K 2249
12185
Viscosity @ 40°C mm2/s 3104 D445 K 2283
Sulphur content mg/kg 20846 D5453 K 2541
20884 D2622
Total aromatic content % m/m D5186 EN 12916
PAH content (di+, tri+) % m/m D5186 EN 12916, D2425
T90, T95, FBP °C 3405, 3924 D86 K 2254 D2887
Flash point °C 2719 D93 K 2265 D56
Carbon residue % m/m 10370 D4530 K 2270
Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP) °C D6371 K 2288 EN 116, IP 309
Low Temperature Flow Test (LTFT) °C D4539
Cloud Point (CP) °C 3015 D2500 K 2269 D5771, D5772, D5773
Water content mg/kg 12937 D6304 K 2275
Oxidation stability
Method 1 g/m3 12205 D2274
Method 2a (Rancimat, modified) induction time (hours) EN 15751
Method 2b (Delta TAN) (2) mg KOH/g D664 & D2274 (modified)
Method 2c (PetroOxy) minutes EN 16091
Foam volume ml NF M 07-075
Foam vanishing time sec. NF M 07-075
Biological growth NF M 07-070, IP385
FAME content % v/v D7371 EN 14078
Ethanol/Methanol content % v/v D4815 (modified)
Total acid number (TAN) mg KOH/g 6618 D664
Ferrous corrosion D665 (3)
Copper corrosion merit 2160 D130 K 2513
Appearance D4176 Visual inspection
Ash content % m/m 6245 D482 (4) K 2272
Particulate contamination, total see test method D6217 FAME-free (mg/l) EN 12662 (mg/kg)
D7321 with FAME (mg/l)
Particulate contamination, size distribution code rating 4406 D7619
no. of particles/ml 4407 & 11500
Injector cleanliness, Method 1 % air flow loss CEC (PF-023) TBA
Injector cleanliness, Method 2 % power loss CEC-F-098 (5)
Lubricity (HFRR wear scar diameter @ 60°C) micron 12156-1.3 D6079 CEC F-06-A, D7688
Trace metal content ICP, D7111 modified
(1) ASTM D6890 and D7170 measure Derived Cetane Number (DCN) and are being widely used as alternatives to D613.
(2) Measure Acid Number using D664 before and after aging fuel per D2274 (modified – 115°C).
(3) Procedure A.
(4) Minimum 100 g sample size.
(5) CEC has initiated test development for Internal Diesel Injector Deposits (IDID).

T E CH N IC A L BAC KG RO UND FO R H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
TECHNICAL
BACKGROUND GAS O LINE

T EC
E CH
H NIC
N IC A L BAC KG R
ROO UND FO R H
GAAR
SMO LINE
ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
O C TA NE NU MBER
Octane number is a measure of a gasoline’s ability to resist auto-ignition; auto-ignition can cause engine knock,
which can severely damage engines.Two laboratory test methods are used to measure octane: one determines
the Research Octane Number (RON) and the other determines the Motor Octane Number (MON). RON
correlates best with low speed, mild-knocking conditions and MON correlates with high-temperature knoc-
king conditions and with part-throttle operation. RON values are typically higher than MON, and the diffe-
rence between these values is the sensitivity, which should not exceed 10. In North America, (RON + MON)/2
is typically used to specify the octane rating, while many other markets typically specify RON.
Vehicles are designed and calibrated for a certain octane rating.When a customer uses gasoline with an octane
rating lower than required, knocking may result. Engines equipped with knock sensors can handle lower octane
ratings by retarding the spark timing, but this will increase fuel consumption, impair driveability and reduce
power, and knock may still occur. Using gasoline with an octane rating higher than recommended will not cause
problems.
Gasoline sold at higher altitudes should have the same octane ratings as gasoline sold at lower altitudes.
Historically, for older model engines, lower octanes provided the same anti-knock performance at high
altitudes as higher octanes provided at sea level. Since 1984, however, most vehicles have been equipped
with sophisticated electronic control systems that adjust to changes in air temperature and barometric
pressure, and these vehicles require the same octane levels at all altitudes.
This Charter specifies three octane grades in Categories 1-4 for market flexibility, but not all markets need
to carry all three grades. Similarly, while Category 5 specifies only two grades, marketers may provide addi-
tional grades as long as the minimum RON remains 95 in Category 5 markets. Importantly, fuel providers
should make available the octane grades needed by the local market.
Ash-forming (metal-containing) additives sometimes used for boosting octane are not recommended (see
Ash-Forming Additives discussion, page 22). Certain oxygenates, on the other hand, also can boost octane
but can do so more safely.
Increasing the minimum octane rating available in the marketplace has the potential to help vehicles signi-
ficantly improve fuel economy and, consequently, reduce vehicle CO2 emissions. While the improvement
will vary by powertrain design, load factor and calibration strategy, among other factors, vehicles currently
designed for 91 RON gasoline could improve their efficiency by up to three percent if manufacturers
could design them for 95 RON instead. Octane rating is becoming an especially important limiting factor
in future efficiency improvements because new, more efficient engine designs, such as smaller displacement
turbo-charged engines, are approaching their theoretical knock limits when using lower octane rated
gasoline. Raising the minimum market octane to 95 RON will enable manufacturers to optimize power-
train hardware and calibrations for thermal efficiency and CO2 emissions. All of these technologies and
actions will be needed to meet the highly challenging fuel economy and CO2 requirements emerging in
many countries.
S U LPHU R
Sulphur naturally occurs in crude oil. If the sulphur is not removed during the refining process it will remain
in the vehicle fuel. Cross-contamination also can occur in the fuel distribution system. Sulphur has a signifi-
cant impact on vehicle emissions by reducing the efficiency of catalysts. Sulphur also adversely affects heated
exhaust gas oxygen sensors. Reductions in sulphur will provide immediate reductions of emissions from all
catalyst-equipped vehicles on the road.
There has been extensive testing done on the impact of sulphur on vehicle emissions. The following studies
(see Table 1) indicate the emission reductions that occur with different vehicle technologies as sulphur is
reduced from the ‘high’ sulphur gasoline to the ‘low’:

T E CH N IC A L BAC KG RO UND FO R H
GAAR
SMO LINE
Table 1: Impact of Sulphur on Emissions
Study Vehicle Technology Sulphur Range (ppm) Emission Reduction, % (high to low sulphur)
high low HC CO NOx
AQIRP Tier 0 450 50 18 19 8
EPEFE EURO 2+ 382 18 9 (43*) 9 (52*) 10 (20*)
AAMA/AIAM LEV & ULEV 600 30 32 55 48
CRC LEV 630 30 32 46 61
JARI 1978 Regulations 197 21 55 51 77
Alliance/AIAM
LEV/ULEV 100 30 21 34 27
LEV/ULEV 30 1 7 12 16
JCAP DI/NOx cat. 25 2 37
* Reduction achieved during hot EUDC (extra-urban) portion of test.
Figure 1, which depicts the HC reductions from the US AQIRP study, indicates the typical emission reduction
for the different studies as the sulphur level changes, including the significant reduction when sulphur is
reduced from about 100 ppm to ‘low’ sulphur fuel.The data illustrate the importance of a very low sulphur
limit for advanced technology vehicles.
Figure 1: Sulphur Effects on Tier 0 Technology
HC (g/mi) 0.240
0.230
0.220
0.210
0.200
0.190
0.180
0.170
0.160
Fuel sulphur (ppm) 200 400 600 800 1000
In addition, laboratory research of catalysts has demonstrated delays in light-off time, increases in light-off
temperature and reductions in efficiency resulting from higher sulphur fuels across a full range of air/fuel
ratios. Studies have also demonstrated that sulphur slows the rich to lean transition, thereby introducing
an unintended rich bias into the emission calibration.
Stringent Emission Standard Challenges

Stringent emission requirements, combined with long-life compliance, demand extremely efficient, and
durable, after-treatment systems. For example, it is generally recognised that catalyst hydrocarbon efficiency
at 100,000 miles must be at least 93% for a vehicle meeting Low Emission Vehicle (LEV)/EURO 3 standards,
and about 97% for a vehicle meeting Ultra-LEV/EURO 4 standards. Studies on LEVs indicate that warmed-up
catalyst HC efficiency (i.e., excluding the start-up portion) must be 98% or better for 120,000 miles to ensure
that new US Tier 2 emission limits are met. These standards represent significant technological hurdles, even
in markets with high quality (Category 3) gasoline.
Figure 2 indicates the significant HC and NOx sensitivity to sulphur content. Advanced technologies
indicate an even higher response to sulphur.

T EC H NIC A L BAC KG R O UND GA S O LINE
Figure 2: Effects of Fuel Sulphur on Emissions (relative to 30 ppm Sulphur Fuels)
RELATIVE THC (%) 150 RELATIVE NOx (%) 150

SULEV proto
100 100
SULEV proto
LEVs LEVs
50 50
0 0
-50 -50
Fuel sulphur (ppm) 200 400 600 Fuel sulphur (ppm) 200 400 600
In 2001, the Alliance and AIAM completed a joint test program to evaluate the emission effects of decreasing
fuel sulphur levels ranging from 100 to 30 to 1 ppm S in a California Phase 2 reformulated gasoline
containing 11% MtBE. The test fleet consisted of 13 vehicles with LEV and ULEV technology, including
nine passenger cars and four light trucks. Vehicles were tested using the U.S. EPA Federal Test Procedure
(FTP). The relative rate of emissions reduction in the 30 to 1 ppm S range may have been due to a sulphur
contribution from the engine lubricant.
Figure 3 shows how the emissions of NOx and non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) continue to decline
significantly at ultra-low sulphur levels for advanced technology vehicles.
Figure 3: Effects of Ultra-Low Sulphur Levels on Emissions of NOx and NMHC
EMISSIONS RATE g/mi 0.24 EMISSIONS RATE g/mi 0.10

NOx NMHC
0.20 0.08
0.16
0.06
0.12 Fleet (13 veh.)
0.04
0.08 PC fleet (9)
0.04 Trucks (4) 0.02
0.00 0.00
Fuel sulphur (ppm) 0 25 50 75 100 Fuel sulphur (ppm) 0 25 50 75 100
Sulphur also will affect the feasibility of advanced on-board diagnostic system requirements. Existing
California on-board diagnostic (OBD II) regulations require vehicles to be equipped with catalyst monitors
that determine when catalyst efficiency changes and tailpipe emissions increase by 1.5 times the standard.
The loss of catalyst efficiency resulting from high sulphur fuels could cause some catalyst monitors to
indicate a problem code resulting in the illumination of a malfunction indicator light to signal the driver.
Similarly, some LEV data demonstrate that the catalysts monitor could fail to identify when a catalyst
operated on high sulphur fuel is no longer able to function.
Advanced and Future Technology

NOx emission control to the limits required by emission standards associated with Category 4 and 5
fuels—considering the concurrent needs of maintaining the control for the life of the vehicle and operating
under very lean conditions—is among the biggest challenges for emerging emission control technologies,
especially when sulphur is present in the fuel. Three way catalysts and lean NOx adsorbers are both highly
sensitive to sulphur, albeit to different degrees, and the reversibility of the impact remains a concern for
both types of emission control systems. Publicly available data are just beginning to emerge as vehicles with
these technologies are becoming more widely available.

GAAR
SM ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
O LINE
One study published in 2011 documented the effect of sulphur on a 2009 Model Year mid-sized sedan with
three-way catalyst technology meeting California’s PZEV standards (see SAE 2011-01-0300) The study
compared the effects of a 3 ppm sulphur gasoline with those of a 33 ppm sulphur gasoline. One of the
objectives was to determine whether 3 ppm fuel would cause NOx emission control to deteriorate during
repeated testing, similar to the test-to-test deterioration seen with 33 ppm fuel (‘NOx creep’). The study
first confirmed that, at the low level of emissions being measured from PZEV technology, sulphur levels as
low as 33 ppm can indeed contaminate the emission control system and affect test-to-test NOx stability
during compliance (FTP) testing. Special procedures not typically found during real world driving can be
applied prior to testing to nearly recover the original emission system efficiency, but the contamination
and emission system degradation do not occur when 3 ppm sulphur fuel is used. The study also found that
using a 3 ppm sulphur fuel can reduce tailpipe NOx emissions by 40% over the emissions produced when
the vehicle is operated using a 33 ppm sulphur fuel.
A different type of emission control technology (lean-NOx adsorbers or traps) is required for lean-burn
engines to meet emission standards for NOx that are associated with Category 4 and 5 fuels. Manufacturers
are working toward ambitious goals for improved fuel consumption/reduced CO2 emissions, and operation
at lean air-fuel ratio is one of the most promising means to achieve these reductions in gasoline-powered
vehicles. Manufacturers estimate lean-burn engines have the potential to reduce fuel consumption by up
to 10 to 15%, but lean operation introduces a new challenge: while three-way catalysts effectively remove
unburned HC and CO during lean operation, they can remove NOx only during stoichiometric or rich ope-
ration. Lean-NOx traps can operate in a lean exhaust environment, but they are highly sensitive to sulphur.
Lean NOx adsorber catalysts function by trapping NOx chemically during lean engine operation. NOx can
then be released and destroyed over a catalyst by a few seconds of rich operation. However, sulphur oxides
are more strongly trapped, and as a competitor to NOx, they reduce the NOx capacity of the adsorber.
Sulphur removal requires prolonged rich operating conditions, but the original NOx reduction efficiency
level can never be fully recovered. Also, allowing any rich engine operation significantly negates the fuel
efficiency benefits of the lean burn engine technologies used with these catalysts. Sulphur-free gasoline is
therefore necessary to maximise the benefits of lean-burn, fuel-efficient technology.
Figure 4 and Figure 5 provide examples of the adverse effect of sulphur on storage-type NOx reduction
catalysts. With increased exposure time, the lower sulphur gasolines allow the catalysts to retain a higher
NOx conversion efficiency. Further tests in vehicles (Figure 6 and Figure 7) confirm the critical need for
very low sulphur gasolines. Maintaining a high level of NOx conversion efficiency over a long period of
time—e.g., for the life of the vehicle—is another major concern due to sulphur’s cumulative impact in the
field. Figure 8 shows how ultra-low sulphur gasoline can maintain much higher NOx conversion efficien-
cies over time compared with higher sulphur levels. Thus, ultra-low or sulphur-free gasoline is required to
achieve and maintain high NOx conversion efficiencies over years of vehicle use.
Figure 4: Sulphur Effect on Low Emission Vehicles – Direct Fuel Injection Engines (Japan Clean Air Program)
NOx (g/km) 0.25 GVA (MPI-Three way catalyst)

0.20 GVB (DI-NOx Storage reduction catalyst)
0.15 GVC (DI-NOx Storage reduction catalyst)
@ 30,000 km
0.10 GVD (DI-NOx catalyst)
0.05
0.00
GVB data with 2 ppmS Fuel was obtained at mileage of 27,000 km
-0.05
Fuel sulphur (ppm) 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 5: Effect of Fuel Sulphur on Lean NOx Traps Flow Reactor Study
NOx Efficiency (%) 100

0 ppm
80
50 ppm
60
40
200 ppm
20
500 ppm
Time (Hr) 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Figure 6: Influence of Sulphur Concentration in Gasoline on Vehicle Aftertreatment System Durability
NOx Conversion 100

8 ppm
Japanese
90 ppm 30 ppm
10-15 mode (%) 75 200 ppm
50
25 500 ppm
Distance (km) 0 16000 32000
Figure 7: Lean NOx Adsorber Catalyst Data – Catalyst NOx Breakthrough vs. Fuel Consumed & Fuel Sulphur Content
Catalyst NOx 100

Breakthrough (%)
80
300 ppm Sulphur Fuel Catalyst 'B'
60
150 ppm Sulphur Fuel Catalyst 'A'

40
27 ppm Sulphur Fuel Catalyst 'C'
20 7 ppm Sulphur Fuel Catalyst 'A'
10 ppm Sulphur Fuel Catalyst 'C'
0 0.1 ppm Sulphur Fuel Catalyst 'C'
Fuel Consumed
(Gallons) 0 20 40 60 80 90 100 120 140 160
Figure 8: Regeneration of Sulphur Poisoning
NOx Conversion (%) 100

8 ppm
90 ppm
80
500 ppm
60
40
Engine bench tests
20
Regeneration
Time (min) at 620°C 0 5 10 15 20

T E CH N IC A L BAC KG RO UND GA S O LINE
A S H- FO RMING (METAL -CONTA INING) A D D ITIVES
Today’s vehicles employ sophisticated exhaust emission control equipment and strategies, such as close-coupled
high cell density three-way catalysts, ceramic oxygen sensors and computerized engine control modules
that provide precise closed-loop control. These systems must be kept in optimal condition to maintain the
vehicle’s low emissions capability. Ash-forming fuel additives, such as organo-metallic compounds, and metallic
contaminants, such as calcium, copper, phosphorous, sodium and zinc, can adversely affect the operation of
these systems in an irreversible way that increases emissions. Thus, high-quality gasoline should be used and
ash-forming additives and contaminants must be avoided.
Lead
Tetra-ethyl lead has been used historically as an inexpensive octane enhancer for gasoline, but it will poison vehicle
emission control systems. The lead binds to active sites within the catalyst and oxygen sensor, greatly reducing
their effectiveness. The tolerance to lead contamination has steadily declined as catalyst efficiencies and sensors
have improved, so even a slight amount of lead in the fuel will irreversibly disable the emission control system.As
a result, vehicle hydrocarbon and NOx emissions will increase even when the vehicle returns to using lead-free
gasoline. Unleaded gasoline must be available wherever catalyst-equipped vehicles refuel; increasingly, this means
every market around the world. A global lead-free market also is essential for public health, given lead’s well-
known adverse health effects.These concerns have led most countries to require lead-free gasoline; the few that
have not yet done so should eliminate the use of this fuel additive as soon as possible.
Manganese (MMT)
Manganese is a key component of methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT), which also is
marketed as an octane-enhancing fuel additive for gasoline. Like lead, manganese in the fuel will irreversibly
reduce the efficiency of exhaust emission control systems.
Studies have shown that most of the MMT-derived manganese in the fuel remains within the engine, catalyst
and exhaust system. The oxidized manganese coats exposed surfaces throughout the system, including
spark plugs, oxygen sensors and inside the cells of the catalytic converter. These effects result in higher
emissions and lower fuel economy. The effect is irreversible and cumulative.
• The coating of internal engine components, such as spark plugs, can cause in-cylinder combustion misfire,
which leads to increased HC and CO emissions, increased fuel consumption, poor vehicle driveability
and possible physical damage to the catalyst. These conditions result in increased owner dissatisfaction
and expensive repairs for consumers and vehicle manufacturers.
• MMT’s combustion products also accumulate on the catalyst. In some cases, the front face of the catalyst
an become plugged with deposits, causing increased back pressure, poor vehicle operation and increased
fuel consumption in addition to reduced emission control.
In 2002, automobile manufacturers jointly completed a multi-year study of the real-world impact of MMT
on Low Emission Vehicles (LEVs). After 100,000 miles of driving with fuel containing 1/32 g Mn/gal, the test
fleet showed significantly increased non-methane organic gases (NMOG), CO and NOx emissions. MMT
also significantly decreased fuel economy; on average, on-road (highway) fuel economy was about 0.5 miles
per gallon (mpg) lower than with a clear test gasoline (Figure 9). Similar results were found in another
part of the study with earlier model vehicles equipped with Tier 1 emission control technology,where HC
emissions increased after 50,000 miles of driving. Figure 10 provides visual evidence of MMT’s impact on
parts used in some Tier 1 and LEV vehicles. The spark plug and oxygen sensor came from vehicles used
in the 2002 joint automaker study, and the catalytic converters came from market vehicles, one driven in
Canada when MMT was in widespread use and the other driven in California where MMT is not allowed.
The reddish-brown deposits were identified as oxidized manganese.

Figure 9: Emission and Fuel Economy Effect of MMT – 1998-99 LEVs
(g/mi) 0.2 (mpg) 26

24
0.15
22
Clear
0.1 20
MMT
MMT concentration: 18
1/32 g Mn/USgal 0.05
16
0 14
Emissions Fuel Economy
at 100,000 MILES NMOG CO/10 NOx at 100,000 MILES EPA City On-Road
Figure 10: Impact of MMT on Tier 1/LEV Parts at 50,000 Miles
Spark Plug Oxygen Sensor Catalytic Converter
MMT test fuel
MMT-free fuel
Around the time when this study was released (2002), North American automakers began to notice
increased warranty claims in Canada, where MMT was in widespread use, compared to claims in the U.S.,
where MMT was not in widespread use. The growth in claims was occurring just as new emission control
technologies were being introduced. Beginning in the late 1990s, automakers had been introducing vehicles
with high cell density catalysts, close-coupled catalysts, catalysts with new washcoats, more sophisticated
computerized engine-control systems and engine design modifications, in anticipation of more stringent
emission standards. By the early 2000s, the newer technologies were penetrating the Canadian fleet at
increasing rates, varying by manufacturer and model.Today, in the EU, Japan, North America and many other
developed markets, these highly advanced technologies now dominate the fleets because they are needed
to meet stringent emission standards.
Sierra Research, Inc., compiled and analysed these observations in Sierra Report SR2008-08-01, Impacts of
MMT Use in Unleaded Gasoline on Engines, Emission Control Systems and Emissions (available at www.
autoalliance.org). The report revealed cases of severe catalyst plugging, driveability problems, illumination of
the dashboard engine malfunction indicator light (MIL) and increased tailpipe emissions, among other adverse
effects (Table 2).The automakers conducted laboratory tests to confirm the in-use findings, investigated cau-
sative factors and measured the emission impacts. The data confirmed their suspicions: MMT had adversely
affected at least 25 different models, including both advanced and older technologies of 1999-2003 model
year vintage produced by nine different manufacturers and accounting for about 85% of Canadian light-duty
vehicle sales in 2006. The magnitude of this statistic fails to reflect the full potential impact, however, due to
unknowns and varying conditions such as changing vehicle technologies, fuel quality, vehicle mileage, MMT
concentrations and actual use of MMT-containing gasoline. The report’s Executive Summary includes the
following statement:
There is no demonstrated method, other than eliminating MMT® from the fuel, to ensure that an
emission control system that allows a vehicle to comply with the requirements of the Tier 2/LEV II
regulations will not experience catalyst plugging caused by manganese oxides as well as one or more of the
observed problems of degraded driveability, MIL illumination, and increased emissions.

Table 2. Source of Evidence of Adverse MMT® Impacts on Exhaust Emissions, Operation and Performance
of In-Use Canadian Vehicles with Advanced Emission Control Technologies and Systems
In-Use Number of Models

Warranty Vehicle Laboratory Emissions Impacted by
MFR Claims Inspection Testing Testing MMT® Identified Model Years
A YES YES NO NO 1 1999
C YES YES YES YES 4 2000-2002
D YES YES YES YES 2 2003
I NO YES NO NO 1 2002
J YES YES YES YES 7 2002-2003
K YES YES YES YES 1 2003
L NO YES YES YES 3 2001
M YES YES YES YES 5 2001-2003
O NO NO YES NO 1 2001
After Canadian refiners voluntarily halted MMT use between 2003 and 2005 (most use had ended by the
summer of 2004), automakers then observed a rapid decline in the incidence of catalyst plugging. Figure 11
shows one manufacturer’s month-by-month warranty analysis for the period between 2001 and 2005.
Other manufacturers found similar impacts, including the reversal of the monitored effect as MMT was
phased out in most of Canada.
Figure 11. Warranty Analysis: Number of Catalyst Replacement Incidences per Month due to MMT Plugging (Manufacturer C)
# of incident
200101 200106 200111 200204 200209 200302 200307 200312 200405 200410 200503 200508
Automakers consider the above statistics to be very conservative and believe the true vehicle impact was
actually greater than recorded. Since the vehicle impairment also meant the emission control systems were
functioning poorly, automakers conservatively estimate that VOC, CO and NOx emissions would have
increased by 77%, 51% and 12%, respectively, by 2020, if MMT had been reintroduced into Canada in 2008.
The reader is referred to the Sierra Report for more detail concerning this analysis.
The real-world evidence of adverse impacts continues to grow. In addition to the above studies and expe-
rience in North America, several major companies have reported failed emission components in China,
South Africa, parts of Eastern Europe, parts of Asia, and/or Argentina. South African vehicles, which have less
advanced control systems than in Canada but use fuel with higher levels of MMT, also have been adversely
affected (Figure 12 ). Given this overwhelming body of information, automobile manufacturers remain

extremely concerned about MMT’s impact, especially on the highly sensitive technologies that are being
or will be used in markets around the world. Most major auto manufacturers state in their Owner Guides
that they recommend against the use of MMT, advising further that any damage caused by MMT may not
be covered by the warranty.
Figure 12: Evidence of MMT’s Impact on Canadian and South African Vehicles
A: Canada B: South Africa
Information on the amount of MMT consumed worldwide is not publicly available, although fuel surveys
suggest frequent use in several countries outside of Europe, Japan and North America. In other markets,
surveys show that manganese is virtually absent from market gasoline, either as a result of regulation or
voluntary action by fuel providers. U.S. law, for example, prohibits MMT use in federal reformulated gaso-
line (RFG), which constitutes more than one third of the U.S. gasoline pool, and the State of California
also bans use in that state. Even outside RFG and regulated areas, the fuel is voluntarily MMT-free. Fuel
providers in Canada, India, Indonesia and Japan also are voluntarily providing MMT-free gasoline. In 2009,
the European Parliament adopted market restrictions on MMT that were upheld in 2011 against a legal
challenge. South Africa adopted a dual fuel approach where gasoline with MMT may legally be sold for use
in older vehicles (as Lead Replacement Petrol), but that market has been declining. China is among the
regions where MMT use has been growing. In 2011, however, the government adopted a rule imposing tight
limits nationwide beginning in 2014. For markets where at least some gasoline contains MMT, appropriate
pump labelling is imperative to inform the consumer.
Iron (Ferrocene)
Ferrocene has been used to replace lead as an octane enhancer for unleaded fuels in some markets. It
contains iron, which deposits on spark plugs, catalysts and other exhaust system parts as iron oxide, and
may also affect other engine components. The deposits will cause premature failure of the spark plugs,
with plug life being reduced by up to 90% compared to normal service expectations. Failing spark plugs
will short-circuit and cause misfiring when hot, such as under high load condition. This may cause thermal
damage to the exhaust catalyst.
Figure 13 shows the reduction in spark plug insulator resistance as a function of temperature. The results
compare plugs using fuel with a ferrocene additive after only 32 hours of testing, with a reference plug
using conventional gasoline after 300 hours of testing.
Figure 13: Insulator Resistance at Temperature Test Results for Spark Plugs Taken from Test Engine after 32 Hours
Shunt Resistance 25
MOhms 20
spark plug 1
spark plug 2 15
spark plug 3 10
spark plug 4 5
ref. spark plug
0
Temperature (C) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720 780

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Iron oxide also acts as a physical barrier between the catalyst/oxygen sensor and the exhaust gases, and also
leads to erosion and plugging of the catalyst. As a result, the emission control system is not able to function
as designed, causing emissions to increase.Additionally, premature wear of critical engine components such as
the pistons and rings can occur due to the presence of iron oxide in the vehicle lubrication system.
CON TA MINANTS
Contaminants, including some from additives, whether intentionally or inadvertently added during fuel
production or distribution, can cause significant harm to the powertrain, fuel, exhaust or emission control
systems. Good housekeeping practices can help minimize or prevent inadvertent contamination. No detec-
table levels of the elements listed below should exist in gasoline, nor should they be used as components
of any fuel additive package intended to improve gasoline and engine performance. These elements should
be strictly controlled, and it may prove necessary to check and control the fuel quality at the pump.
• Phosphorus, which is sometimes used as a valve recession additive, can foul spark plugs and will deactivate
catalytic converters.
• Silicon is not a natural component of gasoline but has been found in commercial gasoline in several
instances. The source usually is silicon-containing waste solvents added to the gasoline after the fuel has
left the refinery. Such contamination has significant adverse effects on the engine and emission control
systems. Silicon, even in low concentrations, can cause failure of the oxygen sensors and high levels of
deposits in engines and catalytic converters.These impacts can lead to catastrophic engine failures in less
than one tankful of contaminated fuel.
• Chlorine, which is not naturally contained in petroleum, has been found in gasoline in both inorganic and
organic forms. Inorganic chlorine usually enters the fuel as a result of contamination by sea water ballast
during shipping or from salt water intrusion during storage. Such contamination occurs more readily in
gasoline-ethanol blends than in E0 due to the blends’ ability to dissolve more water. Organic chlorine
may enter the fuel through adulteration with chemical or waste solvents. Chlorine forms highly corrosive
acids during combustion, which can reduce significantly the durability of the engine, fuel system and emis-
sion control system. In the worst case, the presence of chlorine may lead to catastrophic engine failure as
injectors fail to operate or operate improperly after various periods and levels of exposure.
OXYG E NATES
Oxygenated organic compounds, such as MtBE and ethanol, often are added to gasoline to increase octane
or extend gasoline supplies. Oxygenating the fuel also may affect vehicle emissions (tailpipe, evaporative or
both), performance and/or durability. Adding ethanol also affects the distillation of the gasoline blend. See
Volatility, below.
Adding oxygenates to gasoline will induce a lean shift in engine stoichiometry, which, in turn, will reduce car-
bon monoxide (CO) emissions, especially from carburetted vehicles without electronic feedback-controlled
fuel systems.These emission benefits are smaller in modern electronic feedback-controlled vehicles, however,
because the leaning effect only occurs during cold operation or during rapid accelerations. In fact, fuel-leaning
caused by oxygenates can cause tailpipe emissions to increase, depending on the leanness of the engine’s base
calibration with non-oxygenated gasoline. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) found in emission
tests on 14 1990-1995 model year vehicles that a gasoline containing 10% ethanol by volume decreased toxic
emissions by 2% and CO by 10% but increased NOx by 14%, total HC by 10% and ozone-forming poten-
tial by 9%, relative to a gasoline containing 11% MtBE by volume. More recent testing by the Coordinating
Research Council (CRC) on newer vehicles has produced similar results (CRC E-67).
This over-leaning also can degrade driveability, and it is well documented that ethanol-blended gasoline, in
particular, can cause an offset in driveability performance. Increased exhaust hydrocarbon emissions are likely
to accompany this offset in driveability performance. Because ethanol has a higher heat of vaporisation than

ethers, some of the driveability and emissions degradation of gasoline-ethanol blends can be attributed to the
additional heat needed to vaporise the gasoline.
The use of ethanol-blended gasoline also may affect evaporative emissions. LEV vehicles, for example,
have been found to emit approximately 12 percent more evaporative emissions when using 10% ethanol-
blended gasoline than when using a hydrocarbon-only fuel (General Motors, 2000). This emissions impact
may be due, in part, to the permeation of fuel molecules through elastomeric materials (rubber and plastic
parts) used in the vehicle’s fuel and fuel vapor handling systems. In a study conducted from January 2003
to June 2004, the CRC in cooperation with CARB found that permeation emissions increased on all 10
vehicle-fuel systems in the study when ethanol replaced MtBE as the test fuel oxygenate (both oxygenated
fuels contained 2% oxygen by weight). The ethanol-blended fuel increased the average diurnal permeation
emissions by 1.4 g/day compared to the MtBE fuel, and by 1.1 g/day compared to the non-oxygenated fuel
(see Figure 14 ). The study also confirmed previous estimates that permeation of these gasoline-ethanol
blends doubles for each 10°C rise in temperature.
Figure 14: Average Diurnal Permeation of Day 1 & Day 2 (CRC E65 Fleet)
The study further examined specific ozone reactivity and found the non-oxygenated fuel to have a statis-
tically higher reactivity than either the MtBE- or ethanol-containing fuels. The average specific reactivities
of the two oxygenated fuel permeates were not statistically different.The data support the hypothesis that
ethanol-blends tend to increase the permeation of other hydrocarbon species in addition to ethanol. The
study is continuing with 2004 model year vehicles, which have to meet more stringent emission standards
than those used in the first part of the study.
Based on past experience with impurities in ethanol that have led to degradation of fuel systems, fuel ethanol
must have a specification to control pHe and its blending properties (ASTM D 4806). Also, the limits
and restriction on the oxygenates permitted in each Category were developed on the basis of emission
benefits, vehicle performance and existing regulations. Based on these criteria, when oxygenates are used,
ethers are preferred. Also, the use of ethanol-blended gasoline may require other fuel changes to mitigate
evaporative and exhaust emission impacts. Maintaining the availability of protection-grade fuel (up to E5)
may be necessary in some markets to protect older vehicles designed for ethanol-free gasoline.
Methanol is not permitted. Methanol is an aggressive material that can cause corrosion of metallic
com-ponents of fuel systems and the degradation of plastics and elastomers.

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OLE F I NS
Olefins are unsaturated hydrocarbons and, in many cases, are also good octane components of gasoline.
However, olefins in gasoline can lead to deposit formation and increased emissions of reactive (i.e.,
ozone-forming) hydrocarbons and toxic compounds.
Effect of Olefins on Emissions

Olefins are thermally unstable and may lead to gum formation and deposits in an engine’s intake system.
Furthermore, their evaporation into the atmosphere as chemically reactive species contributes to ozone
formation and their combustion products form toxic dienes.
The effect on ozone-forming potential was clearly demonstrated by the US Auto/Oil programme. The
programme concluded that reducing total olefins from 20% to 5% would significantly decrease ozone-
forming potential in three critical cities: Los Angeles, Dallas-Fort Worth, and New York City (Figure 15).
Figure 15: Reduction in Ozone-Forming Potential with Reduction in Fuel Olefins (20%-5%)
OFP Reduction (%) 30

25
20
15
10
5
0
US City LA DFW NY
The model also showed that the same reduction in gasoline olefin level would reduce the light-duty vehicle
contribution to peak ozone by 13% to 25% in future years for the cities shown in Figure 15. About 70% of
this effect was due to reducing low molecular weight olefins.
A R O MATIC S
Aromatics are fuel molecules that contain at least one benzene ring. In general, aromatics are good octane
components of gasoline and high-energy density fuel molecules. Fuel aromatic content can increase engine
deposits and increase tailpipe emissions, including CO2.
Influence of Aromatics on Engine Deposits

Heavy aromatics, and other high molecular weight compounds, have been linked to engine deposit
for¬mation, particularly combustion chamber deposits. As discussed below (‘Deposit Control Additives’),
these deposits increase tailpipe emissions, including HC and NOx. Since it is not feasible to specify limits for
individual hydrocarbon compounds in the fuel, the total aromatic limit in Category 1 and the final boil-ing
point limits in Categories 2 and 3 provide the best means to limit heavy aromatics.
Influence of Aromatics on Tailpipe Emissions

Combustion of aromatics can lead to the formation of carcinogenic benzene in exhaust gas and increased
combustion chamber deposits which can increase tailpipe emissions. Lowering aromatic levels in gasoline
significantly reduces toxic benzene emissions in exhaust from vehicles as shown in both the US AQIRP and
the European EPEFE studies. (Figure 16 ).

Figure 16: Fuel Aromatics Effect on Benzene Exhaust Emissions
Benzene (%) 12
10
US Auto/Oil
8
EPEFE
6
4
2
Aromatics (%) 20 30 40 50 60
Findings from the US AQIRP programme showed that, of all the fuel properties tested, aromatic level had
the largest effect on total toxics, largely due to its effect on exhaust benzene emissions as shown in the
above figure. Reducing total aromatics from 45% to 20% caused a reduction in total exhaust air toxics of
28% (74% of the total toxic emissions was benzene).
Influence of Aromatics on CO2 Emissions

Gasoline aromatic content also has a direct effect on tailpipe CO2 emissions. The European EPEFE
programme demonstrated a linear relationship between CO2 emissions and aromatic content.The reduction
of aromatics from 50 to 20% was found to decrease CO2 emissions by 5%.
B E N ZENE
Benzene is a naturally occurring constituent of crude oil and a product of catalytic reforming that produces
high octane gasoline streams. It is also a known human carcinogen.
The control of benzene levels in gasoline is the most direct way to limit evaporative and exhaust emissions
of benzene from automobiles. The control of benzene in gasoline has been recognised by regulators in many
countries as an effective way to reduce human exposure to benzene.These gasoline recommendations recognise
the increasing need for benzene control as emission standards become more stringent.
VO LAT ILITY
Proper volatility of gasoline is critical to the operation of spark ignition engines with respect to both perfor-
mance and emissions. Volatility may be characterised by various measurements, the most common of which
are vapour pressure, distillation and the vapour/liquid ratio.The presence of ethanol or other oxygenates may
affect these properties and, as a result, performance and emissions as well.
Vapour Pressure
The vapour pressure of gasoline should be controlled seasonally to allow for the differing volatility needs of
vehicles at different ambient temperatures.The vapour pressure must be tightly controlled at high temperatures
to reduce the possibility of hot fuel handling problems, such as vapour lock or excessive evaporative emissions
due to carbon canister overloading, especially at higher temperatures. At lower temperatures, a sufficiently high
vapour pressure is needed to allow ease of starting and good warm-up performance.Therefore, both minimum
and maximum vapour pressures are specified.

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New data have become available on the effects of vapour pressure. Figures 17 and 18 provide the hydro-
carbon slip from canisters for two sample vehicles tested during study of the effects of 48, 62 and 69 kPa
E10 (10% ethanol gasoline blend) fuels on canister breakthrough emissions over 14 days of SHED testing
using the temperature profile from the U.S. Federal Diurnal Cycle. The data collected throughout the
testing provides a correlation between the hydrocarbon slip from the vehicle canister and the fuel vapour
pressure. The data indicate that the lower vapour pressure fuels, such as 48 kPa, are imperative during
warm ambient temperatures for achieving very low evaporative emissions. The full report, with additional
data, can be found at SAE 2013-01-1057. The study provided additional empirical evidence to a previous
SAE study (Clontz, SAE Technical Paper No. 2007-01-1929) that showed the most important property of
the fuel blend for canister performance is the vapour pressure. More importantly, the vapour pressure, not
ethanol concentration, is the determining factor for vapour generation in the fuel tank.
Figure 17: Effect of Vapour Pressure on LEV II PZEV Vehicle Canister During 14-day Diurnal
69 kPa Fuel 62 kPa Fuel 48 kPa Fuel SHED Temp. (°F)

200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
Temp (°F)
Grams (g)
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Test Duration (Days)
Figure 18: Effect of Vapour Pressure on Tier 2 Vehicle Canister During 14-day Diurnal
69 kPa Fuel 62 kPa Fuel 48 kPa Fuel SHED Temp. (°F)

200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
Temp (°F)
Grams (g)
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Test Duration (Days)
Distillation
Distillation of gasoline yields either a set of ‘T’ points (T50 is the temperature at which 50% of the gasoline
distils) or ‘E’ points (E100 is the percentage of a gasoline distilled at 100 degrees). Excessively high T50 (low
E100) can lead to poor starting and warm-up performance at moderate ambient temperatures. Control
of the Distillation Index (DI), derived from T10, T50, T90, and oxygen content, also can be used to assure
good cold start and warm-up performance.

Driveability concerns are measured as demerits. Figure 19 provides the test results from one CRC study
of the impact of the Driveability Index on driveability. This study tested 29 fuels: 9 all hydrocarbon, 11 with
10% ethanol and 9 with 15% MtBE. The data indicate that driveability problems increase for all fuel types
as the Driveability Index increases. At Driveability Index levels higher than those specified in this Charter,
driveability concerns increase dramatically.
Figure 19: Effect of Driveability Index on Driveability
Avg. Weighted 140

Demerits 120
100
HC
80
MTBE
Ethanol 60
40
Driveability Index = 20
(1.5*T10)+(3*T50)+T90 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700
An oxygen correction factor is required to correct for higher driveability demerits for oxygenated fuels as
compared to all-HC gasoline. Figure 20 indicates how the correction factor smoothes the data presented
in Figure 19.
Figure 20: Effect of DI on Driveability (Oxygen Corrected)
Avg. Weighted 140

Demerits 120
100
HC
80
MTBE
Ethanol 60
40
Driveability Index =
(1.5*T10)+(3*T50)+ 20
T90+(11*%OXY) 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700
DI also is directly related to tailpipe HC emissions, as shown in Figure 21. As with driveability demerits,
HC emissions increase significantly at DI levels higher than those specified in this Charter.
Figure 21: Effect of DI on Driveability and Exhaust Emissions
HC (g/mi) 4.5 70 Total

60 Weighted
4.0 Demerits
50
HC (TWD)
40
TWD 3.5
30
3.0 20
10
Driveability Index =
(1.5*T10)+(3*T50)+
2.5 0
T90+(11*%OXY) 530 560 590 620 650 680

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Figure 22 indicates that optimum values for T50 and T90 exist to achieve lower exhaust THC emissions.
Figure 22: Effect of T50/T90 on Exhaust Emissions Comparison of LEV and TLEV
Difference in THC (%) 40 40

30 T50 30 T90
TLEV
20 20 LEV
LEV TLEV
10 10
0 0
-10 -10
C 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Vapour/Liquid Ratio
Excessively high gasoline volatility can cause hot fuel handling problems such as vapour lock, canister
overloading, and higher emissions.Vapour lock occurs when too much vapour forms in the fuel system and
decreases or blocks fuel flow to the engine. This can result in loss of power, rough engine operation or
engine stalls. Since controls on vapour pressure and distillation properties are insufficient to prevent this
problem, a Vapour/Liquid Ratio specification is necessary.
Ethanol’s Impact on Volatility

As a pure compound, ethanol exhibits straightforward behaviour regarding vapour pressure and distilla-
tion.When added to a base gasoline, however, the behaviour of the mixture is anything but straightforward.
As a result, the vapour pressure and distillation of ethanol-gasoline blends, at a minimum, must be carefully
regulated to ensure proper vehicle operation and emissions control. Ethanol also will make vapour lock
more likely, so controlling the vapour-liquid ratio is even more important when ethanol is present.
Ethanol by itself has a very low vapour pressure, but adding it to gasoline has a non-linear and synergistic
effect. Importantly, the final vapour pressure of the blend could be either higher or lower than the base
gasoline, depending on temperature and ethanol concentration. At lower ethanol concentrations (below
about 10% by volume) and typical temperatures, ethanol will cause the blend’s vapour pressure to exceed
that of the base gasoline. To prevent excess evaporative emissions, the vapour pressure of the finished
blend, not just the base gasoline, must be controlled. Figure 23 illustrates this effect.
T=37.8°c
VP (kPa) 70
60
50
40
30
20
Ethanol 10
(vol%) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 24, below, looks more closely at the variation for an E10 and its base gasoline (E0), showing the
impact for a wider range of temperatures. Importantly, at temperatures above 37.8°C, the E10 has a higher
vapour pressure relative to E0, but at lower temperatures, the vapour pressure goes below that of E0.
The effect could be significant and prevent an engine from starting at very cold temperatures. Therefore,
a higher minimum vapour pressure is required for ethanol-gasoline blends than would be needed for the
base gasoline alone at these very low temperatures.
Figure 24: Comparison of E0 and E10 Vapour Pressures at Various Temperatures
100
90
80
70 E0_44kPa
Vapor Pressure (kPa)
60
E10_44kPa
50
40
30
20
10
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperaure (°C)
Magnification of Figure 24 at Temperatures Below Freezing
5 E0_44kPa
E10_44kPa
Vapor Pressure (kPa)
1
0
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10
Temperaure (°C)
Ethanol’s impact on the distillation curve is just as complex, if not more so. Figure 25 shows how different
ethanol levels in gasoline can cause dramatic changes in distillation, especially as the ethanol concentration
goes above 10% by volume and near the middle of the distillation curve.The distillation measurement must
be adjusted to account for the impact, and the blend’s distillation must be well-controlled.

Figure 25: Influence of Ethanol on Gasoline Distillation
200 E0
190 E1
180 E2
170 E5
160 E10
150 E20
140 E30
130 E40
Temperature (°C) 120 E50
110 E85
100 E100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Distilled 30
Volume (%) 0 20 40 60 80 100
DE PO S IT CONTRO L AD D ITIVES
Combustion of even good quality gasoline can lead to deposit formation. Such deposits will increase
engine-out emissions and affect vehicle performance. High quality fuel contains sufficient deposit control
additives to reduce deposit formation to acceptable rates.
Carburettors
First generation additives based on amine chemistry were developed in the early 1950’s and are still used
in some countries at levels of 50 parts per million treat rate. Many of these additives were multifunctional,
providing anti-icing protection, corrosion inhibition and carburettor detergency performance.
Port Fuel Injectors

US gasoline marketers introduced port fuel injector deposit control additives around 1985 to overcome
problems with fuel injector fouling that led to driveability problems. However, treat rates were nearly
double those for carburettor detergents resulting in increased intake valve deposits in many cases.
Detergent technology and test procedures must be developed to protect the more advanced injectors
being introduced in direct injection engines.
Intake Valves
Various tests are available to evaluate the gasoline’s capability of maintaining acceptable intake valve clean-
liness. Figure 26 shows the performance of base fuel without detergent additives and fuels with various
detergent additive chemistries in the Ford 2.3L IVD test (ASTM D6201). Moderate additive treat rates
combined with effective carrier fluids help avoid intake valve sticking. Passing the VW Wasserboxer Intake
Valve Sticking Test minimises the likelihood of this problem occurring.

Figure 26: IVD Performance of Gasolines With and Without Detergents, Using the Ford 2.3L Dynamometer Test
IVD MASS (mg/valve) 400 400

350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
Fuel Additive Code Base A B C D E F J K L M Q R
The impact of intake valve deposits on driveability in both North America and Europe has been severe
enough in recent years to prompt vehicle manufacturers to steer customers to gasoline known to contain
adequate detergency for minimizing and reducing intake valve deposits. Figure 27 shows the results of a
Ford study of US market gasoline performance regarding intake valve deposits conducted in 1999-2000
and presented to ASTM in 2003. One third of the fuel samples caused unacceptable IVD rates ranging from
392 mg/valve to 1157 mg/valve. This problem is continuing to cause concern in 2012.
Figure 27: IVD Performance of Service Station Gasolines, using the Ford 2.3L Dynamometer Test
IVD, mg/valve 1400

1200 Fuels were obtained from service stations in Detroit,
Houston, Los Angeles, New Orleans, San Antonio
1000
800
600
400
200
Service 0
Station Code SS1 SS2 SS3 SS4 SS5 SS6 SS7 SS8 SS9
Combustion Chambers
As combustion chamber deposits (CCDs) form, they reduce the space available in the chamber for com-
bustion while adding small crevices that increase the surface area of the chamber. This phenomenon has
three undesirable effects: 1) higher compression ratios and end gas temperatures that increase the octane
requirements higher than the engine was designed for, 2) increased exhaust emissions, and 3) mechanical
interference between the piston top and cylinder head called ‘carbon knock’.
Methods for measuring CCD could be improved. CEC F-20-A (Method 2), for example, produces technically
relevant results when the engine operator has detailed knowledge about the measurement precision of
the particular test stand, but in general, the method lacks precision data and cannot produce statistically
valid CEC results for chamber deposits.
Engine Dynamometer Results

Detergent additives usually increase the level of CCDs relative to base fuel as shown in Figure 28 and
Figure 29. Detergent packages with higher ratios of mineral oil carriers tend to increase CCDs, while
detergent packages with optimised high-quality synthetic carrier fluids and compounds like polyether
amines (PEA) minimise CCD build-up. Additive packages should be optimised to minimise CCDs, which
will allow engine designers to improve combustion chamber designs further for lower emissions and fuel
consumption.

Figure 28: Engine Dynamometer Results
Deposit 1.4 1.4

Thickness (mm)
1.2 Squish clearance 1.2
1 of test engine 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
Piston Top + Cyl Head 0 0
Mean 1 2 3 A1 A2 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 I1
Maximum BaseFuel Base + Additive
Figure 29: CCD Performance of Gasolines Using the Ford 2.3L Dynamometer Test (ASTM D6201)
Change in CCD 200

MASS (%) 175
Piba/oil Piba/oil
150
Piba/synthetic Piba/synthetic
125
100
75
50
25
0
Fuel Additive Code A B C D
Note: Piba/Synthetic - polyisobutene amine/synthetic oil

Piba/Oil - polyisobutene amine/mineral oil
Effect of CCD Removal on Engine-Out Emissions
The removal of CCDs can reduce engine out HC emissions by up to 10%, CO by 4%, and NOx by 15% as
shown in Figure 30 for fleet vehicles after accumulating 50,000 miles.
Figure 30: Effect of CCD Removal on Engine-Out Emissions
Avg. Change 0 Test Fuel

in Emissions (%) E1 (PIBA/synthetic fluid)
-3.5 -4 -3.7
-5 -6.1
F1 (PIBA/mineral oil)
-10 -10.3
-14.5
-15
HC CO NOx

Carbon knock in modern engines did not occur even at high mileages in Japan. When these same engines
were sold in the US, customers began objecting to the engine noise after only a few thousand miles in
some cases. Some customers required replacement of the cylinder heads because of the damage caused by
the piston hitting the deposits. Other customers switched brands of gasoline or used after-market deposit
control additives to help remove deposits causing carbon knock. The problem in the US was attributed to
high-additive treat rates being used for IVD control.
Relationship of CCDs to TGA Test

A test procedure with the Mercedes M111 E engine is being developed to evaluate the CCD-forming
tendency of gasolines. A thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) bench test method has been developed that
provides a good correlation with CCDs in a dynamometer-based multicylinder engine test as shown in
Figure 31 and Figure 32.
Figure 31: Correlation of CCD and TGA Results of Commercial Fuels in Ford 2.3L IVD Test (ASTM D6201)
TGA Residue 20
at 450 C (%) 16
12
8
4
CCD (mg/cyl) 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Figure 32: TGA Proposed Pass/Fail Limit - 4.0L Dynamometer Test Results
TGA Residue 25
at 450 C (%) Fuel causes CCD interference in dyno test
20
15
10
5
Maximum Deposit
Thickness (mm/cyl) 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2 2,2

Relationship between Unwashed Gum and CCD Thickness

Figure 33 indicates the correlation between unwashed gums and CCD formation as compared to base
gasoline without detergent. Thus, the Charter allows compliance to either an unwashed gum limit or a
CCD requirement.
Figure 33: Relationship between Unwashed Gum and CCD Thickness
Relative 3 3
CCD Thickness Piston Top Cylinder Head
2 2
1 1
Unwashed
Gum (mg/100mL) 100 200 100 200
As emission standards become more stringent, it is critical for fuel quality to support improvements in
emission control technology to meet these limits. Detergent additives that prevent the formation of CCDs
have the benefit of helping meet environmental standards while improving vehicle performance.
GO O D HO U S EK EEPING P RACTICES
The problems encountered by vehicles from poor quality fuel often are caused by adulteration that occurs
in the fuel distribution system, after the fuel has left the refinery gate. Failure to invest in adequate pipe-
line and storage facilities and failure to maintain the equipment can lead to volatility losses, fuel leakage
and contamination by particulates and water that, in turn, can lead to a host of vehicle problems. Poor
operating practices at the service station, such as too infrequent replacement of fuel dispenser filters or
‘dipping’ of tanks to check for water, can magnify these problems. Appropriate steps should be taken to
minimize contamination by harmful elements such as copper, zinc and sodium. Helpful guidance to good
housekeeping practices may be found in CEN/TR 15367-2, Petroleum products.
CO R R O S IVE (AC TIVE) SULP HUR
Certain fuel sulphur compounds, including elemental sulphur, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), mercaptans and
other sulphur-containing molecules, can tarnish silver- and copper-containing metals that are widely used
in fuel system parts such as fuel level sender units and fuel pump bearings. Active sulphur compounds
may be present in the fuel due to problems during gasoline production, such as improper operation of a
refinery’s desulphurization process or through accidental events.These compounds are highly reactive, and
their presence even at very small levels (a few ppm) can cause harm. The sulphur compounds react with
the metal parts to form silver or copper sulphides. In the case of fuel level sender units, which measure
the amount of fuel in a fuel tank, the formation of silver sulphide on the electrical contacts interrupts the
flow of current to the fuel gauge and causes the gauge to display erratic readings. In the case of fuel pump
bearings, which enable the pump to operate smoothly, the formation of copper sulphide on the bearing sur-
face causes the pump shaft to stick, interrupting the pump’s smooth operation and potentially causing pump
failure and vehicle stalling. To prevent the presence of these compounds in fuel, strict and continuous quality
control is required.


T E CH N IC A L BAC KG RO UND FO R H A R M ONIS E D FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
TECHNICAL
BACKGROUND DIES EL FU EL

T EC H NIC
E CH N IC A L BAC KG R
ROO UND FO R H
DAIERSM
EONIS
L FUEELD FU EL RECOMMEN DAT ION S
C E TA NE
Cetane is a measure of the compression ignition behaviour of a diesel fuel; higher cetane levels enable quicker
ignition. Cetane influences cold startability, exhaust emissions and combustion noise. Higher cetane generally
enables improved control of ignition delay and combustion stability, especially with modern diesels which use
high amounts of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). It does this by providing room for engine calibrators to tailor
combustion for the best calibration compromise among combustion noise, emissions and fuel consumption
goals across the engine operating range. Additives can enhance a fuel’s cetane level; natural cetane refers to
the cetane level when the fuel contains no additives, and artificial cetane refers to the cetane level in an addi-
tized fuel. Cetane levels achieved through additives affect vehicle performance differently than natural cetane
levels, and sometimes they produce inconsistent results.
Cetane is measured or derived in various ways.The cetane number is produced by testing the fuel in a test
engine (ASTM D613).When the fuel does not contain any cetane improver, the cetane number is the same
as the fuel’s natural cetane. The derived cetane number, which is produced using a combustion tester (see
ASTM D6890 and D7170), is an indirect measure of combustion ignition behaviour that is equated to the
cetane number. The cetane index (ASTM D4737) is calculated from certain measured fuel properties (fuel
density and distillation temperatures); it is designed to approximate the natural cetane. Since the cetane
number and the derived cetane number are measured by combusting the fuel, both may reflect the effects
of cetane improver additives; by contrast, the cetane index does not. To avoid excessive additive dosage,
the difference between the cetane index and the cetane number must be maintained as specified in the
various categories.
Influence of Cetane on Cold Startability

Increasing the cetane number will decrease engine crank time (the time before the engine reaches ‘starter
off’’) at a given engine speed. The ACEA EPEFE follow-up programme, which looked at the influence of
diesel fuel quality on heavy-duty diesel engine emissions, demonstrated a significant (up to 40%) reduction
in crank time for an increase in cetane number from 50 to 58. A shorter cranking cycle means fewer cycles
with incomplete or partial combustion during ‘crank to run’ operation, and this leads to improved com-
bustion stability and lower noise, vibration and harshness (NVH).
Influence of Cetane on Exhaust Emissions

The following figures show the influence of cetane on NOx emissions as a function of engine load in
heavy-duty engines (88/77/EEC 13-mode cycle). Cetane’s influence on NOx is very significant (Figure 1),
particularly at low loads where reductions of up to 9% are achieved. (Note that each point in the graphs
shows the NOx reduction achieved for cetane increase at a given load.) The cetane increase also reduced
HC emissions by 30-40%. For light-duty vehicles, EPEFE found that increasing the cetane number from 50
to 58 would reduce HC and CO each by 26%.

DAIERSM
EONIS
Figure 1: Effect of Cetane on NOx Emissions 50 to 58 CN
Difference in 2
NOx Emissions (%) 0 Artificial Cetane
-2 Natural Cetane
-4
-6
-8
Intermediate Speed -10
Load (%) 20 40 60 80 100 120
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
Rated Speed -10
Load (%) 20 40 60 80 100 120
Cetane Influence on Combustion Noise

Increased cetane will also reduce noise, as demonstrated by the results shown here (Figure 2 ). In this case,
natural and artificial cetane have similar effects.
Figure 2: Effect of Cetane on Engine Noise, 52 to 57 CN
Influence of Cetane on Fuel Consumption

Existing data on the influence of cetane on fuel consumption in older technology heavy-duty engines are
inconsistent. Figure 3 demonstrates this inconsistency through measurements of heavy-duty brake specific
fuel consumption (BSFC): increasing natural cetane from 50 to 58 generally improved BSFC, but increa-
sing artificial cetane had the opposite effect. Ongoing research may help resolve this uncertainty as well
as provide better data for the impacts on more advanced heavy-duty and light-duty engines and vehicles.

T EC H NIC A L BAC KG R O UND D IE S E L FUE L
Figure 3: Effect of Cetane on Fuel Consumption 50 to 58 CN
Difference in 3
BSFC (%) Artificial Cetane
2
Natural Cetane
1
0
-1
-2
Intermediate Speed -3
Load (%) 20 40 60 80 100 120
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
Rated Speed -3
Load (%) 20 40 60 80 100 120
DE N S I TY a nd VIS CO S ITY
The diesel fuel injection is controlled volumetrically or by timing of the solenoid valve. Variations in fuel
density (and viscosity) result in variations in engine power and, consequently, in engine emissions and fuel
consumption. The European EPEFE programme found that fuel density also influences injection timing of
mechanically controlled injection equipment, which also affects emissions and fuel consumption.Therefore,
in order to optimise engine performance and tailpipe emissions, both minimum and maximum density
limits must be defined in a fairly narrow range.
Effect of Density on Emissions and Engine Power

Emissions’ testing has demonstrated that reduced density will reduce PM emissions from all diesel vehicles,
and NOx emissions from heavy-duty vehicles (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Effect of Density on Exhaust Emissions 855 to 828 kg/m3
Emissions 5
Reduction (%) NOx
0
-5 PM
-1
-15
-20
LIGHT DUTY HEAVY DUTY
However, due to the volumetric fuel injection of diesel engines, reduced density will also increase fuel
consumption and reduce power output. EPEFE testing has shown that lowering fuel density decreases
engine power output (Figure 5) and increases volumetric fuel consumption.Variations in fuel viscosity (i.e.,
reduced density generally reduces viscosity) may accentuate the density effects on power (not necessarily
fuel consumption), particularly in combination with distributor-type injection pumps.

DAIERSM
EONIS
Figure 5: Effect of Density on Engine Power 855 - 828 kg/m3
Engine 110
Power (%)
105
100
95
90
Fuel Density
(kg/m3) 860 850 840 830 820
Influence of Fuel Density on Emission Control Systems

Production diesel engines are set to a standard density, which determines the amount of fuel injected. The
(volumetric) injection quantity is a control parameter for other emission control systems like exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR).Variations in fuel density therefore result in non-optimal EGR-rates for a given load and
speed point in the engine map and, as a consequence, influence the exhaust emission characteristics.
Influence of Fuel Viscosity on Injection System Performance

Fuelling and injection timing are also dependent on fuel viscosity. High viscosity can reduce fuel flow rates,
resulting in inadequate fuelling. A very high viscosity may actually result in pump distortion. Low viscosity,
on the other hand, will increase leakage from the pumping elements, and in worse cases (low viscosity, high
temperature) can result in total leakage. As viscosity is impacted by ambient temperature, it is important
to minimise the range between minimum and maximum viscosity limits to allow optimisation of engine
performance.
S U L PHU R
Sulphur naturally occurs in crude oil. If the sulphur is not removed during the refining process, it will
remain in the vehicle fuel. Cross-contamination also can occur in the fuel distribution system. Sulphur can
have a significant effect on engine life by leading to corrosion and wear of engine systems. As shown in
Figure 6, relative engine life decreases as the sulphur level increases.
Figure 6: Effect of Sulphur on Engine Life
Relative 100
Engine Life (%)
80
60
40
20
Sulphur in Fuel (%) .1 .3 .5 .7 .9 1.1 1.3 1.5
Diesel fuel sulphur also contributes significantly to fine particulate matter (PM) emissions, through the
formation of sulphates both in the exhaust stream and later in the atmosphere. Furthermore, the efficiency
of some exhaust after-treatment systems is reduced as fuel sulphur content increases, while others are
rendered permanently ineffective through sulphur poisoning.
As sulphur levels are reduced, fuel stability requires special attention.The industry has developed a ‘Standard
Test Method for High Temperature Stability of Distillate Fuels’ (ASTM D 6468) for thermal oxidative

stability. Inadequate thermal stability can result in fuel filter plugging by oxidised products (sludge). As fuel
injection system pressures and temperatures increase, it may be more appropriate to measure the thermal
oxidative stability of diesel fuel rather than only long-term storage stability.
Effect of Sulphur on Particulate Emissions

The impact of sulphur on particulate emissions is widely understood and known to be significant. In the
European Auto Oil programme, it was predicted that a reduction in sulphur from 500 ppm to 30 ppm would
result in PM emission reductions of 7% from light-duty vehicles and 4% from heavy-duty trucks. However, the
predictive equations do not take into account the absolute PM level or the fuel consumption. A correction
factor has been developed by European heavy-duty manufacturers to better reflect the relationship between
PM emissions and fuel sulphur levels. This correction suggests that the real benefit from sulphur reductions
will be more significant, as shown here (Figure 7) for heavy-duty trucks. Reductions in fuel sulphur will also
provide particulate emission reductions in all engines, regardless of emission calibration.
Figure 7: Effect of Diesel Fuel Sulphur Level on PM Emissions Heavy-Duty Engines (PM = 0,10 g/kWh)
PM Reductions (%) 2
4
Fuel consumption:
6
200 g/kWh
8
270 g/kWh
9
Fuel Sulphur (ppm) 100 200 300 400 500
Testing performed on heavy-duty vehicles using the Japanese diesel 13 mode cycle have shown significant
PM emission reductions can be achieved with both catalyst and non-catalyst equipped vehicles. The testing
showed that PM emissions from a non-catalyst equipped truck running on 400 ppm sulphur fuel were
about double the emissions when operating on 2 ppm fuel. (JSAE 9831171)
Sulphur Contribution to Aerosols and Fine Particulate Emissions

When sulphur is oxidised during combustion, it forms SO2, which is the primary sulphur compound
emitted from the engine. Some of the SO2 is further oxidised—in the engine, exhaust, catalyst or atmos-
phere—to sulphate (SO4). The sulphate and nearby water molecules often coalesce to form aerosols or
engulf nearby carbon to form heavier particulates that have a significant influence on both fine and total
PM. Without oxidation catalyst systems, the conversion rate from sulphur to sulphate is very low, typi-
cally around 1%, so the historical sulphate contribution to engine-out PM has been negligible. However,
oxidation catalysts dramatically increase the conversion rate to as much as 100%, depending on catalyst
efficiency. Therefore, for modern vehicle systems, most of which include oxidation catalysts, a large pro-
portion of the engine-out SO2 will be oxidized to SO4, increasing the amount of PM emitted from the
vehicle. Thus, fuel sulphur will have a significant impact on fine particulate emissions in direct proportion
to the amount of sulphur in the fuel.
The mass of sulphates emitted from the engine depends on the following parameters:
• The fuel consumption of the engine
• The fuel sulphur content
• The S to SO4 conversion rate

DAIERSM
EONIS
Both the fuel sulphur content and fuel consumption are measurable parameters; the conversion rate is
predicted based on engine variability and the use of an oxidation catalyst. The following formula can pro-
vide an estimate of the impact:
BSSO4 = BSFC * FSC/100 * PCSC/100 * 7 where BSSO4 = Brake specific sulphate in mass/brake power-hour
BSFC = brake specific fuel consumption in g/kWh
FSC = fuel sulphur content in % mass
PCSC = Percent sulphur conversion (to SO4)
7 = S to (SO4 + water) weight increase factor
Overview of Sulphur’s Effect on Highly Advanced Diesel Emission Control Systems

No single device can simultaneously reduce NOx, PM, HC and other emissions from diesel engines.
Furthermore, tradeoffs historically have been required between and among emissions and fuel economy,
especially for markets with higher sulphur diesel fuel. To meet the requirements of many new regula-
tions, highly advanced emission control systems have been developed around combinations of engine and
aftertreatment devices. Sulphur has a particularly strong impact on these newer NOx controls, and many
will stop working if the sulphur level becomes too high. Thus, these new systems require low or ultra-low
sulphur fuels to maintain their operational capability.
The most advanced of these technologies includes De-NOx catalyst systems, such as Lean NOx traps
(LNT) (also known as NOx adsorbers,) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) devices, which can
remove a greater amount of NOx emissions from the diesel’s oxygen-rich exhaust than previously pos-
sible. Highly advanced particulate filters also have been developed to reduce PM emissions. Many of these
devices are combined in various configurations to enable the vehicle to meet specific emission standards
and to minimize impacts on fuel efficiency. Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC), which reduce HC and CO
emissions, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) systems, which reduce NOx, are among the proven tech-
nologies that may be used in conjunction with newer technologies. More importantly, all emission control
systems perform better and last longer with sulphur-free fuel.
The Diesel Emission Control-Sulphur Effects (DECSE) project, a collaborative program conducted by the
US Department of Energy (DOE), Engine Manufacturers Association (EMA) and Manufacturers of Emission
Controls Association (MECA), studied the impact of diesel fuel sulphur levels of 3, 16, 30, 150 and 350 ppm
on a number of these technologies on both heavy-duty and light-duty engines. Reference:
www.ott.doe.gov/decse.
The Advanced Petroleum Based Fuels - Diesel Emission Control (APBF-DEC) Program, another collaborative
effort, has identified optimal combinations of low-sulphur diesel fuels, lubricants, diesel engines and emis-
sion control systems to meet projected emission standards for the 2001 to 2010 time period. Reference:
http://www.ott.doe.gov/apbf.shtml. Research and development are continuing to refine and improve the
systems now entering Category 4 and Category 5 markets.
NOx Adsorber
NOx adsorbers are poisoned and rendered ineffective by the presence of sulphur. These devices can be
up to 90% efficient in NOx removal if operated on sulphur-free fuel. The SO2 formed during combustion
and released in the exhaust undergoes reactions in these devices that are similar to those of NOx, but
the oxidized sulphur compounds adsorb more strongly to the catalyst surface than the NOx, thereby
poisoning the catalyst.
The effect of fuel sulphur content on NOx adsorber conversion efficiency is shown in Figure 8 below. The
figure illustrates the effect of fuel sulphur on relative NOx conversion efficiencies. Compared to 3 ppm
sulphur fuel, both 16 and 30 ppm sulphur fuels resulted in a significant decline in performance.

Figure 8: Effect of Fuel Sulphur Level on NOx Conversion Efficiency (150 Hours Aging)
Relative 1.0
400°C
NOX Conversion 0.8
Efficiency 450°C
0.6
0.4
0.2
Fuel Sulphur 0.0
Level (ppm) 3 16 30
Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) emission control devices, which are being used on both light-duty and
heavy-duty vehicles, are catalysts that work in conjunction with a specially formulated reactant (called Diesel
Exhaust Fluid (DEF) in the U.S.) to convert NOx into nitrogen and water vapour. Like other catalysts, the effec-
tiveness and durability of SCR systems can be adversely affected by fuel sulphur.The impact is exacerbated by
the use of a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) in front of the SCR because DOCs convert much of the exhaust
SO2 to SO3. While both SO2 and SO3 poison the SCR, research has shown SO3 to have a stronger impact
on SCR conversion efficiency. Figure 9 shows how SO2 and SO3 affect NOx conversion in SCRs at different
temperatures (also see SAE 2009-01-0898).
Figure 9: Impact of SOx on SCR Activity

NOx Conversion : sv=30,000/hr - NO only
NOx Conversion (%) 100
90 200C SO2, T2
80 300C SO2, T2
70 400C SO2, T2
60 200C SO3, T2
50 300C SO3, T2
40 400C SO3, T2
30 T1
20
10
Inlet Gas 0
Temperature (ºC) 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350
Diesel Particulate Filter

The Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), which first appeared in the market on production vehicles in mid-2000,
allows vehicles to achieve extremely low particulate emissions. The filtration of exhaust gas particulates
has been possible for many years, but the disposal of the accumulated particulate has remained a difficult
problem to solve. Apart from removing the filter frequently for cleaning (which is not allowed in the
U.S.), a reliable and cost-effective system of on-board filter regeneration by combustion of the particulate
was previously not available. The latest generation of common rail engines opened possibilities through
electronic injection strategies for increasing exhaust gas temperatures, however, and this has enabled the
combustion of the trapped particulate. A different strategy for regenerating filters uses a combination of
catalytic additive mixed on-board with the fuel, or post-combustion fuel injection into the exhaust and an
oxidation catalyst pre-filter.
The latest generation of common rail direct injection diesel engines emits 60% less particulate matter than
its immediate prechamber predecessors, and when combined with a DPF system, these engines can reduce
the number of particulate in the exhaust gas to the level of ambient air, which completely eliminates black
smoke.What is more, this 103 -104 reduction magnitude in particulate emissions is constant over the whole

DAIERSM
EONIS
range of particulate size. Thus, using DPF systems further enhances the potential of the diesel engine as a
low-polluting power unit.
The sulphur contained in diesel fuel is likely to be transformed into gaseous sulphur compounds in the
oxidation catalyst included with the emission control system, and these compounds may be transformed
through secondary reactions into sulphate particulates in the atmosphere. Therefore, the use of sulphur-
free fuels in vehicles with DPF systems is highly recommended to avoid this phenomenon.
Continuously Regenerating and Catalysed Diesel Particulate Filters

The Continuously Regenerating Diesel Particulate Filter (CR-DPF) and Catalysed Diesel Particulate Filter
(CDPF) represent two different approaches to DPF regeneration.
The CR-DPF regenerates by continuously generating NO2 from engine-emitted NO over a diesel oxidation
catalyst placed upstream of the DPF. Proper vehicle calibration is necessary to ensure that sufficient NO2
is generated for this purpose. NO2 has been established as a more effective low-temperature oxidizing
agent for diesel PM than oxygen. Sulphur in the exhaust is oxidised over the CR-DPF, however, forming
sulphates that contribute to PM emissions. Sulphur oxides also compete for the critical NO and NO2
reaction sites on the DPF, making trap regeneration less effective.
The CDPF regenerates by using a catalyst coating on the DPF element to promote oxidation of the
collected PM using available oxygen in the diesel exhaust. Sulphur in the exhaust is oxidised over the CDPF
to form sulphates. Exhaust-gas temperature and fuel-sulphur level are critical factors that affect the perfor-
mance of both types of DPF (CR-DPF and CDPF).
Fuel sulphur has a significant effect on PM emissions from these emission control devices. Both types of DPF
effectively reduce PM emissions when fuel sulphur is very low, but when fuel sulphur increases, so do sulphate
levels, which affects the amount of PM emitted. In one study, PM was reduced by 95% over the OICA cycle
when the tested DPFs were used with 3-ppm sulphur fuel (Figure 10a), but with 30-ppm sulphur fuel, the PM
reduction efficiencies dropped to 72 and 74% for the CR-DPF and CDPF, respectively. At the 150-ppm sul-
phur test point, the sulphur content of the measured mass completely masked the reduction in carbonaceous
particles, so that the measured total PM reductions were near zero. A similar outcome was seen in Japanese
DPF testing (Figure 10b).
Figure 10a: Effect of Fuel Sulphur Level on PM Emissions – OICA Cycle
Engine tested: Caterpillar 3126, 7.2 litre, Inline 6 cylinder, 205 kW @2200 rpm

Figure 10b: Fuel effect on Diesel Particulate – CR (Continuous Regeneration) - DPF Japan Diesel 13 Mode
PM, g/kWh 0.60

0.50
0.40
Dry soot + H2O
0.30
Sulphate
0.20
SOF
0.10
0
Sulphur (PPM) 443 94 46 36 48 7
T90 (C) 324 332 334 317* 239# 239#
*Blend of diesel fuel and kerosene.

#Kerosene.
ASH
Fuel and lubricant derived ash can contribute to coking on injector nozzles (see Figure 16 ) and will have a
significant effect on the life of diesel particulate filters. Ash-forming metals can be present in fuel additives,
lubricant additives or as a byproduct of the refining process.
Metallic ash constituents are incombustible, so when they are present in the fuel, they remain in the exhaust
and become trapped within the DPF. Thus, the presence of ash-forming materials in the fuel will lead to a
premature build-up of backpressure and other vehicle operability problems. Non-fuel solutions have been
found unsatisfactory. Larger filters can reduce backpressure build-up but otherwise would be unnecessary
and may be infeasible (for example, in smaller vehicles). Increased in-use maintenance or, in extreme cases,
DPF replacement would help, but these steps may not be allowed in some markets. Therefore, keeping
ash-forming compounds out of the fuel to the extent possible provides the best solution.
Ash-forming compounds may be present in fuel in four forms:

• Abrasive solids, such as suspended solids and organometallic compounds that contribute to injector, fuel
pump, piston and ring wear and to the formation of engine deposits.
• Soluble metallic soaps, which have little effect on wear but may contribute to engine deposits.
• Soluble metals, which may be present in vegetable-derived fuels as a result of absorption by the plant
source and inadequate removal during processing. Biodiesel fuel, for example, may contain metals that
were left in the residue resulting from common catalytic production methods.
• Metals that originate in water entrained in the fuel.
Industry standards limiting ash to less than 0.01%, which were intended to protect close tolerance fuel injection
equipment and reduce piston ring zone deposits, have addressed the first form of ash-forming compounds. Fuel
surveys have confirmed that the ash content in most fuels has been near the detection limit of the currently
available test procedure (0.001%).The remaining forms of metallic ash, however, may enter fuel during the distri-
bution process and must be controlled before dispensing the fuel to the engine or vehicle.
Diesel fuel containing ash at the current detection limit (0.001%) may require the DPF to be serviced during
the vehicle’s useful life, but many jurisdictions do not allow this for Category 4 or Category 5 engines or vehi-
cles. Therefore, ash-forming metals must be controlled to very low levels to enable these emission control
devices to operate properly over the lifetime of the vehicle. To allow the appropriate level for these ash
compounds, a new test procedure capable of measuring lower levels of ash in diesel fuel should be developed.

DAIERSM
EONIS
A R O MATIC S
Aromatics are molecules that contain at least one benzene ring. The fuel aromatic content will affect com-
bustion and the formation of particulate and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) emissions.
The diesel fuel aromatics content influences flame temperature, and therefore, NOx emissions during the
combustion. PAH in the fuel affect the formation of particulates and PAH emissions from a diesel engine.
Influence of Total Aromatics Content on NOx Emissions

A higher aromatic content in the fuel will increase the flame temperature during combustion, which results
in increased NOx emissions.Testing in Europe (ACEA follow-up programme to EPEFE) demonstrated that
a reduction of the total aromatic content from 30 to 10% yields significantly lower NOx emissions as
shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Effect of Total Aromatics on NOx Emissions (30 to 10% Aromatics)
Change in NOx 0
Emissions (%)
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
The light-duty data are based on the combined ECE/EUDC cycle, the heavy-duty on the 88/77/EEC 13-mode cycle.
Influence of Polyaromatic Content on Particulate Emissions

The influence of polyaromatic (di+, tri+) content on PM emissions was also investigated in the EPEFE
programme. Figure 12 shows the reductions of PM emissions that were measured when the polyaromatic
content was reduced from 9 to 1 %.
Figure 12: Effect of Polyaromatics on PM Emissions (from 9 to 1% di+ Polyaromatics)
Change in 0
PM Emissions (%) -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
Influence of PAH Content on PAH Emissions

PAH (tri+) content in diesel fuel has been shown to directly correlate to PAH emissions in diesel engine
exhaust. The PAH emissions of a truck diesel engine on the US transient cycle using fuels with different
PAH contents were measured in a Swedish study. The results shown in Figure 13 demonstrate this direct
correlation.

Figure 13: Effect of Fuel PAH on Emissions of PAH
Sum of 29 PAHS 300

in exhaust (mg/hp-h) 250
200
150
100
50
Sum of 29 PAHS
in Fuel (mg/l) 50 100 150 200 250
The Swedish EPA also tested a Euro 2 diesel engine on the 88/77/EEC and the transient ‘Braunschweig’-
cycle on Sweden Class 1 fuel (SC1, PAH =24 mg/l) and European reference fuel (RF73; PAH=2100 mg/l).
Figure 14 shows the sum of emitted PAH’s collected on the filter (PM) and the emissions of partly volatile
PAH’s (average of four cycles).
Figure 14: Effect of Fuel PAH on Emissions of PAH
Sum Emitted 700

PAHS (µg/km) 600
500
400
300
200
100
0
RF73-PM SC1-PM RF73- SC1-
Part. Volatile Part. Volatile
DI S TI L LATION C HARACTERISTICS
The distillation curve of diesel fuel indicates the amount of fuel that will boil off at a given temperature.The
curve can be divided into three parts:
• The light end, which affects startability;
• The region around the 50% evaporated point, which is linked to other fuel parameters such as viscosity
and density; and,
• The heavy end, characterised by the T90, T95 and final boiling points.
The heavy end has been the most thoroughly studied with respect to its effect on tailpipe emissions.
Influence of Heavy End on PM Emissions

In most new studies, only the influence of the upper boiling range has been investigated with respect to
exhaust gas emissions, whereas the lower boiling range varied widely. Conclusions concerning the whole
boiling range and distillation influence are therefore not possible. However, it is clear that too much fuel
in the heavy end will result in coking and increased tailpipe emissions of soot/smoke/particulate matter.
Influence of T95 on Tailpipe Emissions

The effect of T95 on vehicle emissions was examined in the European EPEFE programme. The testing
indicated that exhaust gas emissions from heavy-duty diesel engines were not significantly influenced by
T95-variations between 375°C and 320°C. However, a tendency for lower NOx and higher HC with lower
T95 was observed.
In the case of light-duty diesel engines, the same reduction in T95 resulted in a 7% reduction in PM and
4.6% increase in NOx emissions.

DAIERSM
EONIS
CO LD FLOW
Diesel fuel can have a high content (up to 20%) of paraffinic hydrocarbons which have a limited solubility
in the fuel and, if cooled sufficiently, will come out of solution as wax. Adequate cold flow performance,
therefore, is one of the most fundamental quality criteria for diesel fuels.
The cold flow characteristics are primarily dictated by:
• Fuel distillation range, mainly the back-end volatility;
• Hydrocarbon composition: content of paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics;
• Use of cold flow additives.
Measures of Cold Flow Performance

Diesel cold flow properties must be specified according to the seasonal and climatic needs in the region
where the fuel is to be used.Wax in vehicle fuel systems is a potential source of operating problems; the low-
temperature properties of diesel fuels are therefore defined by wax-related tests:
• Cloud Point, CP (ISO 3015, ASTM D2500) :The temperature at which the heaviest paraffins start to
precipitate and form wax crystals; the fuel becomes ‘cloudy’.
• Cold Filter Plugging Point, CFPP (EN116) :The lowest temperature at which the fuel can pass through
the filter in a standardised filtration test. The CFPP test was developed from vehicle operability data and
demonstrates an acceptable correlation for fuels and vehicles in the market. For North American fuels howe-
ver, CFPP is not a good predictor of cold flow operability. CFPP can be influenced by cold flow additives.
• Low Temperature Flow Test, LTFT (ASTM D4539) :The LTFT was developed to predict how
diesel fuels in the United States and Canada will perform at low temperatures, in the diesel vehicles
present in these markets. LTFT is a slow cooling test and therefore more severe than CFPP. LTFT
temperature can be influenced by cold flow additives.
Cold Flow Limits

The diesel fuel cold flow performance can be specified by Cloud Point, by CFPP (with maximum delta
between CFPP and Cloud Point), or by LTFT (in USA and Canada).
• If Cloud Point (only) or LTFT is used, the maximum allowed temperature should be set no higher than
the lowest expected ambient temperature.
• If CFPP is used to predict cold flow, the maximum allowed CFPP temperature should be set equal to, or
lower than, the lowest expected ambient temperature. In this case, the Cloud Point should be no more
than 10°C above the CFPP specified.
Example:
• Lowest expected ambient temperature (statistical): -32°C
• Maximum allowed CFPP temperature: -32°C
• Maximum allowed Cloud Point: -22°C
F OA M
Diesel fuel has a tendency to generate foam during tank filling, which slows the process and risks an over-
flow. Anti-foamants are sometimes added to diesel fuel, often as a component of a multifunctional additive
package, to help speed up or to allow more complete filling of vehicle tanks. Their use also minimises the
likelihood of fuel splashing on the ground, which, in turn, reduces the risk of spills polluting the ground, the
atmosphere and the consumer.
Foam Control
Silicon surfactant additives are effective in suppressing the foaming tendency of diesel fuels, the choice of silicon
and co-solvent depending on the characteristics of the fuel to be treated. Selection of a diesel anti-foamant is

generally decided by the speed at which the foam collapses after vigorous manual agitation to simulate the effect
of air entrainment during tank filling. It is important that the eventual additive chosen should not pose any pro-
blems for the long-term durability of the emission post-treatment control systems.
BIOFUELS and ALTERNATIVE SYNTHETIC FUEL COMPONENTS
Fatty Acid Methyl Esters

Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME), also known as biodiesel, increasingly are being used to extend or replace
diesel fuel. Such use has been driven largely by efforts in many nations to exploit agricultural produce and/or
to reduce dependency on petroleum-based products.
Several different oils may be used to make biodiesel, for example, rapeseed, sunflower, palm, soy, cooking
oils, animal fats and others. These oils must be reacted with an alcohol to form ester compounds before
they can be used as biodiesel fuel. Unprocessed vegetable oils, animal fats and non-esterified fatty acids are
not acceptable as transportation fuels due to their very low cetane, inappropriate cold flow properties, high
injector fouling tendency and high kinematics viscosity level. Historically, methanol has been the alcohol
most used to esterify the fatty acids, and the resultant product is called fatty acid methyl ester (FAME).
Research is underway to enable use of ethanol as the reactant alcohol, in which case the product is called
fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE).
The European standards organization, CEN, has published a FAME standard (EN 14214) that establishes
specifications for biodiesel use as either: (i) a final fuel in engines designed or adapted for biodiesel use; or
(ii) a blendstock for conventional diesel fuel. Similarly, ASTM International has established specifications for
neat biodiesel (ASTM D 6751) but only for use as a blending component, not as a final fuel.
Generally, biodiesel is believed to enhance the lubricity of conventional diesel fuel and reduce exhaust
gas particulate matter. Also, the production and use of biodiesel fuel is reported to lower carbon dioxide
emissions on a source to wheel basis, compared to conventional diesel fuel.
At the same time, engine and vehicle manufacturers have concerns about introducing biodiesel into the
marketplace, especially at higher levels. Specifically :
• Biodiesel may be less stable than conventional diesel fuel, so precautions are needed to avoid problems
linked to the presence of oxidation products in the fuel. Some fuel injection equipment data suggest such
problems may be exacerbated when biodiesel is blended with ultra-low sulphur diesel fuels.
• Biodiesel requires special care at low temperatures to avoid an excessive rise in viscosity and loss of
fluidity. Additives may be required to alleviate these problems.
• Being hygroscopic, biodiesel fuels require special handling to prevent high water content and the
consequent risk of corrosion and microbial growth.
• Deposit formation in the fuel injection system may be higher with biodiesel blends than with conven-
tional diesel fuel, so detergent additive treatments are advised.
• At low ambient temperatures, FAME may produce precipitated solids above the cloud point, which can
cause filterability problems.
• Biodiesel may negatively impact natural and nitrile rubber seals in fuel systems. Also, metals such as
brass, bronze, copper, lead and zinc may oxidize from contact with biodiesel, thereby creating sediments.
Transitioning from conventional diesel fuel to biodiesel blends may significantly increase tank sediments
due to biodiesel’s higher polarity, and these sediments may plug fuel filters. Thus, fuel system parts must
be specially chosen for their compatibility with biodiesel.
• Neat (100%) biodiesel fuel and high concentration biodiesel blends have demonstrated an increase in
NOx exhaust emission levels.
• Biodiesel fuel that comes into contact with the vehicle’s shell may be able to dissolve the paint coatings
used to protect external surfaces.

DAIERSM
EONIS
In view of the high level of interest in this fuel, including among vehicle and engine manufacturers, biodiesel
specifications and test methods will continue to be investigated.
Biodiesel (FAME) inherently has poor oxidation stability due to the nature of its chemical composition.
Most FAME contains carbon-to-carbon double bonds in its chemical construction that are easily oxidized
after production and during the storage and use of the fuel. Such oxidation reactions are why precautions
must be taken, such as the use of oxidation stability enhancing additives like BHT, when blending and
distributing biodiesel fuels.
To secure the quality of biodiesel blended fuel, additional oxidation stability criteria are being introduced
into finished fuel specifications in some regions. The European standard for B7 requires a 20 hour minimum
induction period by the modified Rancimat method (See EN 590). As part of a compulsory standard for B5,
Japan requires either a delta TAN maximum of 0.12 mg KOH/g or a minimum 65 minutes by the PetroOXY
method. (The delta TAN method measures acid value before and after aging per ASTM D2274 (@ 115°C));
the growth in acid value is reported as delta TAN.The current European limit is believed to be inadequate to
prevent corrosion in metal parts such as vehicle fuel tanks, however. Given ongoing questions about the ade-
quacy of various methods and limits, Europe and Japan are working to harmonize the oxidation stability test
method by introducing the PetroOXY method. The goal of the investigation is to shorten the test duration
and improve repeatability of the results. This research may lead to future revisions in the oxidation criterion
and test method for biodiesel blended fuels. Figure 15a shows that a 35 hour minimum induction period by
the modified Rancimat method is comparable to a delta TAN maximum of 0.12 mg KOH/g.Figure 15b shows
the correlation between the PetroOxy and Delta TAN test methods for different FAME feedstocks and levels
of antioxidant additive in B5 blends. Figure 15c shows the correlation between the PetroOxy and Rancimat
methods for different diesel fuels, FAMEs and blend rates. It should be noted that the Rancimat and Delta
TAN methods must be used with fuels containing FAME. All three of the correlations are based on fuels
containing FAME.
Figure 15a : Correlation between Modified Rancimat Method and Delta TAN Method

Figure 15b: Correlation between PetroOxy and Delta TAN Methods
Figure 15c: Correlation between PetroOxy and Rancimat Methods
Synthetic Fuels
In recent years, various types of alternative and renewable diesel fuels have emerged that also can help extend
or replace diesel fuel. The Fischer-Tropsch process, which was invented in the 1920s but today represents a
variety of similar processes, converts feedstocks of biomass, methane (natural gas) or coal into paraffinic diesel
fuels, commonly referred to as BTL (‘biomass-to-liquid’), GTL (‘gas-to-liquid’) or CTL (‘coal-to-liquid’), as the
case may be. Regardless of feedstock, the process requires gasification and then synthesis to a liquid with the
desired properties. BTL should not be confused with biodiesel (FAME), which is fundamentally a different fuel.
Some of these blendstocks, particularly BTL, have relatively low well-to-wheel GHG emissions, and these are
preferred over other synthetic fuels that are not considered to be low carbon fuels. CEN TS15940 may be
used as a production guideline for GTL and HVO quality; additional engine validation may be needed to ensure
the fuel ultimately works well in vehicles and engines.
These fuels are usable in any diesel engine either in pure form or blended with conventional diesel fuel,
although they generally have poor lubricity, which requires the addition of appropriate additives to enable
the fuel to meet or exceed requirements. The fuels are very clean-burning because they have virtually no

DAIERSM
EONIS
sulphur or aromatics. They also have very high cetane levels, which enable more efficient engine operation.
Their distillation profile differs from petroleum diesel fuel, and they have a lower density than the Charter’s
diesel fuel specification, however, and these factors may reduce fuel economy, compared to an equivalent vo-
lume of diesel fuel meeting the Charter’s specification. CEN TS15940 may be used as a production guideline
for GTL and HVO quality; additional engine validation may be needed to ensure the fuel ultimately works
well in vehicles and engines.
Hydrotreated Vegetable Oils

Renewable feedstocks such as vegetable oils may be processed by variations of conventional petroleum
refining, including hydrotreatment. These refining methods produce saturated paraffinic hydrocarbon mol-
ecules with extremely low aromatic levels and a very narrow distillation range, and properly processed, they
can provide the required cold flow properties. Some HVO production processes may yield non-paraffinic
hydrocarbons in addition to paraffins, however, so additional controls may be needed to ensure acceptable
quality fuel. CEN TS15940 may be used as a production guideline for GTL and HVO quality; additional
engine validation may be needed to ensure the fuel ultimately works well in vehicles and engines.
Unlike FAME, the paraffinic middle distillate fuel oils produced by these methods are indistinguishable from
conventional paraffinic fuel oils derived from petroleum and lack the residual process elements typical
of biodiesel. Thus, they are highly suited as a blendstock for diesel fuel. Engine and vehicle manufacturers
widely support the development of HVO fuels as a way to increase diesel fuel’s renewable, low carbon
content without the concerns associated with methyl ester fuels.
E-Diesel
Adding ethanol to diesel fuel (E-diesel) has been considered as a way to extend the volume of diesel fuel,
reduce dependency on imported oil products or exploit agricultural produce and waste. E-diesel fuel
typically has an extremely low flashpoint of about 13°C (55°F), which is well below the minimum limit set
by various organisations: ASTM D975 standard of 52°C (126°F), EN590 standard of 55°C min (131°F),
JIS K2204 standard of 45°C (113°F). Such flashpoint levels raise serious safety concerns (such as explo-
sions), for fuel handling, storage and use.Vehicle and engine manufacturers are concerned that e-diesel may
damage vehicle parts, especially fuel injectors, and cause other types of vehicle failure due to low lubricity.
The fuel’s compatibility with the vehicle in other ways, its impact on vehicle emissions and its health effects
remain unknown. Since ethanol has lower energy content than diesel fuel, its presence in the fuel will
reduce fuel economy. Therefore, until the many safety, performance and health concerns are resolved and
sufficient peer-reviewed research is conducted in these important areas, manufacturers do not support
adding ethanol to any category of diesel fuel.
I N J E C TO R C LEANLINESS
The fuel injector, which is designed to meter fuel to a high degree of accuracy, is a component of very high
precision. The correct behaviour of the engine depends on the injector doing its job properly; otherwise
there will be repercussions in terms of noise, smoke and emissions.
Effect of Injector Fouling

The tip of the injector is subject to a very harsh environment as it is in direct contact with the combustion pro-
cess, both in pre-chamber and in direct injection engines.The solid matter products of combustion are deposited
on the tip and can result either in partial or complete hole blockage, with partial blockage the more common
effect. Either effect will alter significantly the operation of the injector by reducing fuel flow and affecting power
and emissions.. For pre-chamber engines, the combustion products partially block the progressive delivery of the
fuel at part load, and the combustion can become violent and disorganised. Likewise in direct injection engines,

a partial or complete blockage of one of the fine spray holes will perturb the atomisation of the fuel jet, and the
engine no longer functions as designed.Where pre-chamber engines are concerned, some coking is inevitable due
to the type of injector used, and the choice of injector takes this into account. However, the coking level depends
on the quality of the fuel, and excessive coking cannot be tolerated.The injectors of direct injection engines are
initially more resistant to coking, but poor fuel quality can eventually block a spray hole.
Internal Diesel Injector Deposits

Engine and vehicle manufacturers recently have detected a new type of injector deposit that has been
labeled Internal Diesel Injector Deposits (IDID). These deposits differ from injector nozzle (tip) coking
deposits both in their location and their effects. The engine impacts range from increased noise and rough
running to power loss and inability to start. Associated impacts include oil dilution, EGR line fouling,
increased emissions and reductions in the efficiency and durability of emission control systems.
IDID have been found in several regions across a broad range of engine technologies, including both light
and heavy duty vehicles, as well as non-road equipment. The rate of incidents has increased with the
growth of common rail engines and their increasingly high fuel injection pressures, which are thought to be
a contributing factor. Sub-ppm levels of metallic contaminants in the fuel, primarily Na and Zn, have been
associated with IDID problems.
Two main types of IDID have been observed:

1. Lacquer or amide type deposits. Amine fuel constituents are thought to play a role, but the underlying
mechanism, the types of constituents involved and the possibility of other co-contributors are open
questions.
2. Carboxylate salt deposits. These deposits are thought to derive from reactions of sodium with organic
acids present in FAME or in corrosion inhibitors used for pipeline protection.
Engineering solutions are unavailable to fully protect injectors from IDID risk. Some diesel fuel deposit
control additives may mitigate the effects.
Currently, no standardized test is available to identify a fuel’s risk of causing IDID. To improve this situation,
CEC has initiated test development work to evaluate the IDID performance of fuels.
Influence of Detergent Additives

Detergent additives can remedy many of the concerns associated with injector cleanliness. High doses of
these additives can partially clean an already heavily coked injector, while smaller doses can maintain injectors
at an acceptably clean state, which ensures correct operation. Additive producers and fuel suppliers should
check through field trials the extent to which their formulations may contribute to undesirable internal
deposit formation at various treat rates. Many fuel distributors include these additives in commercial
diesel fuels as quality features to obtain a ‘keep clean’ effect.
Cleanliness of the injectors has become an even higher priority at present as high-pressure injection systems
are increasingly used on both heavy-duty and light-duty direct injection engines.The conformity of modern
engines with their specified performance in terms of power, fuel consumption and emissions over time
will depend largely on the cleanliness of their injectors. It has been observed in service and by many labo-
ratories, both in manufacturing facilities and independently, that small quantities of metals such as zinc,
copper, lead, sodium and potassium in diesel fuel can lead to significant injector fouling with subsequent
engine power loss and increased exhaust gas PM. Figure 16 shows pictures of a nozzle with coking caused
by metallic impurities.

DAIERSM
EONIS
Figure 16: Examples of Increased Nozzle Coking due to Metal Ion Impurities
© Robert Bosch GmbH reserves all rights, even in the event of industrial property rights.
We reserve all rights of disposal, such as copying and passing on to third parties. Reproduced with permission.
Metals can pollute the fuel during the distribution process, even if the fuel is clear when leaving the refinery.
Ideally, a standardized engine test on a direct injection diesel engine would permit the setting of an accep-
table limit value for injector fouling due either to metals being present in the fuel or to the fuel compo-
sition. At present, such a standardized test procedure has not been established, but candidate procedures
are being considered. Until an engine performance test is established, therefore, it is prudent to require
diesel fuel delivered at the filling station to respect the specific limits for each metal in the fuel, to reduce
the risk of severe injector fouling in modern direct injection diesel engines. The technique for measuring
the metals should be by inductively coupled plasma, such as with the ASTM D 5185 method (direct meas-
urement improves the detection limit).
LU B R I CITY
Lubrication at component boundaries is critical for protecting engines and fuel handling systems.The com-
ponents of the diesel fuel that provide boundary lubrication are believed to be the heavier hydrocarbons
and polar fuel compounds. Diesel fuel pumps without an external lubrication system rely on the lubricating
properties of diesel fuel to ensure proper operation.
Refining processes to remove sulphur tend to simultaneously reduce diesel fuel components that pro-
vide natural lubricity. As diesel fuel sulphur levels decrease, the risk of inadequate lubricity also increases;
however, poor lubricity has been observed even in diesel fuels with very high sulphur levels. Inexpensive
additives can be used instead of changing the refining process to achieve the desired lubricity level.
Influence of Lubricity on Pump Wear

Inadequate lubricity can result in increased tailpipe emissions, excessive pump wear and, in some cases, cata-
strophic failure. Concerns over problems experienced with fuels with poor lubricity led to a significant inter-
national collaboration between oil companies, OEMs, additive companies and pump manufacturers to develop
a test method and performance limit for fuel lubricity.The resultant method, the High Frequency Reciprocating
Rig (HFRR) procedure, is a bench test that provides good correlation to measured pump effects.

T E CH N IC A L BAC KG RO UND D IE S E L FUE L
Figure 17 shows the correlation between actual pump wear (measured by Bosch) and HFRR measured
wear scar diameter. Bosch’s rating scale describes ‘normal wear’ as less than 3.5 (which corresponds to
a nominal HFRR Wear Scar Diameter of 400 mm). With a Bosch wear rating of 4, the pump will have
decreased endurance, and ratings above 7 indicate potential fatal breakdown.
Figure 17: Assessed Pump Wear Rating vs. HFRR Results
Wear Scar Max range acc.: +/- 2s

Diameter (UM) 1000
800
600
400
200
BOSCH
Assessed Wear 0
Ratings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PA RT I C U LATE CONTAMINATION
Fuel injection equipment manufacturers continue to develop fuel injection systems to reduce emissions
and fuel consumption and to improve performance. Injection pressures have been increasing; currently,
they have reached more than 2000 bars. Such levels of injection pressure demand reduced orifice sizes and
component clearances, typically from 2 to 5 µm in injectors. Small, hard particles, which may be carried into
these engine parts, are potential sources of engine failure.
Excessive diesel fuel contamination can cause premature clogging of diesel fuel filters, depending on the
level of both hard and organic particles, and premature wear of modern fuel injection system parts. These
impacts, depending on the size and the nature of the particles, will lead to:
• Reduced part lifetimes;
• Part malfunction;
• Engine failure; and
• Increased exhaust emissions.
Measuring fuel particle contamination necessarily considers both the size and number of particles per size
class contained in the fuel, i.e. the particle size distribution. The ISO 4406 protocol provides a means of
expressing the level of contamination by coding the size distribution. Three code numbers, corresponding
to the numbers of particles of size greater than 4, 6 and 14 µm per millilitre, respectively, are reported.
Figure 18 shows how to use the ISO 4406 coding method.

Figure 18: ISO 4406 Particulate Size Distribution Coding Chart
Engine and vehicle manufacturers recommend applying the Worldwide Fuel Charter’s particulate
contamination specification at the fuel station nozzle to prevent particles originating from fuel transport,
storage and logistics from reaching the engine.
CON TA MINANTS
Contaminants, including some from additives, whether intentionally or inadvertently added during fuel
production or distribution, also can cause significant harm to the powertrain, fuel, exhaust or emission
control systems. Good housekeeping practices can help minimize or prevent inadvertent contamination.
No detectable levels of the elements listed below should exist in diesel fuel, nor should they be used as
components of any fuel additive package intended to improve diesel fuel and engine performance. These
elements should be strictly controlled, and it may prove necessary to check and control the fuel quality at
the pump.
• Calcium, copper, sodium, manganese, potassium, phosphorus and zinc, even at levels as low as 0.1 ppm, can
contribute to the formation of deposits in fuel injector internal surfaces and nozzles. Injector deposits
reduce combustion efficiency and increase emissions. Concern about injector deposits is increasing as
the latest nozzle technology with tighter clearances and higher pressures becomes more widely used in
the marketplace.
• Chlorine, which is not naturally contained in petroleum, has been found in diesel fuel in both inorganic
and organic forms. Inorganic chlorine usually enters the fuel as a result of contamination by sea water
ballast during shipping or from the use of salt dryers during refining. Organic chlorine may enter the
fuel through adulteration with chemical or waste solvents. Chlorine forms highly corrosive acids during
combustion, which can reduce significantly the durability of the engine, fuel system and emission control
system. In the worst case, the presence of chlorine may lead to catastrophic engine failure as injectors
fail to operate or operate improperly after various periods and levels of exposure.

GO O D HO U S EK EEPING P RACTICES
The problems encountered by vehicles from poor quality fuel often are caused by adulteration that occurs
in the fuel distribution system, after the fuel has left the refinery gate. Failure to invest in adequate pipeline
and storage facilities and failure to maintain the equipment can lead to volatility losses, fuel leakage and
contamination by particulates and water that, in turn, can lead to a host of vehicle problems. Excess levels
of water, for example, will lead to corrosion, as shown in Figure 19. Poor operating practices at the service
station, such as too infrequent replacement of fuel dispenser filters or ‘dipping’ of tanks to check for
water, can magnify these problems. Adding used engine oil to fuel is unacceptable unless expressly allowed
by the manufacturer. Appropriate steps should be taken to minimize contamination by harmful elements
such as copper, zinc and sodium. Helpful guidance to good housekeeping practices may be found in
CEN/TR 15367-2, Petroleum Products.
Figure 19: Example of Corrosion in Field Pump Caused by Free Water in Diesel Fuel
© Robert Bosch GmbH reserves all rights, even in the event of industrial property rights.
We reserve all rights of disposal, such as copying and passing on to third parties. Reproduced with permission.

DATA SO UR C E S
GA SO LINE D IESEL
Table 1 US AQIRP, EPEFE, AAMA/AIAM, Figure 1, 3 ACEA REPORT: INFLUENCE

SAE 982726, JSAE 9838985 OF DIESEL FUEL QUALITY
Table 2 SIERRA REPORT, 2008 ON HEAVY DUTY DIESEL
ENGINE EMISSIONS, MARCH 1997
Figure 1 US AQIRP Figure 2 FORD, 2004
Figure 2 TOYOTA, 1999 Figure 4, 5 EPEFE REPORT
Figure 3 ALLIANCE/AIAM LOW SULFUR Figure 6 DETROIT DIESEL, EFFECT
EMISSIONS STUDY, 2001 OF SULFUR ON ENGINE LIFE
Figure 4 JAPAN CLEAR AIR PROGRAM Figure 7 ACEA REPORT: INFLUENCE
Figure 5 SAE 962051 OF DIESEL FUEL QUALITY
Figure 6 TOYOTA, 1999 ON HEAVY DUTY DIESEL
Figure 7 GENERAL MOTORS, 1999 ENGINE EMISSIONS, MARCH 1997
Figure 8 TOYOTA, 1999 Figure 8 DECSE PROGRAM, PHASE 1,
Figure 9 SAE 2002-01-2894 NUMBER 2, OCTOBER 1999, US DOE/EMA
Figure 10 ALLIANCE, AIAM AND CVMA, 2002 Figure 9 FORD & PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Figure 11 SIERRA REPORT, 2008 NATIONAL LABORATORY, 2009
Figure 12 HONDA, BMW AND FORD Figure 10a DECSE PROGRAM, PHASE 1,
Figure 13 FORD 2000 NUMBER 3, NOVEMBER 1999,
Figure 14 CRC REPORT, NO. E65 US DOE/EMA
Figure 15 US AQIRP Figure 10b JAPAN CLEAN AIR PROGRAM
Figure 16 US AQIRP, EPEFE REPORT Figure 11 ACEA REPORT: INFLUENCE
Figure 17 SAE 2013-01-1057 OF DIESEL FUEL QUALITY ON HEAVY-DUTY
Figure 18 SAE 2013-01-1057 DIESEL ENGINE EMISSIONS, MARCH 1997
Figure 19 CRC REPORT, NO. 605 Figure 12 DATA FROM THE EPEFE REPORT
Figure 20 CRC REPORT, NO. 605 Figure 13 KARLSSON (SCANRAFF REFINERY)
Figure 21 GM/SAE 962023 AND RÖJ (VOLVO): DIESEL FUEL QUALITY
Figure 22 TOYOTA/SAE 972851 FOR REDUCED EMISSIONS, WORLD FUELS
Figure 23 TOYOTA, 2005 CONFERENCE SAN FRANCISCO, 1995
Figure 24 HONDA, 2010 Figure 14 GRÄGG, AP SVENSK
Figure 25 TOYOTA, 2005 BILPROVNING/MOTORTESTCENTER,
Figure 26 FORD, 1996 REPORT 9/1995 BOSCH, 1997
Figure 27 FORD/ASTM 2003 Figure 15a JAMA, 2007
Figure 28 FORD/SAE 962012 Figure 15b METI, 2010
Figure 29 FORD, 1996 Figuer 15c CEN TC19/JWG1, 2012
Figure 30 FORD/SAE 962012 Figure 16 BOSCH, 2004
Figure 31 FORD/ASTM 2003 Figure 17 BOSCH, 1997
Figure 32 FORD/SAE 962012 Figure 18 ISO 4406, 1999
Figure 33 TOYOTA/SAE 941893 Figure 19 BOSCH, 2002

This brochure was printed on paper manufactured without chlorine or optical brightening agents
R E S PONSE TO CO M M E NTS WORLDW IDE FUEL CHART ER FIFT H E DI T I ON
Eleven individuals and organizations submitted more than 100 comments on the Proposed 5th Edition
of the Worldwide Fuel Charter (December 2012). The WWFC Committee appreciates this input and
carefully reviewed each comment for response or action. For brevity, the Committee consolidated and
condensed similar comments, and for confidentiality, it has not identified commenters. The consolidated
comments and the Committee’s responses are provided below, organized under general and multi-fuel,
gasoline, and diesel fuel headings.
General Comments and Those Relating to Both Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Chapters
COMMENT: The WWFC should expand discussion of fuel cost and supply, refinery and blending flexibility,
fuel producibility, well-to-wheel (WTW) energy impacts, WTW emission impacts and relative
costs of controlling the fuel vs. the vehicle.
RESPONSE: We recognize the importance of these other factors, but they are outside the Charter’s scope.
COMMENT: Many of the cited benefits derive from very old studies on vehicles in declining use, or they
provide very little additional benefit over existing fuels, so they do not justify the fixed and
arbitrary limits, many of which, such as for aromatics and olefins, can reduce fuel supply,
increase fuel costs or represent fuels that may not be producible.
RESPONSE: We disagree that the benefits do not justify the limits in this new edition. The age of studies
does not necessarily determine their validity, and older technologies remain relevant in many
parts of the world. The range of categories presented here reflects the progress in both
technologies and markets.
COMMENT: The WWFC correctly uses a forward-looking approach that is based on technical needs found
from tests or field experience.
RESPONSE: We agree. Thank you.
COMMENT: Worldwide fuel harmonization is the wrong goal because requirements, infrastructure capabi-
lities and preferences vary regionally.
RESPONSE: Global fuel quality harmonization is needed because vehicles and engines are global products. As
countries seek to tighten vehicle and engine requirements, fuel quality becomes an increasingly
critical factor for preserving the functionality of these products.
COMMENT: The WWFC should comment on the International Agency for Research on Cancer’s (IARC)
recent finding of carcinogenicity of vehicle exhaust, especially given the emergence of new
vehicle technologies and improved fuels.
RESPONSE: This issue is outside the WWFC’s scope.
COMMENT: The WWFC should endorse low carbon/carbon neutral/renewable fuels such as BTL, since
tailpipe GHG standards are ineffective.
RESPONSE: The WWFC5 notes in the Technical Background for Diesel Fuel that some “blendstocks,
particularly BTL, have relatively low well-to-wheel GHG emissions, and these are preferred
over other synthetic fuels that are not considered to be low carbon fuels.”
COMMENT: The WWFC relies on many test methods, such as engine tests, that are not widely available
at reasonable cost. Also, proposed limits should be measureable and consider test method
repeatability, reproducibility and safety.
RESPONSE: The Committee strives to reference test methods that reflect best practices.
COMMENT: The WWFC should include EtBE among the acronyms.

RESPONSE: The Committee accepts this suggestion.
worldwide fuel charter 5th e d i t i o n _ r e s p o n s e t o c o m m e n t s _ 1 _ September 2013

COMMENT: The WWFC should consider creating a new category for GTL, BTL, HVO and other neat
paraffinic fuels.
RESPONSE: The WWFC is designed to present performance requirements and does not define the
processes by which fuels are made.
COMMENT: EN 228 and EN 590 are among the most advanced fuel standards in the world, and
advanced vehicle technologies have successfully used them for years, but neither meets all of
the WWFC5 specifications, implying European fuel quality is inadequate. The WWFC should
support these standards, perhaps by defining a category that complies with them.
RESPONSE: The WWFC offers recommendations for optimum fuel quality for performance and emissions.
Even well-formulated, advanced standards may have room for improvement.
COMMENT: The biofuel blends allowed in this proposal do not need additional pump labelling. The labelling
requirement for up to 5% FAME in diesel fuel is contrary to US law.
RESPONSE: Pump labelling is useful for the consumer. Also, the WWFC represents recommendations for
a global market, and as such, its specifications may differ from standards specific to any parti-
cular country or location.
COMMENT: Why does the WWFC5 recommend a particular fuel nozzle, and what relevance does the
nozzle have to fuel quality?
RESPONSE: The recommendation helps address misfueling and represents best practice.
COMMENT: The WWFC should state that unprocessed vegetable oils, animal fats and non-esterified fatty
acids are unacceptable as diesel fuels or as diesel fuel blend components.
RESPONSE: The WWFC5’s Technical Background for Diesel Fuel states: “Unprocessed vegetable oils,
animal fats and non-esterified fatty acids are not acceptable as transportation fuels due to
their very low cetane, inappropriate cold flow properties, high injector fouling tendency and
high kinematics viscosity level.”
COMMENT: Sulphur does not “contaminate” fuel because it is not added and is naturally part of the crude
oil.
RESPONSE: The Technical Background has been changed to clarify how sulphur gets into the fuel.
COMMENT: Regarding the discussions about Good Housekeeping: (1) They would be greatly improved by
recommending appropriate steps be taken to minimize elemental contamination by harmful
elements such as copper, zinc and sodium, and by stating that adding used engine oil to fuel
is unacceptable (unless expressly allowed by the manufacturer); (2) The WWFC5 should cite
some of CONCAWE’s many reports on good housekeeping.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the comment and has modified the Technical Background.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should include zinc as a harmful trace metal in the specifications.
RESPONSE: The specifications do not exclude zinc as a harmful trace metal, but the Committee agrees it
would be helpful to explicitly mention Zn and has added it to the list of harmful trace metals.
COMMENT: Some supply and distribution systems cannot easily measure, control or remove trace metals
to the level required, and trace metal harm is not well characterised.
RESPONSE: It is important for the market to adopt best available practices to ensure good fuel quality
control. Improved trace metal test methods are being developed and will be incorporated
when available.
COMMENT: The ICP method cannot detect chlorine, but ASTM D7359 may.
RESPONSE: The Committee will consider this suggestion for future editions.

COMMENT: Various comments were submitted regarding other test methods.

RESPONSE: Some test methods were added and others were corrected, as suggested.
COMMENT: Various comments were submitted regarding terminology.

RESPONSE: The Committee reviewed the suggestions and made changes in some cases.
COMMENT: The most common source of chlorine (chloride) contamination is from salt water (sodium
chloride), originating during refining (salt dryers), fuel shipping (sea water ballast) and/or
storage (salt water intrusion), especially for gasoline-ethanol blends which dissolve water
more readily than E0.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the comment and has modified the Technical Background.
Comments Relating Specifically To Gasoline
COMMENT: Category 5 should keep 91 RON gasoline because eliminating that grade is unnecessary (with
premium fuel widely available), costly, without emission or fuel efficiency benefits and will
increase refinery GHG emissions. The WWFC5 should defer to ASTM and CRC which are
both addressing this issue.
RESPONSE: Higher market octane is a key enabler of more fuel efficient vehicles and engines.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should include the Antiknock Index ((R+M)/2), which US law requires.
RESPONSE: RON and MON are recognized globally.
COMMENT: The Category 4 and Category 5 sulphur limits for gasoline lack scientific justification and will
cause octane loss, increase fuel cost and increase GHG emissions.
RESPONSE: The Committee disagrees. A 10 ppm maximum sulphur limit in gasoline enables the use of
more advanced technologies for emissions reduction and fuel efficiency and, compared to
higher sulphur levels, improves the emissions performance of existing technologies.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should accept proper methanol blending in gasoline, as EN228 allows (up to
3% v/v). Also, what is the rationale for not addressing certain regional use of higher methanol
blends, such as M15, M30 and even M85?
RESPONSE: Methanol increases the risk of corrosion and material incompatibility. Some manufacturers do
not allow any methanol use in some products. Some markets allow a maximum of 0.3%, which
means no intentional addition in practice. Regarding higher methanol blends, such blends are
outside the scope of this document.
COMMENT: TheWWFC5 should modify the oxygen footnote to treat all types of acceptable oxygen additives
the same.
RESPONSE: Oxygen content is not the only factor in determining the recommended limits.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should acknowledge that some manufacturers are allowing up to E15 in non-
flexible-fuel vehicles.
RESPONSE: Individual manufacturers may have different approaches to the use of blending components
such as ethanol and, therefore, differing compatibility limits.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should clarify whether E10 is acceptable in older vehicles, i.e., whether protection
grade ethanol blends should continue to be made available.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees some regions may still require the availability of ethanol levels
below E5 for their fleets and has slightly modified the existing Technical Background text:
“Maintaining the availability of protection-grade fuel (up to E5) may be necessary in some
markets to protect older vehicles designed for ethanol-free gasoline.”

COMMENT: The WWFC5 should raise the gasoline sediment limit.

RESPONSE: The Committee reviewed the limit and believes it is correct. ASTM D5452 precision is
adequate to support the limit.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should increase the unwashed gum limit and provide more information about
the trade-offs between gum-levels and the use of performance additives.
RESPONSE: The existing footnote to the unwashed gum and CCD limits already addresses this question.
The Technical Background further explains the trade-offs.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should use the same density range in both Category 4 and Category 5, in the
absence of a rationale for different ranges.
RESPONSE: Density levels correspond to category octane levels.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should drop the term “sulphur corrosion” and call it “silver corrosion” instead.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees and has changed the document accordingly.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should rely on detergent additives for fuel injector cleanliness and either stop
requiring two poorly available methods or remove the requirement.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees injector cleanliness does not require both methods and has changed
the specifications accordingly.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should recommend additives instead of combustion chamber deposit limits
because the methods are not readily available, are inaccurate and additives work well.
RESPONSE: The WWFC recommends performance requirements instead of specific additive formulations
and doses.
COMMENT: Some recommendations, such as some volatility limits, deviate from current national or
European regulations.
RESPONSE: The Charter represents recommendations for a global market, and as such, its specifications
may differ from standards specific to any particular country or location. More stringent local
regulations would supersede Charter requirements.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should include European parameters, limits and methods for the vapour-liquid
ratio and update TV/L=20 limits to match ASTM.
RESPONSE: The Committee will consider these suggestions for future editions.
COMMENT: The test methods for determining oxidation stability (ISO 7536 and ASTM D525) cannot be
used on ethanol blends. It would be helpful if WWFC5 would highlight the need for a new test
method.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees attention should be paid to this issue, since alternatives do not currently
exist. New methods for ethanol blends will be considered when they become available.
COMMENT: ASTM D5452 should be checked for applicability to gasoline.

RESPONSE: While this method applies to aviation fuel, it can be used and is useful for motor gasoline. The
Committee welcomes and will consider alternative methods if/when available.
COMMENT: Octane rating at altitude need not be equal to the octane rating at sea level, and we are
unaware of data that suggest otherwise.
RESPONSE: The Committee disagrees. Many published studies support the need for a common octane
rating at all altitudes with modern fuel injected engines since the mid-1980s.

COMMENT: The WWFC5 should inform readers about the dramatic elimination of leaded gasoline
over the past decade, especially in African countries, through the combined efforts of the
Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) and its automotive and oil industry partners.
RESPONSE: Thank you for mentioning this successful cooperative effort involving the auto, engine and
oil industries to educate markets about how leaded gasoline harms vehicles and increases
emissions. We would welcome similar efforts directed at additives containing other metals.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should mention contaminants such as sulphates, water and inorganic chloride
that often derive from ethanol blendstocks.
RESPONSE: Ethanol blends should use ethanol blendstocks that meet the WWFC Committee’s Ethanol
Guidelines, published in 2009.
Comments Relating Specifically To Diesel Fuel
COMMENT: Categories 4 and 5 limits likely can only be met with high levels of additives, which can be
difficult to manage and often lead to vehicle performance problems and engine fouling.
RESPONSE: The Committee disagrees that these Categories can only be met with excessive additive levels;
rather, this is mainly a base fuel issue. Even so, the Committee always welcomes additional data
regarding additive usage and management.
COMMENT: Several commenters recommended alternatives to the proposed non-detectable FAME limit
in Category 5: 0.2% v/v, since “non-detectable” is impractical where distribution systems
supply both FAME-containing and FAME-free fuels; 7% as in Europe; or FAME-free fuel only
during extended parking or fuel storage. One asked why 5% FAME would prevent the use of
“highly advanced emission requirements,” considering that FAME helps reduce many types of
emissions.
RESPONSE: Not all technical issues involving FAME have been identified or resolved, and the intent is to
minimize risks to the most advanced technologies. In addition, the introduction of FAME can
affect fuel efficiency.
COMMENT: Higher cetane provides no benefits, but the proposed limits could restrict fuel supply.
RESPONSE: The Committee disagrees.
COMMENT: The minimum density limits would restrict the use of low carbon components such as GTL,
HVO and low PNA and also could restrict fuel supply.
RESPONSE: As these blending components become more available and experience with them grows, the
Committee will re-evaluate the specifications.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should reduce the sodium limit to 0.1 mg/kg max to minimize internal deposits.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees, but currently available test methods do not support lower limits. As
new test methods become available, the Committee will re-evaluate the limits.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should include an overall maximum for trace metal content and reduce the
acceptable limit for each element to 0.1 mg/kg to restrict the maximum ash load, as the tech-
nical background already reasons.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees, but currently available test methods do not support lower limits. As
new test methods become available, the Committee will re-evaluate the limits.
COMMENT: It is unclear why the trace metal limits differ in Categories 2-5 vs Category 1.
RESPONSE: The trace metal limits differ because the engine technologies used in Category 1 markets are
less sensitive to metal content than those in the higher categories.

COMMENT: The proposed aromatics cap is unjustified and could significantly restrict refinery operations,
cause impacts downstream and limit fuel supply. Similarly, the WWFC fails to justify the very
low PAH limits, which also are impractical given current refining processes and normal test
method variability.
RESPONSE: The recommended aromatics and PAH limits are intended to optimize emissions perfor-
mance.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should require a minimum Initial Boiling Point (IBP) to minimize a potential
increase in volatility components in Europe’s imported fuel supply. Such components can
increase the incidence of cavitation.
RESPONSE: The Committee will consider this topic for future WWFC editions and welcomes any
available data.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should set the CFPP to be below the lowest expected ambient temperature
and the CP to below the lowest long term storage temperature, with the CP specification not
more than 10°C above the CFPP spec (as described well in the background).
RESPONSE: The Committee has clarified the limit. We note the specification can be met by any of the
three cold flow properties.
COMMENT: The biological growth test method is not well-known, and its “zero” limit is difficult to inter-
pret. The Committee should consider using IP 385 with a max limit 1000 –3000 cfu/l. The
Committee also might consider using modified IATA (aviation) methods and limits. Good
housekeeping (with references to CEN or CONCAWE reports) should help avoid problems.
RESPONSE: The Committee has added the IP test method, will allow alternatives and added a reference
on good housekeeping. It will consider additional changes for future WWFC editions and
welcomes any available data.
COMMENT: The proposed Rancimat limits are excessively severe, lack sufficient justification and are
inconsistent with European market experience. Also, the WWFC5 should re-examine the
oxidation stability methods and limits for diesel fuel, especially the Rancimat limits, the Delta
TAN method and the PetrOxy method. WWFC5 should clarify which methods can be used
with fuels containing FAME.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the comments on this subject, has modified these references and
clarified their applicability to fuels containing FAME.
COMMENT: The WWFC should clarify why it includes a TAN limit and should reduce the limit to 0.03 mg/kg
for FAME-free fuel to prevent acidified fuels. It also should explain that additives can affect TAN,
and that effect should be taken into account when evaluating TAN results.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the comment, will consider this topic for future WWFC editions
and welcomes any available data.
COMMENT: For clarity and consistency, the WWFC5 should include GTL and “next generation fuels” in
the footnote reference to “Other Biofuels,” as well as indicating which biofuels are preferred.
RESPONSE: The Committee recognizes GTL as a high quality fuel component, but GTL is not bio-based.
The WWFC represents a performance specification so that any fuel that meets the recom-
mendation is acceptable.
COMMENT: The Total Particulate Contamination limit may be unattainable, given the repeatability of the
test method. The WWFC5 should relax the limit to 12-15 mg/kg.
RESPONSE: The Committee reviewed the relevant test methods, changed one of the methods and retai-
ned the limit.

COMMENT: Regarding the particle count cleanliness test and limit: (1) The ISO fuel cleanliness approach is
very difficult to implement in practice. (2) A particle count cleanliness limit is very desirable,
but the selected limit is too severe and should be relaxed to 19/17/14, especially for Category
2 and 3 markets. Also, please clarify whether the limit means “up to and including” or “better
than.”
RESPONSE: The Committee reviewed the limit and test and believe they are appropriate for Categories 2
to 5. The code rating limit, shown as a maximum, means “up to and including” the stated limit.
COMMENT: The injector cleanliness tests are both engine tests, which are very expensive for monitoring
market fuel quality. It is unclear whether the WWFC5 intends to require both tests.
RESPONSE: In Categories 4 and 5, the Committee believes both methods are justified and have appropriate
limits. The Committee will consider new methods if/when they become available.
COMMENT: The Internal Injector Deposit limit for Method 1 is premature, since the method remains
under discussion.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees and notes that the limit does not address internal injector deposits.
Work on methods to measure these types of deposits is proceeding.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should tighten the Injector Cleanliness (Method 1) limit to 50% max, at least for
Categories 4 and 5.
RESPONSE: The Committee will consider this suggestion for future editions.
COMMENT: The footnote referencing the development of a new method for internal diesel injector deposits
(IDID) should be moved to a more relevant location to avoid confusion.
RESPONSE: The Committee agrees and, for clarity, has removed the footnote from the specification tables.
COMMENT: What new performance data support the HFRR relaxation (from 400 to 460 in Categories
1-3) since the publication of the 4th Edition of the WWFC?
RESPONSE: The limits are appropriate for the technologies in those categories.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should clarify the method used to measure Delta TAN.
RESPONSE: The test method has been clarified.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should update its discussion of density, viscosity and heating value effects on
modern common rail fuel injection systems.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the comment and will consider this suggestion for future editions.
COMMENT: Linking diesel cold flow performance to a lowest expected ambient temperature is impractical.
RESPONSE: The Committee believes the limit adds an additional margin of safety and is justified. We note
the specification can be met by using any of the three cold flow test methods.
COMMENT: The WWFC5 should add a new, dedicated discussion of fuel stability, with attention to the
distinction between long term storage at reasonable temperatures and thermal stability at the
high temperatures found in fuel injection systems.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the comment and will consider the suggestion for future editions.
COMMENT: As some GTL, HVO and other synthetic fuels may require additional controls to ensure
acceptability, the WWFC5 should add the CEN TS 15940 specification as a guideline for GTL
and HVO quality. Further, such fuels may need additional engine validation.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the suggestion and has modified the Technical Background.

COMMENT: TheWWFC5 should mention that high additive treat rates, for example, of some poly isobutylene
succinimides (PIBSIs), can cause internal diesel injector deposit (IDID) formation, and should
advise additive producers and fuel suppliers to check the extent to which their formulations
contribute to such undesirable effects.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the suggestion and has modified the Technical Background.
COMMENT: In addition to nozzle hole coking, the WWFC5 also should discuss internal injector deposits,
to which fuel contaminants may contribute. The omission of this topic is a serious defect.
Also, the WWFC5 should mention that partial nozzle blockage due to deposits is much more
common than complete blockage and will just as significantly reduce fuel flow and affect power
and emissions.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the suggestions and has modified the Technical Background.
COMMENT: The discussion about lubricity should be edited to focus on boundary lubrication. The effect of
fuel viscosity on friction and wear, under hydrodynamic and elasto-hydrodynamic conditions,
also should be discussed.
RESPONSE: The Committee appreciates the suggestions, has modified the Technical Background and will
consider additional changes in future editions.

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Fifth Edition

FUEL CHARTER SEPTEMBER 2013

Truck and Engine

Subject: Worldwide Fuels Harmonisation

Dear Worldwide Fuel Charter Recipient:

Ivan Hodac Mitch Bainwol Jed R. Mandel Yoshiyasu Nao

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ i _ September 2013

ACEA member companies

Alliance member companies

EMA member companies

JAMA member companies

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ ii _ September 2013

CATEGORY 1 Unleaded Gasoline 3

CATEGORY 2 Unleaded Gasoline 4

CATEGORY 3 Unleaded Gasoline 5

CATEGORY 4 Unleaded Gasoline 6

CATEGORY 5 Unleaded Gasoline 7

VOLATILITY CLASSES Unleaded Gasoline 8

VAPOUR/LIQUID RATIO Unleaded Gasoline 8

TEST METHODS Gasoline 9

CATEGORY 1 Diesel Fuel 10

CATEGORY 2 Diesel Fuel 11

CATEGORY 3 Diesel Fuel 12

CATEGORY 4 Diesel Fuel 13

CATEGORY 5 Diesel Fuel 14

TEST METHODS Diesel Fuel 15

TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Gasoline 16

TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Diesel Fuel 40

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ iii _ September 2013

AAMA American Automobile Manufacturers FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Esters

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ iv _ September 2013

Implementation of the recommendations will:

Requirements for all markets:

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 1 _ September 2013

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 2 _ September 2013

PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 3 _ September 2013

Markets with requirements for emission controls or other market demands.

PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 4 _ September 2013

PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 5 _ September 2013

PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

Method 1 (ASTM D6201), or % of base fuel 140

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 6 _ September 2013

PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 7 _ September 2013

V A P O UR / L IQ UID R ATIO ( V/L) , T V/L =2 0

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 8 _ September 2013

PROPERTIES UNITS ISO ASTM JIS Other

(1) Updated procedures are needed to better measure oxygenated blends.

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 9 _ September 2013

PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

Copper corrosion rating Class 1

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 10 _ September 2013

Markets with requirements for emission controls or other market demands.

PROPERTIES UNITS LIMIT

Ethanol/Methanol % v/v Non-detectable (12)

worldwide fuel charter 5th edition _ 11 _ September 2013