CASTING PROCESSES - THEIR APPLICATIONS

& LIMITATIONS

As ‘design engineers’ and ‘engineering designers’ we are concerned mainly on Metal

and Alloy Castings, which find wide application in manufacture of engineering
products, and not on concrete and similar castings often found in civil engineering
applications. Components as referred to in chapter 1 can be manufactured by the
processes Casting, Forming and Machining, and then put together with the assembly
processes described. Though the examples given as ‘Components’ in chapter 1 are
very small in size, it is not necessarily be so always. There can even be very large
components such as beds and bases of machines, say e.g. a bed of a large lathe
machine, or a frame of a drop hammer, base of a Radial arm drill. All these are
coming as one casting and are ‘one component’ of that item the machine. Another
very common application is in casings which need the assembly of components in it,
and thus very good rigidity, such as gear box casings etc., and also in IC engine
blocks. Casting find wide application in manufacture of many civil engineering items
such as Pipes and Fittings, Gullies and Gutters etc. Most of these are ‘Ferrous’
castings and mainly cast Iron. On the other hand non-ferrous castings find wide use in
ornamental applications as well as many precision engineering applications. For
example ornamental and decorative uses may range from simple brass and bronze
castings such as ‘Oil lamps’, aluminium castings such as ‘Valance boards’, aluminium
alloy castings such as decorative chairs, tables etc. Engineering applications may
range from very fine items such as light and precision gears and other moving parts
often found in office equipment, electrical equipment bodies such as in drills, grinders
etc, electric motor casings, to carburettors in petrol engines etc often made of
zinc/aluminium alloys.

FUNDAMENTALS OF CASTING TECHNOLOGY

As briefed in chapter two basic technology of casting is to introduce a material in its

fluidic state to a cavity, made to the shape of the component needed, allow it to harden
inside the said cavity known as the ‘mould’, and remove the item once it is hardened.

Open moulds: In extremely simple products where one surface is flat and can accept
considerable surface shrinkage and distortions the cavity may be made in an open
manner with the flat surface on top. Material to be cast may be introduced to this open
cavity from top and allowed to solidify. However if it is introduced in molten state
oxides formed will float on to the top flat surface - which may later form the bottom
surface of the product. Further, shrinkage during solidification may cause material to
be sucked in from the top flat surface leading to depression in some locations. On the
other hand if the material introduced is made fluidic by mixing two components, e.g.
‘plaster of paris’ mixed with water to required consistency causes the material to
expand and may cause bumps on the top flat surface. Many resins, particularly
polyester and related colourless resins, and epoxies too may be introduced in its
fluidic state which is not the molten state. However resins are mostly used either for
ornamental or decorative purposes or in combination with (or for bonding) fibre
materials in which case they are often referred to as composites (which will be dealt
with in detail later). [ Give a diagram of an open mould].
Closed moulds: However, most engineering products are of rather complicated
shapes and the material is also converted to fluidic state through melting. Indeed,
ability to handle complicated shapes as one component is one of the main advantages
of casting. In such case the mould invariably is made of two parts, put together to
form the cavity. Then as the cavity is closed, provision must be made to;
a). introduce the material in to the cavity,
b). avoid entrapment of air and gasses,
c). provide extra material needed in molten state to compensate for the shrinkage.

Provision of theses facilities depend on the type of casting, say; ‘expendable’ or

‘permanent mould’ etc. In expendable moulds, say sand moulds, the two parts of the
mould made separately in mould boxes are placed together and clamped, while in
reusable or permanent moulds the cavity made in two portions, usually in metal, are
clamped together. The mating surfaces or the lines of two mould parts are called
‘parting surfaces’ or ‘parting lines’ of the mould. As the component is removed from
expendable moulds, say; sand moulds, by breaking the mould, taking out of the item
poses no problems even when there are re-entrant shapes or cavities. However with
reusable moulds which are only parted again to remove the component, has to be
designed with due consideration given for above aspects.
[Give a diagram of a closed mould marking the parting line]

Some of the main attractions of castings are;

1. Even complicated items, which otherwise would have needed assembly of a
number of separate units, can be manufactured as a single unit, with or without
the need for high precision.
2. Suitability for products needing high rigidity and ability to absorb shocks and
vibrations. (This is particularly so with cast Iron)
3. Ability to make precision items and also items with high strength to weight
ratio. (Particularly with Al, Mg, and Zn alloys)
4. Suitability for production in small batches as well as in large numbers
(depending on the process).

While the main disadvantages are;

1. Complicated nature of the process needing to make patterns, moulds etc, (for
sand castings) and,
2. Need for expensive machinery and moulds etc in case of pressure type of
castings.
3. Problems associated with casting defects which sometimes may be apparent or
observed only at the last stages of manufacture thus compelling expensive
rejects.
4. Shrinkage problems and associated residual stresses.

CLASSIFICATION OF CASTINGS

Ferrous and Non-ferrous castings: One method of classifying castings is based on

material being cast. Many metals and alloys can be processed through casting. Yet a
very high share of castings are of ferrous based which cover cast iron, and steels
including a wide range of alloy steels, and are often referred to as ‘ferrous’ castings.
Other metals and alloy castings are often referred to as ‘non-ferrous’ castings.
Expendable and Permanent Mould Castings: Another often used classification is
based on the type of mould used. Most of the cast iron, brass and bronze castings are
carried out in expendable sand moulds which get destroyed during the casting process
and thus each casting need a separate mould. This is the common method used in
casting high melting point materials as mould material such as sand only can
withstand the high temperatures involved. As the mould cannot be reused in this type
of casting they are called ‘expendable mould’ castings. On the other hand when
castings are to be done with materials with relatively low melting points, such as
Aluminium and its alloys etc., a suitable material may be found which can withstand
the temperatures involved and thus can be reused. These types of castings are often
called ‘permanent mould’ castings. Strictly speaking this is a misnomer as no mould is
really permanent. It is really a reusable mould and that too has its life time like any
thing else in this world.

Gravity and Pressure Castings: Many a castings are carried out by pouring the
molten material to the mould under gravity. This is especially so with large items as
well as with expendable mould castings, one reason being the inability of the mould
to take high pressures. Thus the material flow to sharp edges and re-entrant shapes
etc., are some what limited and very fine details often cannot be obtained with this
process. If a high pressure can be applied to the molten material inside the mould
while it is still in liquid state, then material can be made to flow into any intricate
shape and also other problems such as voids can be eliminated. Thus the mould also
should be sufficiently strong to stand up to such pressures. Application of such
pressure is done by injection under pressure in pressure die castings, and by using
centrifugal force in ‘centrifugal castings’. The first type where only gravity is used to
pour material to the mould is called “Gravity’ casting and the latter where pressure is
used are called ‘Pressure die castings’.

DEFECTS IN CASTINGS:

To carry out a casting a mould cavity is needed. Design of the shape of the cavity is a
specialised process and incorrectly designed cavity may lead to certain defects in the
casting. The material then has to be melted and poured to the said cavity. Thus proper
melting and pouring practices are essential to ensure proper quality of the casting. The
molten material then has to get solidified within the confines of the cavity. Castings
should be properly designed so that the solidification and the resulting shrinkage will
not lead to internal porosity, voids or cracks. Castings must be so designed that after
solidification it can be removed from the mould. Though this does not pose serious
problems in the case of expendable moulds where the moulds are broken apart and
destroyed after each casting, in the case of reusable moulds special care must be taken
about this aspect at the design stage of the product itself. Once the casting is removed
from the mould it has to be cleaned and often finished with subsequent machining
processes. Extra metal attached at the location where material enters the mould and in
risers and at parting lines have to be removed and some times certain holes or surfaces
may have to be machined. These requirements must be kept in mind at the design
stage itself to ensure a good and economical casting.
It is not intended here to go in to details of casting defects and how to overcome them
as needed by specialist foundry engineers. However design engineers or engineering
designers should have a clear understanding of the problems that may be associated
with casting and the precautions thus have to be taken at the design stage itself. Often
it is advisable to consult foundry engineers if the casting is rather complicated,
expensive, or when they are needed in large numbers as a modification which results
even in a slight reduction in cost of one unit might lead to a substantial saving due to
large numbers involved.

Internal Porosity or Voids are the most common problems in castings. This may be
due to entrapped air during pouring (which could be prevented by proper pouring
practice and proper mould design to avoid turbulence during pouring and thus the
entrapment of air), or due to release of dissolved gasses. Significant amount of gas
can dissolve in many liquid metals which will be released with the solidification of
these metals. Such rejected gasses often form bubbles leading to what is known as
gas porosity. One technique used to avoid this is by preventing the gas being
dissolved in molten metal. This may be achieved by performing the melting under a
vacuum, or in an environment of low solubility gasses, or under protective flux which
excludes contact with air. Other technique is to remove dissolved gasses from the
molten metals before pouring. This may be achieved through vacuum degassing
where the molten metal is subjected to a low pressure environment. Passing small
bubbles of inert or reactive gasses through the melt where the dissolved gasses enter
the flushing gas and carried away is also effective. This is known as gas flushing. Yet
another technique is to make dissolved gases to react with something to produce a low
density compound which will float to the surface and can be skimmed off as dross or
slag, e.g. Oxygen can be removed from copper by addition of phosphorus or from
steels by adding aluminium or silicon.

Non filling of critical areas is another problem which may be due to incorrect mould
design which does not facilitate quick flow of the molten metals to all locations, or
due to entrapment of gasses at certain locations, and/or insufficient temperature of the
melt to compensate for the heat losses during flowing or improper preheating of
moulds.

‘Cold shuts or Misruns’ is another defect which might lead to very serious
subsequent repercussions. Here the material being poured starts solidifying before it
reaches the intended location and the material flowing subsequently may flow over
the already molten material creating layers with weak bonds between them. Remedial
measures are similar to the earlier case.

Entrapment of Dross or Slag is another serious defect. Here the dross or slag, which
are low density oxide formations, which shouldn’t have been allowed to flow with
metal flows with it and gets entrapped during solidification leading to very weak
internal locations. Proper methods of avoiding oxidation such as use of fluxes,
skimming the dross as well as tapping the molten material from the bottom often can
avoid this problem.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN CASTINGS

It is not intended to go into details of mould design, gating systems, riser design,
fluidity and pouring temperature etc., which are the details to be handled by the
foundry engineer. (Theses details, if needed, can be obtained from standard hand
books and text books on the subject). However the product design engineer or the
engineering designer has to take certain precautions when designing an item for
casting. It is intended to discuss these in brief here.

Allowances to be incorporated into a casting pattern: Though making the pattern

may be considered as the responsibility of the foundry engineer, it is always better if
this aspects is well recognised by the product designers as well and given due
consideration at the design stage itself. In casting the material shrinks during
solidification and cooling inside the mould cavity. Thus the dimensions of the cast
product will be smaller than that of the cavity.

Shrinkage allowance thus has to be given due consideration. This will depend on the
material as well as the pouring temperature, and also to some extent on the shape of
the product.

Machining allowance is another important factor as very rarely does a casting being
used without any machining at all. Often it is not all the surfaces that need machining.
For example in a gear box housing the bearing and oil seal cover surfaces, and the
mating surfaces of the casing and cover, only are the surfaces that may have to be
machined while the other surfaces may be kept ‘as cast’. If subsequent machining or
assembly processes involve use of jig or fixtures the surfaces involved in aligning in
such jigs and fixtures may have to be machined in addition to the locations that need
machining for the product’s proper functioning, e.g. bearing housings manufactured in
large scale need machining of the base as well as one side for proper seating and
alignment inside the jig or fixture for the subsequent machining of the bolt holes and
bearing surfaces. Machining allowance depends in addition to the material, the type of
product as well as the casting process, e.g. sand casting have a relatively rough
surface needing higher machining allowance where as permanent metal mould
nonferrous castings particularly pressure die casting may not need any machining at
all.

Draft allowance is also needed to ensure release of product from mould particularly
when reusable moulds are to be used

CASTING DESIGN; To get a product of required quality, at the lowest possible cost,
the product designer should give careful consideration to several process
requirements, and if possible it is always advisable for him to work closely with the
foundry engineer at the design stage itself. Very often minor and readily permissible
changes in design could simplify and facilitate the casting of a component and also
could eliminate or reduce the number and severity of defects.

Parting line location is very important, especially when segmented or separable

moulds are used. Proper location of parting line may be able to reduce the number of
cores needed, use of effective gating, dimensional accuracy as well as the ease of
casting. These will be discussed in detail later.
Minor changes in Component design may much facilitate the casting thus reducing
the cost. Changes may be incorporated to design to eliminate the need for, or reduce
the number of cores, or easy removal through accommodation of ‘drafts’ to facilitate
removal of the component from the mould, The figure given below amply illustrates
this. Common sense, rather than hard and fast rules are to be applied here.

Fig of 13-14, and 13-16 of pg 359,

Thickness of material in different sections is another important aspect to be

considered. Portions of a casting having high ratio of surface area to volume will cool
rapidly and may be stronger and harder than the other regions. Heavier sections will
cool more slowly and unless special precautions are taken may develop shrinkage
cavities and porosity and large grain structure. The best for a casting is to have
uniform thickness in all directions, which however is not practicable. Thus section
changes, when needed, must be made as gradual as possible and with proper
curvatures avoiding sharp edges.

Avoiding Stress Concentrations and Hot Spots is also very important in designing
castings. Two main problems may be faced when section of castings intersect. One is
the development of stress concentrations which can be reduced by providing generous
fillets. However excessive fillets may lead to augment the second problem known as
hot spots. Thick sections produced by intersection of sections of casting will cool
more slowly and would lead to abnormal shrinkage causing hot spot areas which have
a high tendency to develop serious defects such as porosity and shrinkage cavities,
which can be sites of subsequent failures and should be prevented wherever possible.
Both these may be avoided, at least to a certain degree by providing cored holes at
such sections if the product so permits.
Fig 13-20

Intersecting ribs can cause shrinkage problems and thus the product designer should
try to locate the ribs to avoid this as much as possible. Continuous ribs as shown in
figure will lead to contraction in opposite directions as the ribs contract leading to
possible, and frequent, cracking at intersections. Staggering of ribs as shown allows
permissible distortions to occur providing relaxation to high residual stresses that
would otherwise induce cracking.

Large unsupported areas should be avoided in all types of castings, since these
regions tend to warp during cooling. This may lead to problems with surface flatness,
necessitating large amount of material removing machining, and particularly
important in instances such as machine bed tops, e.g. wood working machines such as
planers etc. This aspect should be given high consideration in design of machine tool
tops which need rigidity as well as vibration absorbing properties.

Minimum section thicknesses should also be given due prominence at the design
stage itself when castings are contemplated. These can be obtained from standard
hand books or from text books on casting. Specific values are rarely given as they
tend to vary with the shape and size of the casting. The type and composition of the
material used as well as the foundry practice used too affects these values. It is
recommended that the design engineer gives his attention to this matter too during
design stage itself.

CASTING PROCESSES

It is not intended to go into details of casting processes here, but only to the extent for
the design engineers to appreciate the capabilities and limitations of the various
casting processes and also the precaution and care that has be taken, so that they can
select the appropriate manufacturing process at the design stage itself, and design the
product in the optimum manner to suit the selected process, or in other words they can
properly ‘design for manufacture’.

SAND MOULD CASTING is the most widely spread casting process covering from
relatively small items in to very large items, from very simple to high level
technology, and applicable to a wide variety of materials both ferrous and nonferrous.
Here sand is used as the moulding material with small amount of clay for bonding the
grains and a little water added to improve cohesion and mouldability. A pattern is
made to the required shape of the product and sand is packed around it. Mould is
usually made in two pieces if the pattern has to be removed to obtain the required
cavity for pouring. An opening called a ‘sprue hole’ is cut from the top of the mould
through sand to pour the melt. The sprue hole, the top of which is made large - called
basin - to ease pouring of melt without spill, is connected to a system of channels
called runners which in turn are connected to one or more cavities through openings
called gates. Material poured to the sprue flows along the runners and enters the
cavity (or cavities) through the gate(s). Extra material has to be poured to ensure
availability of sufficient materials to compensate for contraction, and thus extra holes
are made to accommodate such extra material. These are called ‘risers’. Location of
risers should be properly designed taking into account the sizes and thicknesses of
different section of the casting. Flow is due to gravity. After solidification of the cast
material the mould is broken and the casting removed. Thus a new mould is needed
for each casting and this, therefore, is an expendable mould casting process.

Fig indicating sprue runner etc. 14.1

Pattern, and selection of its material of construction, is very important and depends
not only on the requirements of the accuracy of the component but also the number of
components to be made. If a material which evaporates off when the melt is poured is
used the mould can then be made in one piece, or ‘full mould’. Often ‘expanded
polystyrene’ is used to make this type of pattern, but any other material with similar
properties of evaporating off without taking appreciable mould space can be used. (In
investment casting wax patterns are used). Wood patterns are by and large the most
widely used, especially when the quantities needed are not that high. Ease of
construction is one of the major attractions of wood as a pattern material, but its
dimensional stability is not all that good particularly with tendency to warp and swell
with moisture and humidity and also wear off with repeated use. Special timber
species are often used. Metal patterns are much difficult to make and expensive but
are more stable and durable. Many metal and alloys can be used and ease of
machining is important as the shapes here are to be obtained by machining. Hard
plastics such as urethanes are also used when strong organically bonded sands are
involved as they tend to stick to most of the other pattern materials. Patterns may be
of ‘one piece’ or solid patterns which are the least expensive and widely used for
simple castings. With complex shapes this may be in multi-piece construction and
introduction of cores etc. may also be necessitated in instances where components
with holes are involved. There are ‘split patterns’, ‘match-plate patterns’, ‘cope-and-
drag patterns’ etc., but are not intended to be discussed here, and are left to the
foundry engineer.

Scope and Limitations of Sand Mould Castings: sand mould casting is the most
widely used and can be applied for a vast range of products from very small to very
large, from simple to very complicated, from very simple to highly sophisticated
foundries, from ferrous to non ferrous such as brass, bronze, aluminium, Zinc and a
variety of their alloys etc. However as the pouring is only under gravity and thus blow
holes and internal defects, insufficient fillings (especially at low-tech end) etc., are
some of the common defects often observed (compared to processes using pressure
for pouring). The surface is also relatively rough (in comparison with metal moulds).
Molten material may also ‘penetrate’ between sand grains causing mould material to
be embedded in the surface of the casting. This often is caused by high pouring
temperature leading to excess fluidity, or coarse sand with uniform particles. On the
other hand low pouring temperatures may lead to incomplete filing and cold shuts etc.
‘Hot tears’ or cracks can form in castings made from alloys with large freezing range.
Products of sand casting covers machine frames and beds, manhole covers and
gullies, gears of various shapes and sizes, pulleys, casings and impellers of water
pump, turbines and other hydraulic equipment, engine blocks, fan blades and many
other cast iron, steel, aluminium, Zinc and alloy products.

Green-Sand, Dry-Sand, and Skin-Dried Moulds: Most common method used

particularly for simple castings is the green-sand method where the mould material is
composed of sand with a binder of clay, water and additives. Tooling cost is low and
entire process is rather inexpensive and suitable even for relatively small and low-tech
foundries. Almost any material can be cast with almost any size and weight, and shape
and complexity. Limitations of the process relate to rough surface finish, poor
dimensional accuracy – which may need subsequent machining depending on the
application, and other problems relating to moisture that is present in the binder. For
all applications where these can be tolerated, this could be the best and most
economical choice.

Problems of green-sand process can be reduced by heating the mould to a temperature

of around 125o C or more, and baking until most of the moisture is driven off, thus
strengthening the mould and reducing the formation of water vapour and other gasses
when molten metal is poured to the cavity. This is known as ‘Dry-sand mould’
process. Biggest hindrances for its wide applicability are the long time needed for
drying and the need for ovens etc., and the resultant added cost. A compromise is to
produce a mould where only the skin exposed to metal is dried and this is known as
‘Skin-dried mould’. Gas flames are often used to dry the surfaces usually to a depth
of about 10 to 15 mm. This is very important when the pour is at a higher
temperature, e.g. steel casting where the pouring temperatures are significantly higher
than with cast iron. However this is not very easy with cavities of complicated shapes.
Additional binders such as molasses, linseed oil, or corn flour may also be added to
the skin sand.
Sodium Silicate-CO2 moulding: Here the mould and cores are strengthened by
addition of 3% to 4% sodium silicate, which is a liquid inorganic binder, the resulting
soft and mouldable mixture is packed in usual manner, and CO2 is passed when it
hardens in a matter of seconds. This reduces the mould making time significantly
though involves additional expense.

SHELL MOULDING is a process that yields better surface finish and higher
accuracy than sand mould casting, and higher production rates with possibility of
mechanization and adapt for mass production. The basic difference here compared to
sand moulding is that the mould halves are made as shells and supported for pouring.
In this process sand is mixed with a thermosetting plastic which acts as a binder when
cured to form the hard shell. As the thermosetting plastic cures at higher temperatures
and the mixture at the time of curing should have the shape of the cavity or part of it,
best way to supply the heat is using the pattern itself. This can best be achieved by
using a metal pattern. This pattern is heated to a temperature around 150 to 230 o C,
and the mixture of sand and plastic binder is made to contact with the hot pattern.
This is easily done by containing the sand plastic mixture in a suitable box like
container, placing the heated metal pattern on the top open side of the container and
inverting it so that the sand plastic mixture will be dumped onto the hot metal pattern.
This forms a solidly bonded strong shell about 3 mm to 4 mm thick. When the
container or box is inverted excess sand falls back to the box leaving the partially
cured ‘shell’ on pattern. The pattern with the shell portion is then placed in an oven
for a few minutes to complete the curing process. The fully cured and hardened shell
part can now be easily removed from the metal pattern. A shell part of the other side
of the pattern is similarly made. These shell parts are then glued or clamped to
produce the mould. This shell mould though is now having the required shape is still
not strong enough to take the total weight of the molten metal and the resulting
stresses. Therefore it is backed by surrounding it with metal shots or sand in a flask
like container. The pattern itself is made with the required facilities for moulding and
thus the completed shell is now ready for pouring.

The shells made this way have exceptional dimensional accuracy (0.08 mm to
0.13mm). Sand used for shell moulding is finer than ordinary foundry sand. This
bonded with plastic resin on a metal pattern produces a very smooth surface needing
hardly any subsequent machining perhaps except at connection locations from sprue
or runner and to risers. Reliability and consistency of the product too is very high.
This process can be used from relatively small number of castings to fully automated
set ups for very large production runs. As a metal pattern is needed this process may
not be very appropriate for one of item, unless the surface condition and dimensional
accuracy demands it. But for runs ranging from moderate quantities to very large this
process is a real competitor. However the part size of this process is limited but even
items such as engine blocks for two stroke engines could be made with this process.
Size range usually confined from about 25 gm to about 10 kg, with thicknesses from
about 1.5 mm to about 6 mm with tolerances about 0.5%, and surface finishes of
0.025 to 0.075mm. This amply shows the applicability of this process for relatively
precision work.

VACUUM MOULDING is another process that gives exceptional surface conditions

and freedom from moisture related defects. Here a thin sheet of suitable plastic is
formed to the mould shape using a vacuum. Two halves of the mould clamped
together and supported in a sand box to provide required strength and rigidity. Pouring
is done while maintaining a vacuum in both cope and drag (top and bottom sections)
segments. Process however is relatively slow and thus not suitable for mass
production. However for development work this is a very good process.

PLASTER MOULD CASTING is a process that is highly suited for castings where
thin sections and fine details are expected. The mould material used here is ‘plaster of
paris’ or ‘gypsum’ (calcium sulphate). Additives such as talc or magnesium oxide help
prevent cracking and reduce the setting time while lime or cement helped to control
expansion during baking. Sand is often used as ‘filler’, and if strengthening is needed
glass fibre or any other suitable fibres can be used. Mould material is mixed with
water and additives to form slurry and immediately poured over pattern and allowed
to set. Plaster expands during hydration enabling the mould material to go into all
details and contours of the pattern, and produces a hard solid which can be relatively
easily stripped from the pattern. Pattern is usually made of metal, but even rubber
patterns can be used particularly when re-entrant or complicated angular shapes are
involved to ensure easy removal without damage to the mould cavity. Mould at this
stage is having high percentage of water and it is very important to bake it to reduce
the moisture to permissible levels. This can be done in a simple oven. The mould
halves are then assembled and poured as usual. Due to low thermal capacity and
conductivity of plaster, the cooling of the melt is slow enabling the metal to flow into
intricate corners and replicate thin sections and fine details. This is one of the major
advantages of this process. However the main disadvantage is that only low melting
point (usually nonferrous) alloys such as of Aluminium, Zinc, Magnesium, Lead, Tin
and copper can usually be cast in plaster moulds. In addition to such fine detailed
items, journal bearing sleeves out of bearing material can be cast easily using plaster
moulds. Sizes ranging form about 25 gm to about 8 kg, with sections as small as
0.6mm with surface finishes from 2 to 5m can be obtained with this process.

CERAMIC MOULD CASTING is similar to plaster mould casting except that the
mould can withstand higher melting point materials. Ceramic slurry is used as the
mould material and formed around withdrawable wooden or metal patterns. Thin
sections with fine details can be produced with this process and ferrous and high
temperature castings can be carried out as well as low melting alloys. Size may range
from several about 25gm to several tons with thickness limits around 1.5 mm with no
maximum. Process however is more expensive than plaster mould. Precision items
such as milling cutters as well as precision vanes etc can be made with this process.

GRAPHITE AND RUBBER MOULD CASTINGS: Certain highly reactive

materials, such as say Titanium may chemically react with common reusable mould
materials such as MS. In such instances Graphite moulds, made by combining
powdered graphite with binders such as starch and water or even cement, then
compacting around the pattern and firing after removal from pattern, at around
1000C to consolidate the graphite can be used. Mould has to be broken to remove the
casting. Small castings of low melting alloys around 250C can be cast on artificial
elastomer (Rubber) moulds. This is compounded in liquid form and poured over the
pattern to form a semi rigid mould. These are especially suitable for intricate and re-
entrant shape components as the mould is sufficiently elastic to be removed from such
intricate and re-entrant patterns.
INVESTMENT CASTING

This is a very important and very old casting process used by jewellers and dentists
and recently expanded its scope to very sophisticated areas such as aeronautical and
spacecraft industry for the manufacture of jet engine blades and rocket components.
Biggest advantage of this process is that high melting and difficult to machine alloys
can be cast to high precision and complex shapes so that subsequent machining is
eliminated. Types of materials as well as the complexity of items that can be cast with
this process is almost unlimited, and as a result finds very wide application in industry
even with modern and sophisticated.

Master Mould material used here is nearly the same as that for ceramic moulding.
However this has a marked difference from other casting processes in that the pattern
too, in addition to the mould, is expendable in this process. That means a separate
pattern has to be made for each piece, and thus the pattern should be easily made.
Easiest way to make the pattern is by casting it with a very easy to cast material. Ideal
material is Wax. Thus in this process a ‘Master pattern’ which is a replica of the item
is made from an easy to work materials such as wood, plastic, soft metal etc., or some
times the item itself can be used as the master pattern if it so permits. From this
master pattern a ‘Master mould’ is made using standard processes. Low melting
metals are often used, and two component epoxies too find wide application in this
process. This mould is then used to make expendable patterns out of wax, by pouring
molten wax into the mould or even by injecting if very intricate details are to be
captured. Wax solidifies rather quickly, and can then be removed from the mould.

Multiple pattern mould: As the items involved here are of relatively small size they
are usually cast in multiples. Several or a number of such wax patterns, depending on
the size, are then connected or attached to a central sprue and runners to form a
complex yet single pattern. This is then coated with investment material usually by
dipping in slurry of such material which forms a smooth and thin layer thus very well
replicating the fine details. This is then re-dipped in the slurry and coated with a layer
of sand. This process is repeated till the required thickness is achieved. Once the
investment material is hardened the pattern is removed by melting off the wax by
placing it upside down in an oven. Any residue left too is subsequently vaporised. The
mould is usually preheated before pouring to ensure all wax is evaporated, mould is
fully cured to provide sufficient strength, to ensure proper temperature of the mould to
ensure ready flow of the melt to all intricate corners of the mould. Depending on the
poured material and ceramic mixture this preheating may be from 550 C to 1000C.
Once the melt is hardened, the mould is broken to remove the series of components
attached to each other, break them off and grind the connection points to finish them
off.

[Give a fig]

Capabilities and Advantages of this process are mainly the excellent surface finish,
very high dimensional accuracy, ability to cast very intricate and complicated shapes
which normally are not possible with other methods, ability to cast almost any alloy
including those involved in aerospace products, and very good appearance with no
flash or parting corners. Not only low melting alloys of metals such as Aluminium,
Zinc and Copper etc., but also Steels, Stainless steels, and also Nickel and Magnesium
alloys etc., as well as precious metals can be cast with this process. Items may be as
small as 2 to 3 gm up to about 5 kg can usually, and occasionally even up to about
40kg may be handled with this process, while the thickness range is from about 0.5
mm to about 75 mm. This is very useful for difficult to machine materials when
accurate shapes are needed.

Limitations and disadvantages of this process are mainly the limited size and the
high cost of patterns and moulds. Time taken to complete the process as well as the
labour costs too may be relatively high.

[Some diagrams of typical items produced by investment casting. To be included

here].

LOST FOAM CASTING is a process developed to overcome some of the common

problems and short comings associated with other casting processes. All these
processes need a pattern to be made, which often is very costly and may be a
substantial portion of the total product cost. Further the need of the pattern being
removed from the mould, other than in investment casting, often demand some form
of design compromise. Thus to overcome these shortcomings, especially when only a
few items are needed, the pattern is hand cut or machined from ‘polystyrene’. This
light weight material can be easily cut with a knife or with a heated wire and so
making a pattern with this material is rather simple. Polystyrene pattern is retained in
the mould during pouring, which then melts and burns off by the molten metal,
leaving almost no residue, and the poured material then totally fills the cavity. If a
relatively large number of components are needed this process can be modified to
obtain the patterns required by steam expansion of polystyrene beads into a suitable
mould.

This method can be applied for casting almost any size, both with ferrous and non-
ferrous materials. This is specially suited for producing small quantities of relatively
large and complicated item, in an economical manner.

PERMANENT (or RE-USABLE) MOULD CASTING

All the processes so far discussed use a mould which is used only ones, though the
method of mould making might have been different, and are known as expendable
mould castings.

When dealing with materials with relatively low melting point, and when needed in
large quantities, a mould can be made from a material which can withstand such
temperatures. Often Mild Steel, Gray Cast Iron, and Bronze are used as the mould
material, and in some applications Graphite and other materials are also used. Often
Aluminium, Zinc, Magnesium and there alloys, and also bearing metal and alloys of
Lead, Tin and even Brasses are cast with this process. Power distribution components
such as ‘line taps’, ‘Tension connectors’ and many automobile components are made
with this process. With the use of graphite as the mould material even Iron and Steel
can be cast with permanent moulds.

As the mould has to be machined from a material as mentioned above, which is

costly, this process is useful only when the components are required in large numbers.
However, the surface finish is very much better than most of the expendable mould
castings, as the surface of the mould can be finished to very high levels which is
reflected in the product. Sometimes the mould surface may be given a very high finish
through a process such as plating, in which case almost the same finish may be
obtained in the product. Further very fine details can also be obtained particularly
with processes where pressure is applied in introducing the molten material into the
cavity.

GRAVITY DIE CASTING is the term used for permanent mould casting when the
material is poured to the cavity under gravity. The mould parts, usually two, are often
hinged to facilitate quick assembly or rapid opening and closing. The mating surfaces
must be well machined to ensure no leak. The mould is initially preheated, closed and
clamped, and molten material is poured under gravity. However for subsequent
castings the heat retained by mould from previous casting is sufficient to retain the
required temperature. Too rapid casting may sometimes lead to overheating of the
mould and thus rapid wear, or too long intervals between castings to lowering the
temperature beyond required levels. So the casting rate has to be so adjusted that the
mould temperature retains within correct levels. Dimensional accuracy in the range
of 0.25 mm can often be maintained. The products are usually of sound quality and
reliability too is high. Faster cooling rate with metal moulds provide stronger products
than with sand castings and also directional or special properties may be imparted by
selective cooling. On the other hand this process is limited to lower melting point
alloys, with very short life in case of cast iron and steels castings. Higher the melting
point of material being cast, lower the mould life. Mould complexity is also restricted
as the rigid cavity does not offer collapsibility to compensate for contraction during
cooling. The mould is opened as soon as the cast is solidified to overcome formation
of hot tears otherwise possible. Since the moulds are not permeable, unlike in case of
sand castings, provision for venting must be made during mould design.

SLUSH CASTING is a slight modification to above process where the molten

material is poured out of the mould within a short time of pouring when only a thin
shell is formed. This enables to cast hollow items usually of ornamental nature such
as lamp bases and components etc., where good surface details are replicated but the
wall thicknesses may vary substantially.

CASTING UNDER PRESSURE

Though the above methods which use only gravity for pouring may be good enough
for many applications some products may demand pouring under higher pressures.
This is particularly so when the product needs replication of surface contours very
well together with proper wall thicknesses and complete filling of webs and ribs etc.
Certain products may need precision holes ‘as cast’ and perhaps even fine threads
incorporated in the casting. Such items invariable need high pressure filling of mould
cavity to obtain such details. Thus permanent (or reusable) mould casting methods
have been developed to cater for such needs as well.
Low Pressure Permanent Mould Casting is one such method. Here the material is
transferred to the mould with the use of a low pressure gas in the range of 0.3 to 1
kg/cm2. Molten material is contained in a ladle inside a sealed chamber, on top of
which the mould is mounted with a passage (tube) made of refractory material
connecting the mould opening to the molten material dipping to a distance little below
the centre. When the gas (often air) pressure is applied to the chamber, molten
material rises through the refractory tube to the mould cavity. Thus molten material is
not in contact with atmosphere at any stage of filling the cavity and therefore this
process is especially attractive for ‘clean’ casting rapidly oxidising materials such as
aluminium. Further mould can be filled in a controlled manner without turbulence
further improving the quality. Directional solidification, if needed, can also be
achieved thus imparting further advantageous properties when needed. As the applied
pressure continuously feed the molten material it compensate for shrinkage as well.
As there are no risers and that the extra material in the refractory tube flows back
when pressure is released the yields too are high, generally in the range of 85%.
Mechanical properties too are about 5% better than conventional permanent mould
castings but the cycle time is a little higher.

Vacuum Permanent Mould Casting can be considered as a modification of the

earlier process where instead of gas pressure, vacuum pressure is used to suck in
molten material to the mould cavity. All the advantages of the previous process are
evident in this as well and in addition gas entrapment is further reduced due to
vacuum. This can be applied advantageously to thin walled castings producing
excellent surface quality. Castings in the range of 200 gm to about 5 kg are common
with this process and the mechanical properties may be about 15% superior to that of
conventional permanent mould gravity castings.

PRESSURE DIE CASTING differs from above two methods in that molten material
is forced or injected to the cavity under high pressure and maintained under this
pressure during solidification. As very high pressures are involved cast iron is not well
suited as a die material for this process and it is hardened alloy steels suitable for hot
work that are used for these dies. Often dies contain multiple cavities (i.e. several
cavities of the same component) or combination cavity (where impression of more
than one item in a single cavity). They may contain water cooling passages to ensure
that the die does not reach unnecessarily high temperature during continuous
operation. Also the dies may be much complicated with retractable cores and ‘knock-
out pins’ etc., to facilitate removal of complicated products. However the closing
surfaces have to be perfectly mating and very well clamped to ensure no leak during
high pressure injection of molten material to the cavity.

Due to the high injection pressure involved fine details and precision can be easily
obtained. Many fine components in machinery, such as even gears (without the need
for further processing) etc., as well as carburettor chambers etc., is made with this
process. This gives enhanced strength properties, excellent dimensional precision and
surface quality and texture that no subsequent machining, often even holes or threads
etc., too, is not needed. Usually it is nonferrous metals and alloys that are made with
this process but ferrous castings too may be produced with required modifications for
tooling. It has been found that many different alloys of Zinc, Copper, Aluminium and
Magnesium often have much superior properties when pressure die cast. The product
size may range up to about 10kg and more than 500 mm on any side. There are two
principal methods of injection of the molten material to the die cavity under pressure.
They are ‘hot chamber’ or ‘gooseneck injection’ and ‘cold chamber’ or ‘plunger
injection’.

Hot Chamber (or Gooseneck) type incorporates a hot chamber where molten
material is contained, inside of which a gooseneck type of a plunger is positioned.
Lower portion of the chamber containing the plunger is immersed in molten material
and is connected through a ‘gooseneck’ shaped passage to the die inlet. The plunger
which projects above the molten material is usually operated with a connected piston
mechanism through pneumatic or hydraulic means (see fig). Die halves are very well
held in position using toggle clamps. The molten material is injected here from the
same chamber where it is melted without further handling or transfer of molten metal,
thus making this method comparatively safer. However this process cannot be used
for materials with higher melting points due to limitations posed by melting chamber
materials. Further with steel chambers molten aluminium tends to pick up iron during
extended time of contact and thus is not recommended for aluminium if iron
contamination is not acceptable. However this process finds wide application with
Zinc, Ti, and Lead based alloys. Production rates of more than 15 pieces per minute
are quite common.

Cold Chamber (or Plunger Injection) method is normally used for Aluminium,
Magnesium and Copper alloys and for materials not suitable for hot chamber method.
Unlike in the hot-chamber method material is melted here in a separate chamber and a
measured quantity is fed into the injection cylinder (or shot chamber) and is injected
to the die cavity with a plunger operated often pneumatically, hydraulically or even
mechanically (Fig ). Pressure is maintained during solidification process. Molten
material has to be transferred (or poured) to the injection chamber for every cycle,
which is often done manually, and in works with better facilities using mechanical
handling devices or robots. This transfer of molten material poses a serious safety risk
and special safety precautions thus have to be taken. Though the production rate here
is a little lower than with hot chamber process, this too can achieve reasonably good
cycle rates. A slight modification of this process employs a second plunger to advance
and provide the additional material needed to cater for shrinkage, thus ensuring better
quality.

Here the rate of injection is fairly fast so that hardly any time for entrapped air to
escape, thus running the risk of blow holes and porosity. To reduce this thin vents
about 0.1 to 0.15 mm wide are often allowed along the parting line. This in turn
causes formation of fins or protrusions which has to be subsequently trimmed. This
may however be done in the same trimming die used to remove the sprues and
runners.

A recent improvement of this process uses heated manifolds and injects material
directly into the cavity using mini-nozzles thus eliminating sprues, gates and runners.

Excellent surface finish and dimensional accuracy can be obtained with this method.
Aluminium, zinc, magnesium and copper based alloys are often produced with strict
tolerances in the range of 3mm/m with this process. Minimum sections that are often
obtained with this process are: Aluminium – 0.9 mm, Zinc alloys – 0.6 mm,
Magnesium alloys – 1.25 mm and Brass and Bronze – 1.25 mm. Size range from 25
gm to about 7 kg is quite common. Very precision items including precision holes and
even fine threads can be cast without need for further machining or processing. Finish
is very good that fine gear wheels etc are often produced ready for use.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Quite contrast from gravity and pressure castings, the material can be made to flow in
the required direction using centrifugal force. There are several processes employing
this method.

Horizontal Axis Centrifugal Casting is one of the oldest centrifugal casting

methods, and is used for making pipes and similar axi-symmetric products where the
inner surface is without contours. The process is schematically shown in the fig. .
The mould in this case is the outside shape of the axi-symmetric product and molten
material is poured to the mould which is revolving about an almost horizontal axis
with a slight tilt lowering from the pouring side to the other to enable the molten
material to flow along the axis. While it is flowing along the axis the centrifugal force
due to rotation forces the material radially outwards thus forming a shell or a cylinder.
Pouring end and the other end are suitably covered to prevent material flowing out of
the mould length. Any axi-symmetric contour provided in the mould will be taken by
the material and the thickness can be controlled by controlling the amount of material
poured. Inner surface is cylindrical. Outer surface shapes such as hexagon octagon
etc., can also be obtained. The mould, which is usually metal, is continued to rotate
till the material is solidified. Speed of rotation depends on the diameter, material
being cast etc and may vary from about 250 rpm even up to 3000 rpm. Cast Iron and
Ductile Iron pipes and pressure vessels are the most common product with this
process but can be used to make items from any material that can be cast and is freely
flowing.

Vertical Axis Centrifugal Casting is a modification of the above method where the
mould is rotated about a vertical axis while the pouring is from top as shown in fig. .
While the outer surface can take any contour, the inner surface here will be, strictly
speaking, a paraboloid just like the water surface we get when we rotate a bucket of
water. However with the increase of speed of rotation the inner side become more and
more parallel. Unlike with horizontal axis centrifugal casting, the product length (or
axial height) here is not very high, and usually applied only for relatively short
components. When the product length is short taper in the internal surface is not very
evident particularly with high speed rotation. Brake drums, cylinder liners etc are
common items made with this process. As there are no sprues, risers or gates the yield
is much higher than conventional casting and more than 90% are reported. The
centrifugal force improves the quality of the product.

Low Speed Centrifugal Casting is another modification of this process. Here while
the poring is as in a conventional casting with pouring basin and gate etc, centrifugal
force generated from relatively low speeds of rotation is used to assist material flow.
Since the rotation speeds are low, relatively heavy and bulky moulds, made in the
conventional manner with cope and drag and contained in a flask can be used. Often
several moulds are one on top of the other with common pouring basin. This is some
times known as “Semi-centrifugal Casting” as well.

Centrifuge Casting is yet another modification of the above processes. Here a

number of separate mould cavities are so arranged offset from the axis of rotation and
usually at equal diameters. These are connected through sprues etc., to a central
pouring reservoir. Molten material poured to the central reservoir is forced by
centripetal forces, as in centrifuging, to the cavities. Fig. . Sound casting of very
intricate shapes and thin walls can be made with relatively low speeds of rotation.
One of the special advantages of this process is that the moulds can be made of rubber
or epoxies and thus is adaptable for quick mould making and suitable for short runs as
well. This method is some times used as an adaptation in investment casting where
pouring to investment casting trees is assisted by the centrifugal action. This method
produces smooth surfaces and excellent details, and often used with materials such as
pewter and zinc etc.

Continuous Casting is a process used often for making Billets for further processing
and some times for some axi-symmetric items. As this has limited applications and is
of very limited use for design engineers, it is not discussed in detail here.

CASTING OF PLASTICS

Plastics are often processed as mouldings, which will be discussed in the next chapter.
However there are a few plastics suitable for casting. What is required is the monomer
availability in the form of a syrup where the catalyst and other additives that can be
mixed heated and poured into a cavity at atmospheric pressure. Polymerization takes
place inside the cavity. However this process is confined, in industrial applications, to
a few plastics such as Nylon 6, Epoxies, and Acrylics.

Some advantages of cast plastics are ability to produce perfectly contoured items,
excellent sound and vibration damping qualities, and self lubricating properties. Basic
cast nylon formulation is suitable for heavy duty applications demanding high
strength together with resilience, wear resistance and particularly where self
lubricating properties are welcome in situations where provision of lubrication is not
possible or difficult due to other design considerations. Several inches thick gears
weighing nearly 200 kg, yet assuring void free uniform structure are also made by
casting. Nylon weighs only about one-seventh of steel and combined with its self
lubricating and smooth running properties is a serious challenge and a competitor to
steel in such applications. Surfaces are harder, more crystalline, and more wear
resistant as the cooling at surfaces are much faster than the core. Mould costs for
casting of plastics are much lower than those required for moulding.

Some limitations for the use of nylons are there as it readily absorbs water. However
this is often confined to surface and with thick items is not an appreciable problem
unless is continuously immersed in water. Further there are working limitations on
temperature to about 1100 C and thus applications where exposed to atmospheres such
as steam are to be precluded.