Seminar

Bipolar disorder
Iria Grande, Michael Berk, Boris Birmaher, Eduard Vieta

Bipolar disorder is a recurrent chronic disorder characterised by fluctuations in mood state and energy. It affects Published Online
more than 1% of the world’s population irrespective of nationality, ethnic origin, or socioeconomic status. Bipolar September 18, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
disorder is one of the main causes of disability among young people, leading to cognitive and functional impairment S0140-6736(15)00241-X
and raised mortality, particularly death by suicide. A high prevalence of psychiatric and medical comorbidities is
Bipolar Disorders Unit, Clinical
typical in affected individuals. Accurate diagnosis of bipolar disorder is difficult in clinical practice because onset is Institute of Neurosciences,
most commonly a depressive episode and looks similar to unipolar depression. Moreover, there are currently no Hospital Clinic, University of
valid biomarkers for the disorder. Therefore, the role of clinical assessment remains key. Detection of hypomanic Barcelona, IDIBAPS, CIBERSAM,
Barcelona, Spain (I Grande MD,
periods and longitudinal assessment are crucial to differentiate bipolar disorder from other conditions. Current
E Vieta MD); Deakin University,
knowledge of the evolving pharmacological and psychological strategies in bipolar disorder is of utmost importance. IMPACT Strategic Research
Centre, School of Medicine,
Introduction across the lifespan, and pharmacological and psycho- Geelong, VIC, Australia
(M Berk MD); Florey Institute of
Fluctuations in mood are common in life, particularly logical treatments. Furthermore, we include issues of Neuroscience and Mental
when faced by stressful events. Nevertheless, when mood particular interest, such as management of bipolar Health, Orygen, The National
swings are striking and persistent, and result in notable disorder in pregnancy and adolescence and monitoring. Centre of Excellence in Youth
distress or impairment, there could be an underlying Finally, we address emerging trends in diagnosis and Mental Health and Orygen
Youth Health Research Centre,
affective disorder. Affective disorders can be classified treatment and future developments. and Department of Psychiatry,
along a spectrum defined by the extent and severity of University of Melbourne,
mood elevation, from unipolar to bipolar II to bipolar I.1 Classification Parkville, VIC, Australia
Individuals with unipolar disorder present with depressive Bipolar disorder, previously known as manic depressive (M Berk); and Department of
Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric
episodes only, and those with bipolar II or I disorder show illness, is a severe chronic mood disorder characterised Institute and Clinic, University
increasingly pronounced episodes of mood elevation. by episodes of mania, hypomania, and alternating or of Pittsburgh Medical Center,
Bipolar disorder affects more than 1% of the world’s intertwining episodes of depression (figure 1). No Pittsburgh, PA, USA
population irrespective of nationality, ethnic origin, or biomarker has yet been approved for diagnosis of any (B Birmaher MD)

socioeconomic status and represents one of the leading mental disorder and clinical criteria endure.9 The most Correspondence to:
Dr Eduard Vieta, Bipolar
causes of disability among young people.2 In a worldwide widely acknowledged diagnostic classifications are the Disorders Unit, Clinical Institute
mental health survey,3 the prevalence of bipolar disorders 10th revision of the International Classification of of Neurosciences, Hospital Clinic,
was consistent across diverse cultures and ethnic groups, Diseases (ICD-10)10 and the 5th edition of the Diagnostic 08036 Barcelona, Spain
with an aggregate lifetime prevalence of 0·6% for and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).11 evieta@clinic.ub.es

bipolar I disorder, 0·4% for bipolar II disorder, 1·4% for Bipolar disorders are classified according to the
subthreshold bipolar disorder, and 2·4% for the bipolar longitudinal course, which is often characterised by the
disorder spectrum. Access for patients to mental health presence of subthreshold symptoms (panel).12 Although
systems, however, differs substantially across countries, bipolar I disorder might seem to have a more tortuous
making management of this disorder especially difficult evolution and severe prognosis than bipolar II disorder
in low-income countries.3 With respect to sex, bipolar I because of cross-sectional symptom severity, bipolar II
disorder affects men and women equally whereas disorder has a high episode frequency, high rates
bipolar II disorder is most common in women.4 of psychiatric comorbidities, and recurrent suicidal
Bipolar disorder is a lifelong episodic illness with a behaviours that impair quality of life.13
variable course that can often result in functional and
cognitive impairment and a reduction in quality of life.5,6 In
WHO’s World Mental Health surveys,2 bipolar disorder was Search strategy and selection criteria
ranked as the illness with the second greatest effect on days We searched PubMed between January, 1920, and June, 2015,
out of role. Because bipolar disorder is mainly diagnosed with the term “bipolar disorder” in combination with the
in young adulthood, it affects the economically active terms “diagnosis”, “depression”, “mania”, “suicide”,
population and, therefore, connotes high costs to society.7 “childhood”, “management”, “acute treatment”, and
The onset of mania in later life might be indicative of an “long-term treatment”. We restricted our search to English
underlying medical comorbidity.8 Because of the recurrence language publications. We largely selected reports from the
and chronicity of bipolar disorder, not only is acute past 5 years but did not exclude commonly referenced and
treatment for management of mood episodes fundamental highly cited older publications. We downloaded reports into
but also pharmacological and psychological approaches for Mendeley and scanned them for relevance to the topics
prevention of further episodes are important. selected for this Seminar. We also searched the reference lists
In this Seminar, we discuss topics in bipolar disorder of reports identified by this search strategy and selected
including clinical presentation, diagnostic classification those we judged relevant to the selected topics.
systems, current knowledge about causes, prognosis

www.thelancet.com Published online September 18, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00241-X 1

 Seminar

encompass psychotic symptoms or even lead to hospital

Mania
admission, in a hypomanic episode, a disturbance in
Severity of mania

functioning can be seen by others but does not typically

cause severe impairment or require admission to hospital.
Hypomania In some cases of hypomania, occupational functioning
Mixed state
might even improve transiently because of heightened
productivity and good humour. About 75% of patients
Euthymia with an acute manic episode present with psychotic
Time symptoms.14 Delusions can be mood-congruent in mania,
with individuals displaying grandiosity, megalomania,
Severity of depression

or messianic ideation. However, mood-incongruent

psychosis is not uncommon, with the flipside of
Subthreshold depression
perceptions of being envied, in jeopardy, and persecuted
by their enemies.14 Hence, psychotic features, even when
mood-incongruent, do not rule out the diagnosis of
Major depression bipolar disorder.
A hypomanic episode is defined in DSM-5 as persisting
Figure 1: Life chart showing progression of bipolar disorder for at least 4 consecutive days, whereas a manic episode
Recording mood changes on a life chart can help clinicians to monitor and manage patients with bipolar disorder. lasts for at least 1 week. The temporal cutoff of 4 days is
According to severity, manic and hypomanic symptoms are registered above the state of euthymia (normal mood
not mirrored by a clear cutpoint in reported data, and
state) whereas depressive symptoms are depicted below.
some researchers have suggested that this period
should be shortened to 2 days so that patients categorised
Panel: DSM-5 diagnosis of bipolar and related disorders with unipolar depression could be diagnosed with bipolar
disorder.15 Angst and colleagues on the multicentre,
Bipolar I disorder
multinational, transcultural BRIDGE study16 aimed to
At least one manic episode must be presented, although major depressive episodes are
ascertain the frequency of symptoms of bipolar disorder
typical but not needed for diagnosis
according to DSM-IV-TR and the much broader
Bipolar II disorder bipolar-specifier criteria in patients seeking treatment for
At least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode are needed for a major depressive episode. 903 (16%) of 5635 patients
diagnosis diagnosed with major depressive disorder fulfilled
DSM-IV-TR criteria for bipolar disorder, whereas
Cyclothymic disorder
2647 (47%) met the bipolar-specifier criteria. Thus, 31%
Hypomanic and depressive periods that do not fulfil criteria for hypomania or major
of patients with a diagnosis of major depressive disorder
depression for at least 2 years
had subthreshold hypomanic or manic symptoms with
Other specified bipolar and related disorder the broader criteria.16 Without an objective marker, it is
Bipolar-like disorders that do not meet criteria for bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, or unclear if this finding represents underdiagnosis of
cyclothymia because of insufficient duration or severity bipolar disorder or false-positive diagnoses. In particular,
• Short-duration hypomanic episodes and major depressive disorder basing diagnosis on very common and non-specific
irritable states and rapid shifts in mood could risk
• Hypomanic episodes with insufficient symptoms and major depressive disorder abutting on borderline and related personality disorders
• Hypomanic episode without prior major depressive disorder and adjustment disorders.17
• Short-duration cyclothymia The reliability of phenomenology-based diagnostic
systems such DSM-5, thus, remains controversial for
Unspecified bipolar and related disorder diagnosis of bipolar disorder. The requirement to diagnose
Characteristic symptoms of bipolar and related disorders that do not meet full criteria for a manic episode only if the mood disturbance is
any category previously mentioned accompanied by an increase in activity or energy, the
hesitancy to change the length of hypomanic episodes
Substance or drug-induced bipolar and related disorder
in diagnostic criteria, and the introduction of the mixed
Bipolar and related disorder due to another medical condition specifier for affective episodes of any mood disorder—
DSM-5=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition. including unipolar depression—are still matters for
debate. Other changes have been introduced to diagnostic
criteria in recent times, such as consideration of bipolar
Mania and hypomania diagnosis in manic or hypomanic episodes that emerge
Manic or hypomanic episodes are states of elevated mood during treatment (eg, with antidepressants, corticosteroids,
and increased motor drive that are finite in time and or electroconvulsive therapy) and persist at a fully
differ in severity and length. Although a manic episode syndromal level beyond the physiological effect of the
impairs social or occupational functioning and might treatment, and the application of DSM-5 specifiers.

2 www.thelancet.com Published online September 18, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00241-X

 Seminar

Specifiers define clinical features of episodes and the earlier age of onset,31 has more frequent episodes of
course of bipolar disorder. For example, the rapid-cycling shorter duration,32 has an abrupt onset and offset,33 is
specifier describes the presence of at least four mood linked to comorbid substance misuse,34 is triggered by
episodes that meet criteria for mania, hypomania, or stressors at early stages, and has more post-partum
major depression within 12 months,18 whereas the mixed risk.35 Atypical symptoms—such as hypersomnia,
specifier defines episodes—either manic, hypomanic, or lability, and weight instability—are also common in
depressive—commingled with three symptoms of the bipolar depression,36 being reported in 90% of episodes,
opposite pole.1 In previous editions of the DSM, the but they are described in only half of unipolar depressive
mixed specifier category was restricted to full manic episodes.37 Psychosis,38 psychomotor retardation, and
episodes and, therefore, to a diagnosis of bipolar I catatonia39 are also more characteristic of bipolar
disorder (panel). Both the rapid-cycling specifier and the depression, whereas somatic complaints are most
mixed specifier are clinically important because they have frequent in unipolar depression.40 A family history of
been associated with a more severe prognosis, frequent mania is also a relevant indicator of bipolar depression.41
and prolonged episodes, increased deaths by suicide, and
additional comorbidity.18,19 Creation of the diagnostic Suicide
category “other specified bipolar and related disorder” in People with mood disorders are at very high risk of death
DSM-5 (panel) has impelled a lively debate between by suicide. The incidence of death by suicide among
supporters20 and detractors21 about the decrease in the patients with bipolar disorder is high42,43 and can be more
threshold for diagnosis of bipolar disorder and the than 20 times higher than in the general population,44
embracing of the spectrum of bipolarity. particularly when bipolar disorder is untreated.45 About a
Under-recognition of hypomanic symptoms is, third to a half of patients with bipolar disorder attempt
nevertheless, common. Patients do not always recall or suicide at least once in their lifetime, and roughly 15–20%
read their mood accurately or judge its consequences, of attempts are completed.46 Variables significantly
and sometimes they enjoy the mood state and view it as associated with suicide attempts include female sex,
desirable. Nevertheless, hypomania often heralds a young age at onset of illness, depressive polarity of first
full-blown manic episode or depressive episode, with its illness episode, depressive polarity of current or most
subsequent burdensome outcomes. Although patients recent episode, comorbid anxiety disorder, any comorbid
typically struggle with depression, families often substance misuse disorder, borderline personality
complain about the results of hypomanic episodes. Thus, disorder, and a first-degree family history of suicide.46
clinical acuity in detecting hypomanic periods is By contrast, variables associated significantly with death
fundamental. Some scales assist in this task in general by suicide include male sex and a first-degree family
practice—eg, Hypomania Checklist 32 (HCL-32) is a history of suicide. Prompt and comprehensive assessment
screening method to identify hypomanic symptoms in and management of suicidal ideation in patients with
patients with a major depressive episode.22 Once a bipolar disorder is needed. Assessment should include
diagnosis of hypomania is confirmed, other scales are the intention to attempt suicide, availability and potential
used to assess the severity of the hypomanic and manic lethality of methods, and presence of protective factors.47
episodes, such as the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS).23
Diagnosis
Depression Correct diagnosis of bipolar disorder is aided, to a
At onset, most patients with bipolar disorder present with substantial degree, by a directed interview with the patient
a depressive episode that differs subtly from unipolar and their relatives, to discern the longitudinal course of
depression.24 DSM-5 criteria for a major depressive the disorder, which often differs from answers given in a
episode are the same for bipolar and unipolar depression, cross-sectional interview situation. Only 20% of patients
and severity of the episode is assessed with the same with bipolar disorder having a depressive episode are
scales: the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS)25 diagnosed with bipolar disorder within the first year of
or the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale seeking treatment.38 The mean delay between illness
(MADRS).26 The main difference between these two scales onset and diagnosis is 5–10 years.48 The most common
is that MADRS is more sensitive to change and does not differential diagnoses—apart from major depressive
emphasise somatic symptoms as much as does HDRS. disorder and schizophrenia—are anxiety disorder,
The symptomatic differences between unipolar and substance misuse, personality disorder,49 and, in children,
bipolar depression were first described in the 1950s by attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and
Leonhard27 and validated a decade later by Angst,28 oppositional defiant disorder,50 diagnoses that are typically
Perris,29 and Winokur and colleagues.30 Although bipolar comorbid with bipolarity.
or unipolar depression do not have pathognomonic
characteristics, these researchers described some clinical Pathology
features that are useful to discriminate bipolar and Knowledge of the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of
unipolar depression. Bipolar depression usually has an bipolar disorder has progressed rapidly over the past few

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 Seminar

decades. Although bipolar disorder is one of the most monitoring of phasic dysregulation in mood, sleep, and
heritable psychiatric disorders, a multifactorial model in behaviour is attracting attention. Awareness of the
which gene and environment interact is currently thought underlying molecular basis and neuroimaging changes,
to best fit this disorder.51 Many risk alleles of small effect, pathogenesis, and pathophysiology of bipolar disorder56 is
which partly overlap with schizophrenia (eg, CACNA1C, essential to discover novel drug targets and develop
TENM4, and NCAN) and are described in genome-wide biomarkers of risk, prognosis, and therapeutic response.57
association studies, contribute to the polygenic risk of
bipolar disorder.51 Historically, mood disorders were Prognosis
thought to result from an imbalance in monoaminergic The natural history of bipolar disorder often includes
neurotransmitter systems such as the serotonergic, periods of remission, but recurrence is normal, particularly
noradrenergic, and—in particular in bipolar disorder— if adherence to treatment is poor. The polarity of the index
the dopaminergic neurotransmitter system. Despite episode can predict the polarity of subsequent episodes.58
evidence showing that these circuits are likely to play a Patients with a depressive predominant polarity are most
part, no singular dysfunction of these neurotransmitter likely to attempt suicide, have a depressive onset, and be
systems has been identified. Nevertheless, modulation of diagnosed with bipolar II disorder that follows a seasonal
synaptic and neural plasticity seems to be important in the pattern.59 Conversely, with a manic predominant polarity,
circuitry regulating affective and cognitive functions.52 drug misuse is common and patients usually present at a
Neurotrophic molecules, such as brain-derived neuro- young age with a manic episode and have bipolar I
trophic factor, have a vital role in signalling pathways of disorder.60 In a 15-year follow-up study, patients with
dendritic sprouting and neural plasticity.53 Dendritic spine bipolar I61 and bipolar II62 disorder had euthymia for about
loss has been noted in post-mortem brain tissue of half the study period, with depression being the most
patients with bipolar disorder.54 Other pathways that can prevalent mood state, reported during 31% and 52% of the
affect neuronal interconnectivity are also under study, study, respectively. Mixed episodes, hypomania, or mania
including mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic were recorded for 1·6% and 10% of the study, respectively.
reticulum stress, neuroinflammation, oxidation, apoptosis, Subsyndromal states were three times more common than
and epigenetic changes, particularly histone and DNA full syndromal episodes.61,62
methylation.55 Because the core phenotype of bipolar The notion of the progressive course of bipolar disorder,
disorder is a biphasic energy shift, corresponding with its cognitive, functional, and medical aftermaths,
was first described in 1920 by Kraepelin;63 more recently,
Baseline functioning progressive modifications have been encompassed by the
Psychosocial
functioning

idea of neuroprogression (figure 2).64 Despite patients

Functioning with bipolar disorder having normal or even superior
cognition before diagnosis,65 in cognitive and neuro-
imaging studies,66 bipolar disorder has been associated
with subtle but substantial neurocognitive deficits across
Allostatic

Allostatic load
all mood states,67 including periods of remission.68 Poor
load

Baseline allostatic load

performance in executive functions and verbal memory
seems to be related not only to disease severity but also to
the presence of psychotic symptoms, prolonged duration
therapy

Combination
Psychological Drug

Nutraceutical Lithium
treatment of illness, more manic episodes, and subsyndromal
depressive symptoms.69 This cognitive impairment could
therapy

Mental health Psychoeducation Functional account, in part, for the functional impairment seen
first aid, self-help CBT, FFT, IPSRT remediation
in patients with bipolar disorder even in remission.70
At-risk phase Prodromic First episode Multiple episodes Chronicity Functional recovery unsurprisingly lags behind
(stage 0) phase (stage 2) (stage 3) (stage 4) symptomatic or syndromal recovery.71
(stage 1)
In addition to cognition and functioning, physical
Euthymia
health is affected in patients with bipolar disorder.72
Cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, and obesity are highly
comorbid and arise earlier in the life course compared
Time
with the general population.73 Medical comorbidities are
indicators of a worse outlook for patients with bipolar
Figure 2: Neuroprogression of bipolar disorder
During the course of bipolar disorder, psychosocial functioning begins to decrease in the prodromal phase, and disorder.74 Mortality is also increased, with findings of a
premorbid functional levels are seldom reached. Meanwhile, allostatic load increases. Drug therapy helps to 30-year follow-up study showing that circulatory
prevent episodes, and lithium could be especially helpful. Adaptation to adverse psychosocial or physical situations disorders and suicide are the main causes of death.75
is facilitated by interventions such as mental health first aid and self-help, in particular in early stages.
Psychoeducation, CBT, IPSRT, FFT, and functional remediation in patients with impairment are also useful in
Post76 postulated the kindling hypothesis as a process
bipolar disorder. CBT=cognitive behavioural therapy. FFT=Family-focused therapy. IPSRT=interpersonal and social of gradual sensitisation to stressors and individual’s
rhythm therapy. vulnerability to episode recurrence. Neuroprogression

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overburdens adaptive mechanisms to stress (allostatic valproate, quetiapine, risperidone, and olanzapine, and
load), according to the allostasis hypothesis.77,78 Because of no treatment was superior. In fact, sensitivity analysis by
the acknowledged gradual progression of bipolar disorder, drug class indicated similar profiles for haloperidol,
and in view of the idea of neuroprogression, staging second-generation antipsychotics, and mood stabilisers.
models have been proposed for bipolar disorder according Nevertheless, in another study,94 Yildiz and colleagues
to number of relapses79,80 and functioning impairment.80–82 showed larger or quicker responses for various
antipsychotics compared with lithium, valproate, and
Treatment carbamazepine, with no differences between lithium and
The first step in the management of bipolar disorder is to valproate or between second-generation antipsychotics
confirm the diagnosis of mania or hypomania and define and haloperidol. Antipsychotics might have a more rapid
the patient’s mood state, because the therapeutic onset of action; haloperidol in particular seems to have a
approach differs considerably for hypomania, mania, faster antimanic action compared with second-generation
depression, and euthymia. Diverse factors can affect antipsychotics.95 However, haloperidol has the substantive
pharmacological and psychological strategies; these drawback of a greater risk of switching to depression and
include medical and psychiatric comorbidities, previous extrapyramidal side-effects.96 Apart from these results,
or current treatments, response to treatment or adverse combination treatment with an atypical agent and a
effects in patients and relatives, and the patient’s mood stabiliser has a higher response rate in manic
willingness to be treated. Clinicians should consider episodes than does monotherapy with either drug.97,98
these factors, particularly in the initial treatment of an For management of depressive episodes, the pharma-
acute episode, to optimise efficacy, minimise the risk of cological armamentarium is abridged compared with the
adverse events and lack of adherence, and avoid switching wide options for mania. Despite the high prevalence and
of drugs.83 In acute management, the primary goals are increased burden of depression, drug development in
to ensure the safety of the patient and people nearby and bipolar depression did not advance until the development
to achieve clinical and functional stabilisation with of lamotrigine and atypical antipsychotics such as
minimum adverse effects. Moreover, engagement and quetiapine, olanzapine, and lurasidone. One reason for
development of a therapeutic alliance are important in this shortfall is the traditional off-label extrapolation of
any lifelong disorder that needs long-term adherence, results from antidepressant trials in unipolar depression
and this collaboration is especially true during the first because of the dearth of specific drug trials in bipolar
episode.84 In long-term management, the main aims depression. In a meta-analysis of treatments for bipolar
are to prevent recurrence of episodes and ensure depression,99 olanzapine plus fluoxetine, and quetiapine,
functionality while optimising treatment. Guidelines were two of the most efficacious pharmacological
have been published on the management of bipolar therapies, whereas results for lamotrigine, lithium, and
disorder,85–88 which consider the latest developments in antidepressants such as paroxetine were variable. By
pharmacological and psychological treatments (table 1). contrast with the efficacy of lamotrigine for long-term
treatment, evidence for its efficacy in acute management
Acute management is less compelling. In an independent meta-analysis100 of
Mood stabilisers and antipsychotics89 are the mainstay of five industry-sponsored clinical trials of lamotrigine,
acute management of bipolar mania and depression. modest beneficial effects were reported on depressive
However, evidence for use of antidepressants to treat symptoms, with advantages in patients who were
depression is unclear, and these drugs should never severely depressed. To what extent this finding reflects
be used as monotherapy in bipolar I disorder.90 Electro- truly modest efficacy or methodological factors (the
convulsive therapy is highly effective for treatment- foremost being the need for a 6-week dose titration phase
resistant acute mood episodes, particularly in patients to full dose in mostly 8-week studies) remains unclear.
with psychotic or catatonic features.91 With respect to lithium, findings of eight of nine small
Several comprehensive systematic reviews of the randomised clinical trials showed its efficacy in acute
management of mania have been published.92–94 With depression.101 The risk:benefit profile of antidepressants
respect to efficacy, Cipriani and colleagues93 reported is controversial and, therefore, the International Society
that, overall, antipsychotics were significantly more for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) convened a task force to
effective for treatment of mania than were mood seek consensus recommendations about their use in
stabilisers, with haloperidol, risperidone, and olanzapine bipolar disorder.102 They recommended serotonin
ranked as the most potent. With respect to acceptability, reuptake inhibitors and bupropion in individual patients
defined as how many patients stayed on the allocated who might benefit, in particular, those with bipolar II
treatment, quetiapine, risperidone, and olanzapine disorder rather than bipolar I disorder, because the risk
showed the best results. In general, risperidone and of manic switch is greater in patients with bipolar I
olanzapine had the best efficacy and acceptability. disorder. Antidepressants should only be prescribed for
By contrast, Yildiz and co-workers92 noted that individuals with bipolar I disorder as an adjuvant therapy
discontinuation rates were lowest with aripiprazole, with mood stabilisers.

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Clinical management Advantages Disadvantages

Mania Depression Maintenance
Mood stabilisers
Valproate +++ + ++ Useful in episodes with mixed features CYP450 inhibitor, not recommended in women at
childbearing age
Lamotrigine ––– ++ +++ Depressive predominant polarity Slow titration
Lithium +++ ++ +++ Antisuicidal properties Not recommended in renal failure
Carbamazepine +++ + ++ Effective in bipolar disorder with non-classic features CYP450 inducer
Oxcarbazepine + + + Fewer adverse effects than carbamazepine Hyponatraemia
Antipsychotics
Aripiprazole +++ – ++ Manic predominant polarity, good metabolic profile Akathisia
Asenapine +++ + + Possible treatment for depressive symptoms Moderate metabolic syndrome
Chlorpromazine ++ ––– + Rapid efficacy Risk of switch to depression, extrapyramidal
symptoms
Clozapine + + ++ Resistant patients, few extrapyramidal symptoms Agranulocytosis, sialorrhoea, postural hypotension
Haloperidol +++ ––– + Rapid efficacy Risk of switch to depression, extrapyramidal
symptoms
Lurasidone + +++ + Lack of anticholinergic effects Efficacy related to feeding, akathisia, sedation
Olanzapine +++ +++* ++ Rapid efficacy Severe metabolic syndrome
Paliperidone ++ – ++ Can be administered intramuscularly every month, High doses are often needed
minimal liver metabolism
Quetiapine +++ +++ +++ Only antipsychotic drug with indications for Sedation
treatment of acute manic and depressive episodes
and maintenance
Risperidone ++ – ++† Common intramuscular administration every 2 weeks Risk of switch to depression, extrapyramidal
symptoms
Ziprasidone ++ – ++ Manic predominant polarity, good metabolic profile Efficacy related to feeding
Antidepressants –– + + Applicable in resistant bipolar depression combined Risk of switch to mania
with mood stabilisers
Electroconvulsive therapy ++ ++ + Recommended in pregnant women General anaesthesia needed, anterograde memory
loss

Reported clinical management reflects our interpretation of available evidence and does not necessarily imply regulatory endorsement. For further information refer to guidelines.85–88 The table includes some
clinically significant adverse effects that can be experienced by some patients exposed, which is by no means exhaustive and is not meant as a comparison between different drugs. +++=very highly
recommended. ++=highly recommended. +=recommended. –=not much recommended. – –=not recommended. – – –=not at all recommended. *Olanzapine plus fluoxetine. †Risperidone longacting injectable.

Table 1: Pharmacological management of bipolar disorder in mania, depression, and maintenance phases

Novel treatments under assessment for acute valproate monotherapy, irrespective of illness severity.
management include armodafinil as an adjuvant Quetiapine has also been suggested as a suitable choice
treatment for major depressive episodes, modafinil as a for long-term management of bipolar disorder,106 but
cognitive enhancer, and ketamine for treatment-resistant interpretation of data from the network meta-analysis
depression. Drugs targeting pathways linked to oxidation should be done with caution because the quetiapine
(eg, N-acetylcysteine),103 mitochondrial function,104 and maintenance studies only included patients who
inflammation,55 are also under study. responded to the drug during a previous acute episode.
Moreover, findings of another meta-analysis109 showed
Long-term management the efficacy of combinations such as quetiapine plus
In view of the recurrent chronic nature of bipolar lithium or valproate. Once again, these results should be
disorder, optimum long-term management is a assessed with circumspection because treatments in
preventive strategy that combines pharmacological, most clinical trials were initiated after an acute episode.
psychological, and lifestyle approaches from the first Long-term therapeutic strategies differ according to
episode (figure 2).105 In a network meta-analysis,106 lithium the predominant polarity of the patient’s bipolar
was highlighted as one of the most effective treatments disorder.59 Whereas patients with manic predominant
for the prevention of both manic and depressive episodes, polarity have a better response to atypical antipsychotics,
despite lithium being associated with a decline in those with a depressive predominant polarity might
renal function, hypothyroidism, and hypercalcaemia.107 respond best to lamotrigine and are more likely to need
Findings of the BALANCE study108 showed that lithium adjunctive antidepressants.60,110,111 The polarity index is a
monotherapy and a combination of valproate plus metric to classify maintenance treatments from this
lithium were more likely to prevent relapses than was perspective.112 It divides agents between antimanic and

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antidepressant prophylactic profiles. Quetiapine and Adolescence

lithium have a polarity index near to 1, indicating Bipolar disorder severely affects the normal development
almost equal efficacy for prevention of manic and and psychosocial functioning of young people and
depressive episodes. increases the risk of suicide, substance misuse, and
Pharmacotherapy, usually consisting of a mood academic, behavioural, legal, and interpersonal problems.128
stabiliser alone or in combination with an antipsychotic Thus, early identification of this illness in children aged
or antidepressant,113 plus tailored psychosocial inter- 13–19 years is crucial, because up to 60% of individuals
ventions in euthymia can decrease the risk of relapse, with bipolar disorder present before age 21 years.129
improve treatment adherence, and reduce the number Moreover, careful attention should be paid to offspring of
and duration of hospital admissions.114 There is some patients with bipolar disorder because they are at higher
evidence that psychotherapy needs to be adapted to age risk of developing the illness, which can occur at a younger
or stage of illness, in particular for young people during age.130 Diagnostic criteria for bipolar disorder in young
their first episode.115 Psychoeducation116 has shown people are the same as for adults, but diagnosis is more
longlasting prophylactic effects in individuals with difficult in young people because a comprehensive
bipolar disorder.117 Other useful treatments for patients longitudinal psychiatric assessment is needed, dovetailing
include cognitive behavioural therapy,118 interpersonal with good knowledge of normal youth development and
and social rhythm therapy,119 and family-focused psychopathology. Cognitive and emotional immaturity in
therapy.120 Functional remediation has also shown young people can restrict the verbal expression of mood
efficacy in improving functioning in patients with symptoms, hindering ascertainment of key manic
bipolar I121 and bipolar II122 disorder with psychosocial symptoms such as grandiosity, elation, and increased goal
functional impairment. Internet-based approaches are activity.128 Moreover, young people with bipolar disorder
gaining traction.123 tend to have mixed or rapid-cycling presentations,131 and
episodes of mania or hypomania are shorter than those
Special populations recorded in adults.132 Also, symptoms of mania and
Pregnancy hypomania overlap with those of other common disorders
Bipolar disorder usually begins in early adulthood; in young people, such as ADHD, emerging personality
therefore, female patients who are planning to start a disorders, and behaviour disorders, making differential
family present the challenge of needing to administer diagnosis challenging. Irritability and temper outbursts
drugs during pregnancy.124 Preconception counselling are common manifestations across psychiatric disorders
and guidance are essential for women with bipolar in young people, but to diagnose bipolarity, the presence of
disorder and their partners because some drugs are other manic or hypomanic symptoms and an episodic
teratogenic, in particular during the first trimester. For pattern are necessary.
example, valproate and carbamazepine increase the Taking into account developmental issues, and until
risks of spina bifida and low IQ87 and should be avoided further research is available, treatment recommendations
in women of childbearing age because of the risk for adults also apply to young people.85,133 Nevertheless,
of unplanned pregnancy. The risk of congenital guidance should be used with caution until research in
malformations with lithium treatment might have been this area progresses. The scant available evidence for the
overestimated in the past, and evidence of teratogenicity management of bipolar disorder in young people is
after exposure to lithium is currently weaker than restricted to the acute treatment of manic and mixed
initially estimated.125 The teratogenic risk of psychotropic episodes. Despite the fact that young people are more
drugs and the effect of an untreated mood episode on susceptible than adults to metabolic syndrome caused
the mother and, consequently, the fetus should be by use of antipsychotics, atypical antipsychotics might
assessed carefully, in particular after the first trimester, work better in this population compared with lithium
when the teratogenic risk of psychotropic drugs falls. and valproate.134 Nevertheless, great care should be taken
Women whose mood is stable sometimes abruptly stop when prescribing antipsychotic drugs in young people,
drugs when pregnant because of fears about potential because of weight gain and an increase in body-mass
teratogenicity. However, abrupt cessation can increase index.134
the risk of recurrence of a mood episode. Therefore,
when drug withdrawal is indicated, it should be ceased Safety and monitoring
gradually.126 The risk of relapse is especially high in the Medical comorbidities are highly prevalent in patients
post-partum period and for primiparous women; hence, with bipolar disorder because of the adverse effects of
reintroduction of treatment is strongly recommended pharmacological treatment, genetic vulnerability, and
after delivery.35 Breastfeeding is usually not recom- lifestyle factors (eg, smoking, poor diet, and lack of
mended in women with bipolar disorder who are taking exercise). In view of the burden of these comorbidities
pharmacological treatment.127 All in all, careful planning and adverse drug reactions, regular monitoring of weight,
and education of the woman and her partner are of glycaemia, dyslipidaemia, blood pressure, and liver
utmost importance. function (table 2)135 is indicated in patients with bipolar

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Dose or blood concentration Monitoring

Mood stabilisers
Valproate 50–150 μg/mL Liver function, blood tests
Lamotrigine 50–200 mg/day Hypersensitivity, dermatological reactions, liver function
Lithium 0·4–0·8 mmol/L Renal and thyroid function, hydration
Carbamazepine 400–1200 mg/day Liver function, hypersensitivity, dermatological reactions, blood tests
Oxcarbazepine 1200–2400 mg/day Liver function, blood sodium
Antipsychotics
Aripiprazole 5–30 mg/day Akathisia, extrapyramidal symptoms, liver function
Asenapine 10–20 mg/day Sedation, weight gain, glycaemia, dyslipidaemia, blood pressure, liver function
Chlorpromazine 25–800 mg/day Extrapyramidal symptoms, liver function
Clozapine 50–450 mg/day Absolute neutrophil counts, weight gain, glycaemia, dyslipidaemia, blood
pressure, liver function
Haloperidol 1–40 mg/day Extrapyramidal symptoms, liver function
Lurasidone 40–120 mg/day Sedation, akathisia, weight gain, glycaemia, dyslipidaemia, blood pressure,
liver function
Olanzapine 5–20 mg/day Sedation, weight gain, glycaemia, dyslipidaemia, blood pressure, liver function
Paliperidone 3–12 mg/day Weight gain, glycaemia, dyslipidaemia, blood pressure, liver function
Quetiapine 50–800 mg/day Sedation, weight gain, glycaemia, dyslipidaemia, blood pressure, liver function
Risperidone 0·5–8 mg/day Extrapyramidal symptoms, sedation, weight gain, glycaemia, dyslipidaemia,
blood pressure, liver function
Ziprasidone 80–160 mg/day QTc interval, liver function

Reported dose (or blood concentration) reflects our interpretation of available evidence and does not necessarily imply regulatory endorsement. For further information refer
to guidelines.85–88,135 The table includes some clinically significant adverse effects that can be experienced, which is by no means exhaustive and is not meant as a comparison
between different drugs.

Table 2: Recommended dose or blood concentration and monitoring of common pharmacological treatments for bipolar disorder

disorder. When administering lithium or valproate, blood intracellular signalling have been identified. Despite not
concentrations should be monitored to ensure they are being well validated at this stage, these molecular targets
within the therapeutic range. Moreover, surveillance of might act as starting points to develop future treatments.105
renal and thyroid function is necessary because treatment Drugs acting through glutamate pathways, such as
with lithium has been associated with tubulointer- ketamine and its analogues, could be research
stitial nephropathy, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, opportunities for treatment of the depressive phase.131
and hypothyroidism.135 Furthermore, hepatic function Areas of research that are generating great expectations
should be checked in patients receiving valproate and, include novel animal models, mitochondrial biogenesis,
in women, development of polycystic ovaries is possible. human stem cells derived from patients with bipolar
In aggregate, regular reassessment of the risk:benefit disorder, optogenetics, proteomics, and metabolomics.
balance of each treatment is recommended in addition Progress from a translational perspective can enhance
to consideration of other strategies when clinically pathophysiological understanding138 and could aid
significant adverse effects emerge. diagnostic accuracy, in particular in young people, to
detect bipolar disorder at an earlier stage. Hopefully,
Future directions objective biomarkers that represent underlying patho-
Bipolar disorder is a mental disorder that causes physiological processes can be identified.139 Staging
impairments in functionality of daily life, resulting in models and strategies for personalised medicine are
costs for both patients and society. It is a multifaceted being investigated for their promise in increasingly
disease, and a comprehensive biological, social, and precise biological and psychosocial interventions. In
psychological approach is mandatory. In the past decade, the near future, patients could receive combined
great progress has been made in the areas of molecular pharmacological and psychological management
biology, genetics, and neuroimaging. The next step is to specifically tailored to each stage of their illness and
assimilate these results from a translational approach.56 age. However, health-care systems might struggle with
A bidirectional bench-to-bedside plan of action is crucial. increasing costs of these elaborate approaches, despite
Strategies that seek to integrate biological, molecular, their potential effectiveness, and more feasible
and neuroimaging data with clinical information are strategies are proposed—eg, briefer and more efficient
needed.136,137 For instance, the essential roles of inositol psychotherapy protocols.140 This integrative approach
monophosphatases, glycogen synthase kinase 3, the could identify potential biological targets for novel
protein kinase C pathway, and calcium channels in drugs and personalised treatment in bipolar disorder.

8 www.thelancet.com Published online September 18, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00241-X

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Contributors 10 WHO. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural

All authors planned the Seminar and, according to their area of Disorders: diagnostic criteria for research (DCR-10). Geneva: World
expertise, contributed to the literature review and writing of the Seminar. Health Organization, 1993.
All authors revised the Seminar for important intellectual content and 11 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical
approved the final version for submission. Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn (DSM-5). Washington:
American Psychiatric Publishing, 2013.
Declaration of interests 12 Bonnín CM, Sánchez-Moreno J, Martínez-Arán A, et al. Subthreshold
IG has received a research grant from Río Hortega Contracts symptoms in bipolar disorder: impact on neurocognition, quality of
(CM12/00062) and Juan Rodés Contracts (JR15/00012) at the Instituto de life and disability. J Affect Disord 2012; 136: 650–59.
Salud Carlos III, Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competiveness, 13 Vieta E, Suppes T. Bipolar II disorder: arguments for and against a
Barcelona, Spain; has served as a consultant for Ferrer; and has been a distinct diagnostic entity. Bipolar Disord 2008; 10: 163–78.
speaker for AstraZeneca, Ferrer, and Janssen Cilag. MB has received 14 Goodwin F, Jamison K. Manic-depressive illness: bipolar disorders
research grants from the US National Institutes of Health (NIH), and recurrent depression, 2nd edn. New York: Oxford University
Cooperative Research Centre, Simons Autism Foundation, Cancer Press, 2007.
Council of Victoria, Stanley Medical Research Foundation, Medical 15 Angst J, Gamma A, Benazzi F, Ajdacic V, Eich D, Rössler W.
Benefits Foundation (MBF), National Health and Medical Research Toward a re-definition of subthreshold bipolarity: epidemiology and
Council (NHMRC), Beyond Blue, Rotary Health, Geelong Medical proposed criteria for bipolar-II, minor bipolar disorders and
Research Foundation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, GlaxoSmithKline, hypomania. J Affect Disord 2003; 73: 133–46.
Meat and Livestock Board, Organon, Novartis, Mayne Pharma, Servier, 16 Angst J, Azorin J-M, Bowden CL, et al, and the BRIDGE study
and Woolworths; has been a speaker for AstraZeneca, Bristol-Myers group. Prevalence and characteristics of undiagnosed bipolar
Squibb, Eli Lilly, GlaxoSmithKline, Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck, Merck, disorders in patients with a major depressive episode: the BRIDGE
Pfizer, Sanofi Synthelabo, Servier, Solvay, and Wyeth; and has served as a study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011; 68: 791–98.
consultant to AstraZeneca, Bioadvantex, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, 17 Tobia A, Mikkilineni D, Bisen V, Zimmerman A, Trenton A.
GlaxoSmithKline, Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck, Merck, and Servier. BB has General indicators confounding Kraepelin: predictive indicators of
misdiagnosing borderline as bipolar. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2014;
received research grants from the National Institutes of Mental Health
130: 238.
and royalties for the publication of chapters and books from Random
18 Valentí M, Pacchiarotti I, Undurraga J, et al. Risk factors for rapid
house, APA, and UpToDate. EV has received research grants, honoraria
cycling in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2015; 17: 549–59.
related to continuing medical education, or consulting fees from
19 Vieta E, Valentí M. Mixed states in DSM-5: implications for clinical
AstraZeneca, Ferrer, Forest Research Institute, Gedeon Richter,
care, education, and research. J Affect Disord 2013; 148: 28–36.
GlaxoSmithKline, Janssen, Lundbeck, Otsuka, Pfizer, Sanofi-Aventis,
20 Hoertel N, Le Strat Y, Angst J, Dubertret C. Subthreshold bipolar
Sunovion, Takeda, Centro para la Investigación Biomédica en Red de
disorder in a U.S. national representative sample: prevalence,
Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Grups Consolidats de Recerca 2014 correlates and perspectives for psychiatric nosography. J Affect Disord
(SGR 398), the Seventh European Framework Programme (ENBREC), 2013; 146: 338–47.
and the Stanley Medical Research Institute. 21 Zimmerman M. Would broadening the diagnostic criteria for
Acknowledgments bipolar disorder do more harm than good? Implications from
IG has received a research grant from Río Hortega Contracts longitudinal studies of subthreshold conditions. J Clin Psychiatry
(CM12/00062) and Juan Rodés Contracts (JR15/00012; Instituto de Salud 2012; 73: 437–43.
Carlos III, Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competiveness, Barcelona, 22 Angst J, Adolfsson R, Benazzi F, et al. The HCL-32: towards a
self-assessment tool for hypomanic symptoms in outpatients.
Spain). MB is supported by an NHMRC Senior Principal Research
J Affect Disord 2005; 88: 217–33.
Fellowship (1059660). EV thanks the Instituto de Salud Carlos III,
23 Young RC, Biggs JT, Ziegler VE, Meyer DA. A rating scale for mania:
Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competiveness, CIBERSAM
reliability, validity and sensitivity. Br J Psychiatry 1978; 133: 429–35.
(PI12/00912), Grups Consolidats de Recerca 2014 (SGR 398), Seventh
24 Goodwin GM, Anderson I, Arango C, et al. ECNP consensus
European Framework Programme (ENBREC), and the Stanley Medical
meeting: bipolar depression—Nice, March 2007.
Research Institute for their support.
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 18: 535–49.
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