MME 512

FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY I (2Credit units)

SYNOPSIS

• Moulding and Casting Processes: Sand Mould, permanent mould, plaster mould, shell

mould, centrifugal casting, investment and die casting methods, shell mouding and CO2

processes.

• Sand Technology: Moulding and core sands (sand aggregate, bonding materials and

special additives), Mechanics of bonding. Testing of foundry sands. Effects of variable

of the properties of moulding and core sands. Sand preparation method, equipment and

control.

• Pattern: Functions and classification. Pattern and materials.

• Casting Defects: Defects due to incorrect moulding practices (sand and cores e.t.c)

• Casting Design: With relevance to moulding materials, gating and riser.

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 CHAPTER 1

FOUNDRY PROCESS / CASTING

The art of foundry (From latin ‘fundere’ means ‘melting & pouring’) is very primitive to

civilization as it has been in use since 3000 B.C, when bronze arrowheads were cast in open-

faced clay moulds.

Sections of a Foundry

Metal casting (or simply casting) it based on the property of liquid to take up the shape of

the vessel which contains it. The process of metal casting involves pouring of molten metal

into a mould, which is a cavity formed in some moulding material such as sand. The mould

cavity exactly resembles in shape and size with the product to be made. After pouring, the

molten metal is allowed to freeze there, taking up the shape of the mould cavity and the product

is thus cast, is called a casting.

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The casting method is a well-known and promising way to effectively carry out alloying. This

involves incorporating the additives into the molten base metal or alloy, as appropriate. To

improve a homogeneous mixture and combination of the constituent parts, there are numerous

approaches and techniques that can be used. It entails pouring a liquid metal to a mould with

the final product's hollow shape. The metal is poured using sprue, gates, and runners.

Centrifugal casting, die casting, sand casting, permanent mould casting, investment casting,

and Shell Moulding are the primary categories of casting manufacturing techniques.

Advantages of Metal Casting

(i) Size : There is no restriction on size. Items from a few grams to many tons can be produced
by casting. In fact, casting is the only process for producing massive objects in one single piece.
Eg. watch cases (few grams), rolling mill housing (around 50tons).
(ii) Complexity : The most complex curved surfaces and complicated shapes which are difficult
or rather impossible to manufacture by other processes, can usually be cast.
(iii) Weight saving : Large saving in weight is achieved as the metal can be placed exactly
where it is required.
(iv) Low cost
(v) Dimensional accuracy : Tolerance as close as ±01. mm can be achieved depending on the
cast metal, the casting process and the shape and size of the casting. The surface finish can also
be controlled and may vary from 5µm to 50 µm .

(vi) Versatility in production : Suitable for small quantity job shop production as welll as large
volume mass production by employing at automatic machines.
Disadvantages of Metal casting
(i) High energy consuming process.
(ii) Labour intensive as compared to other processes.
(iii) Needs large space and handling systems.
(iv) Time requirement for producing castings is quite long.
(v) Unfavorable working condition due to heat, dust fumes, heaps of scraps and slag etc. at
different stages. Moreso, there is high environmental pollution.

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Applications of Casting (Metal : Ferrous and Non ferrous)
i. Cylinder blocks
ii. Cylinder liners
iii. M/C Tool beds
iv. Pistons
v. Piston rings
vi. Mill rolls
vii. Wheels
viii. Housing
ix. Water supply pipes
x. Bells
xi. Jet engine blades
xii. Turbine blades

1.1 TYPES OF CASTING

A. Sand Casting

Sand casting is widely used for centuries because of the simplicity of the process. The sand
casting process involves the following basic steps: (a) place a wooden or metallic pattern in
sand to create a mould, (b) fit in the pattern and sand in a gating system, (c) remove the pattern,
(d) fill the mould cavity with molten metal, (e) allow the metal to cool, and (f) break the sand
mould and remove the casting. The sand casting process is usually economical for small batch
size production. The quality of the sand casting depends on the quality and uniformity of green
sand material that is used for making the mould. The molten metal is poured through the
pouring cup and it fills the mould cavity after passing through downsprue, runner and gate. The
core refers to loose pieces which are placed inside the mould cavity to create internal holes or
open section. The riser serves as a reservoir of excess molten metal that facilitates additional
filling of mould cavity to compensate for volumetric shrinkage during solidification. Sand
castings process provides several advantages. It can be employed for all types of metal. The
tooling cost is low and can be used to cast very complex shapes.

However, sand castings offer poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish.

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Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of sand moulding
Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. Depending on the position
of the flask in the mould structure, it is referred to as drag, cope and cheek. It is generally made
up of wood for temporary use or of metal for long term use.

Cope: Lower moulding flask

Drag: Upper moulding Flask

Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the sand
mould.
Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches
the mould cavity.
Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is
regulated before they reach the mould cavity.
Gate: The actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity.
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its
own weight and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chill: Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the moulds to increase the rate of
cooling of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
Riser: It is the reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can
flow back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal
due to solidification

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These are the six stages in sand casting procedure:

(i) Positioning a pattern in sand to make a mould.

(ii) Integrating the pattern and sand into a gating system.

(iii) Ejecting the pattern.

(iv) Filling the cavity of the mould with molten metal.

(v) Leaving the metal to cool, then

(vi) Separating the casting from the sand mould by breaking it away.

Propellers, Engine blocks, pulleys, machine tool bases, cylinder heads, valves, pump housings,

gears, crankshafts and connecting rods are some examples of the sand casting process.

B. Shell Moulding
Shell moulding is similar to sand casting. Normally a machined pattern of grey iron or
aluminium is used in this process. The pattern is heated to 2500C to 2600C and the sand resin
mixture is poured over its surface. The heated pattern melts the resin creating bonds between
the sand grains. After a dwell period the pattern and sand inverted and extra sand is cleaned
off. The mould cavity is now formed by a hardened shell of sand. The mould is then heated in
an oven for further curing. The shell thus formed constitutes one half of the mould. Two such
halves are placed over one another to make the complete mould. The sands used in shell
moulding process are usually finer than the same used in sand casting. This process is ideal for
complex shaped medium sized parts. This method can be employed for making an integrate
shapes, thin and sharp corners small projection which are not possible in green sand mould.
Subsequent machining operations are also reduced due to more dimensional accuracy.

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 Figure 1.2: Schematic set-up of shell mould casting process
The Process involves the following:
• A two-piece metal pattern is created, a replica of the desired shape, using iron or steel.
• These patterns are fixed to a dump box which has the sand mix and a resin binder.
• The shells are knitted together to form the complete shell mould, then the molten metal
is poured from ladle into mould.
• As the casting solidifies, the mould is then broken to allow for removal.
Shell moulding is usually utilized for the manufacture of high precision component parts, like
gear housings.
C. Investment Casting
Investment casting is also referred to as lost-wax casting since the pattern is made of wax.
The wax patterns are first dipped into a slurry of refractory material and subsequently, heated
so that the wax melts away keeping a refractory mould. The mould is then further cured to
achieve proper strength. Very high melting temperature material can be cast in investment
casting process because of the refractory mould. The molten metal is poured into the mould
and is taken out after solidification by breaking the mould. Very high dimensional accuracy
and surface finish can be achieved in investment casting process. However, the tooling cast is
usually high and hence, investment casting process is primarily used for large size batch
production or for specific requirements of complex shape or casting of very high melting
temperature material.

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E. Plaster mould casting
Plaster mould casting, also called rubber plaster moulding (RPM), is a method of producing
aluminum or zinc castings by pouring liquid metal into typical plaster (gypsum) moulds. The
plaster moulds used as negative moulds are created from gypsum and water. After mixing and
forming the mould shape, the plaster moulds are dried and baked in an oven to remove any
water remaining in the mould. Often, the moulds are made in two halves – i.e. cope and drag
moulds – and the halves of the plaster moulds are clamped together with any required cores
positioned appropriately in the mould. Molten metal is subsequently poured into the negative
plaster mould and allowed to dry. The final part is taken out after breaking the mould. The final
cast may require machining operation depending upon the requisite dimensional accuracy. This
process is often used for producing prototypes of final part or component.

F. Ceramic mould casting

The ceramic mould casting is used to produce split moulds from a quick-setting ceramic
investment. Blended ceramic particles are mixed rapidly with liquid binder to form free flowing
slurry that is poured quickly over a pattern. The casting does not require wax patterns and there
are no limits to size or alloy. Foundry applications are large and complex impellers, valve
bodies, and military hardware. The green strength of ceramic mould casting is high. Ceramic
mould casting method uses a ceramic slurry prepared by mixing fine grained refractory
powders of Zircon (ZrSiO4), Alumina (Al2O3), Fused Silica (SiO2 ) and a liquid chemical
binder (Alcohol based Silicon Ester) for making the mould.

Figure 1.3: Schematic of Ceramic Mould casting

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G. Permanent Mould Casting processes
Permanent mould casting is a manufacturing process that offers reusability of metal moulds
which makes it eligible for high volume production. The metal moulds are also called dies and
provide superior surface finish and close tolerance than typical sand moulds. The permanent
mould casting processes broadly include pressure die casting, squeeze casting, centrifugal
casting, and continuous casting.
The Process involves the following:
i. The mould is preheated and a ceramic coating is applied to the mould cavity surfaces
to facilitate part removal.
ii. The molten metal is poured from a ladle and gravity or vacuum is used to raise the
molten metal into the mould assembly.
iii. The casting is allowed to solidify and then removed by opening the mould assembly.
Some examples of permanent mould casting include gears, fittings for pipes, fuel injection
housings, wheels, gear housings and pistons of engines.

1. Pressure die casting

The pressure die casting process is the most common for Al, Zn and Mg castings (low melting
point). The liquid metal is injected into the mould under high pressure and allowed to solidify
at the high pressure. The solidified cast is then taken out of the mould or the die which is ready
for the next cast. Pressure die casting is suitable for large batch size production. Two types of
pressure die casting are generally common in the industry – (a) high pressure die casting and
(b) low pressure die casting. Very high production rates can be achieved in pressure die casting
process with close dimensional control of the casting. However, the process is not suitable for
casting of high melting temperature materials as the die material has to withstand the melting
(or superheated) temperature of the casting. Pressure die castings also contain porosity due to
the entrapped air. Furthermore, the dies in the pressure die casting process are usually very
costly. The schematic below presents the hot-chamber and the cold-chamber die casting
processes. In the hot-chamber die casting process, the furnace to melt material is part of the die
itself and hence, this process is suitable primarily for low-melting point temperature materials
such as aluminum, magnesium etc.

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Figure 1.4: Set-up of (a) hot-chamber and (b) cold-chamber die casting processes
2. Squeeze casting
Molten metal is poured into a metallic mould or die cavity with one-half of the die squeezing
the molten metal to fill in the intended cavity under pressure. Fibre-reinforced casting with
SiC or Al2O3 fibers mixed in metal matrix have been successfully used in squeeze cast and
commercially used to produce automobile pistons. However, squeeze casting is limited only
to shallow part or part with smaller dimensions.

Figure 1.5: Schematic set up of squeeze casting process

3. Centrifugal casting
In centrifugal casting process, the molten metal is poured at the centre of a rotating mould or
dies. Because of the centrifugal force, the lighter impurities are crowded towards the centre of
the case. For producing a hollow part, the axis of rotation is placed at the center of the desired

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casting. The speed of rotation is maintained high so as to produce a centripetal acceleration of
the order of 60g to 75g. The centrifuge action segregates the less dense non-metallic inclusions
near to the center of rotation that can be removed by machining a thin layer. No cores are
therefore required in casting of hollow parts although solid parts can also be cast by this
process. The centrifugal casting is very suitable for axisymmetric parts. Very high strength of
the casting can be obtained. Since the molten metal is fed by the centrifugal action, the need
for complex metal feeding system is eliminated. Both horizontal and vertical centrifugal
castings are widely used in the industry.

Figure 1.6: Schematic set-up of horizontal centrifugal casting process

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 CHAPTER 2
2.0 MOULDING MATERIALS

Moulding material may be defined as the material out of which mould is made. It should be
such that the mould cavity retains its shape until molten metal solidifies. The materials could
be:
(i) Permanent mould – Permanent mould are normally used for casting lower melting
point metals, usually costly and made of ferrous metal and alloys (steel, Gray CI).
(ii) Temporary mould – refractory sand and resin.
(ii) Wax, plaster of paris, carbon, ceramics, etc.

2.1 Permanent Moulds (Metal Moulds/ Dies)

– Generally made of grey cast iron/steel.
– Metal mould is made of two parts to facilitate removal of casting.
– Mould is manufactured by casting and then machining of the cavity.
– Generally used for casting nonferrous metals and alloys. (A1, Mg, Pb etc.) Eg : Aluminium
alloy pistons (I.C. Engine) are cast in metal moulds.
Metal moulds are used in the following type of castings
(i) Permanent mould casting
(ii) Pressure die casting
(iii) Centrifugal casting
Advantages of Metal moulds
(i) fine grain structure
(ii) high dimensional accuracy
(iii) very good surface finish
(iv)Preferred for mass production of casting.

2.2 Sand Mould

Generally there are two types of sand mould
✓ Green sand mould
✓ Dry sand mould
2.2.1 Green Sand Mould
– Green sand may be defined as sand which is in damp (wet) condition and contains

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moisture.
– Clay binder is added to it.
– In green sand mould, molten metal is poured while it is in wet/undried condition.
– A green sand mould has low strength and low permeability.
– Difficult shapes can be produced.
– Castings do not crack because there is less resistance to soild shrinkage.
– Suitable for small and medium size casting.
2.2.2 Dry Sand Mould
– It is shown in Fig. 1.12.
– Binders are added which harden when heated

Mould is prepared in green (wet) condition and then heated in oven for drying (300° to
650°F) before pouring.
– It has more strength than green sand mould.
– More expensive.
– Mould gas generation is less than green sand mould.
– Smoother surface on casting because fine sand is used.
– Higher permeability than green mould.
– Preferred for large size casting.

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2.2.3 Refractory Sands
Normally used refractory sands are
(i) Silica sand (ii) Magnesite (iii) Zircon (iv) Dolomite
(v) Olivine (vi) Sillimanite (vii) Graphite / Carbon

2.2.4 Composition of moulding sand

Sand is the principal moulding material. It is used in foundry for all types of castings. Some
important properties of it are
(i) refractoriness – withstand high temperature of molten metal and does not fuse.
(ii) chemical resistivity – does not chemically react with molten metal.
(iii) high permeability – allows gases and air to escape from the mould after pouring.
The principal ingredients of moulding sand are
(i) silica sand grains
(ii) clay (binder)
(iii) moisture (activate clay and provide plasticity)
2.2.4.1 Silica Sand
▪ It possesses major portion of moulding sand (up to 96%)
▪ The rest are other oxides as alumina, sodium oxide (Na2O + K2O) and magnesium
oxide (MgO + CaO)
▪ These should be kept about 2%
▪ Main source of silica sand is river sand.
▪ Silica sand grains provide refractoriness, chemical resistivity and permeability to
sand.
▪ It is specified according to its shape and size.
▪ Fine sand provides more intimate contact and less permeability .
▪ According to shape, these can be round, subangular, angular and very angular
2.2.4.2 Zircon Sand
▪ Its chemical name is zirconium silicate (Zr Si O4)
▪ Composition : – ZrO2 – 66.25%, SiO2 – 30.96%, Al2O3 – 1.92%
Fe2O3 – 0.74% and other oxides in less quantity.
▪ It is very expensive.
▪ Available in Kerala (India) and Australia.
▪ Fusion point is 2400°C
▪ Important properties are high thermal conductivity and high density, etc.
▪ Less binder required (3%).
▪ Used for precision steel casting, precision investment.

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2.2.4.3 Binders
▪ Binder may be defined as the material which is responsible for the cohesion between
the moulding sand grains in both green and dry condition.
▪ Binders are less refractory than moulding sand.
▪ These provide strength to moulding sand to retain its shape in mould cavity.
▪ Increase in binder content reduces permeability and increases green compression
strength to some extent.
▪ Clay is the generally used binder for its low cost and wider utility.
▪ The most popular clay types are
(i) Kaolinite / Fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O)
(ii) Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2On H2O)
(iii) Water
Kaolinite
– Melting point 1750 – 1787°C.
– Absorbs less water than bentonite and so less shrinkage.
– It is the residue of weathered granite and basalt.
– Composition : Kaolinite (60%) + Illite (30%) + Quartz (10%)
– Softening point (3000 – 3100°F)
Bentonite
– Melting point 1250° – 1300°C
– Absorbs more water and so more bonding power.
– Two types
(i) sodium bentonite/western bentonite (high dry and low green strength)
(ii) calcium bentonite/southern bentonite (high green and low dry strength).
– The clay chosen should give required strength considering the metal to be cast and
thickness of casting.
– Normally river sand contains large amount of clay and can be directly used.
Water
– Water is used to activate clay for plasticity and strength.
– Quantity of water is very important because a part of water helps bonding (absorbed)
and another part improves plasticity (free water).

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– If added in more quantity will decrease strength and formability.
– Normally 2 – 8% is added.
– Required water content varies with type of clay

Additives
The basic constituents of moulding sand mixture are sand, binder and water. Materials other
than these, which are added to moulding sand mixtures are called additives. These are added
in very small quantities.
Additives are used to – increase the existing properties and develop new properties.
✓ Cereal binders increase strength when added up to 2%
✓ Pitch used up to 3% increases hot strength
✓ Saw dust up to 2% increases permeability
✓ Other materials like sea coal improves surface appearance of cast iron.

2.3 Properties of Moulding Sand

Important properties of moulding sand are :
(i) Refractoriness
(ii) Green strength
(iii) Dry strength
(iv) Hot strength
(v) Permeability/porosity
Refractoriness
It may be defined as the ability of the moulding material to sustain the high temperatures of
the molten metal so that it does not cause fusion.
Green strength
The moulding sand which contains moisture is called green sand. The strength of the green
sandwhich should be sufficient enough to maintain the shape of the mould is called green
strength.
Dry strength
The moulding sand which does not contain any moisture is called dry sand. The strength of
the dry sand (by hot metal effect) which should retain the shape of the mould cavities is
called dry strength.

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Hot strength
After all, the moisture is eliminated and the metal in the mould is in liquid state, the temperature
of the sand becomes very high. The strength of the sand which is required to hold the shape of
the mould cavity in that condition is called hot strength.
Permeability / Porosity
During solidification, large amount of gases come out from the mould. These are the gases
which are absorbed by the metal in the furnace, from atmosphere or gases involved by the
moulding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape, these will be trapped inside
the casting and cause defects. For this reasons, the moulding sand should be sufficiently porous
so that the gases are allowed to escape out. The gas evolution capability of the moulding sand
is called permeability/ porosity.
Collapsibility
Besides all the above properties, the moulding sand should have collapsibility so that during
contraction of the solidified casting, it does not provide any resistance which may result in
cracks in casting. Moulding sand should be reusable and having good thermal conductivity so
that heat from casting is quickly transferred to the sand.

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 CHAPTER 3
3.0 SAND TESTING
3.1 Types of Sand Tests
Various kind of tests are done on moulding sand, they are:
Moisture content test
Clay content test
Grain fineness test
Permeability test
Strength tests.

3.1.1 Moisture Content Test

▪ Amount of water contained in moulding sand controls the properties of moulding
sand.
▪ If moisture content is low strength will not be developed.
▪ If moisture content is high, permeability reduces.
Moisture content can be determined by the following methods.

▪ Calcium carbide reacts with the moisture of moulding sand and produces acetylene
gas.
▪ The pressure of C H2 2 gives a direct reading of the water content of the pressure
gauge.
Using infrared heating
The following steps are followed in this process.
(i) Fixed weight of 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in pan and is heated by
infrared heater bulb for 2 – 3 minutes.
(ii) The moisture present evaporates.

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(iii) Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighted.
(iv) The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in weights of original
moist and final dry sand samples.
(v) The apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.1: Moisture determining apparatus

3.1.2 Clay Content Test
Clay is a bonding agent for sand particles. The clay content of a moulding sand can be
determined
as follows :
Take a small quantity of moulding sand and dry it throughly
Take out 50 gms of dry moulding sand and put in a wash bottle.
Add 475 cc of distilled water and 25 cc of 3% NaOH solution.
Using a rapid sand stirrer, stirr the mixture for 10 minutes.
Fill the wash bottle with water upto indicated mark.
Allow 10 minutes for settling of sand, then takeout water from the bottle.
Clay comes out with water in dissolved condition.
Again add water to the sand and stir it, let the sand to settle down and take water out.
Follow the above step till water over the settled sand is clean.
So all the clay has been removed out of sand.

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 Dry the sand.
Calculate the clay content by measuring the difference in weights between initial and
final sand sample.

3.1.3 Grain Fineness Test

This test determines
(i) Grain size
(ii) distribution
(iii) grain fineness
The apparatus in shown in Fig. 1.15. It has a number of standard sieves mounted one above
the other on a power driven shaker.
The shaker vibrates the sieves and sand poured on top sieve gets screened and collected on
different sieves depending upon the various sizes of grains present in moulding sand.
There are generally eleven number of standard sieves mounted one above other and under
the bottom most sieve pan is placed. The top sieve is the coarsest and bottom most sieve is
the finest, in between sieves are placed in order.
A sample of dry sand without clay is placed in upper sieve.
Sand is vibrated for a definite period of time.
The amount of sand obtained in each sieve is weighted and percentage distribution is
calculated.
For calculating grain finess number, each percentage is multiplied by a factor.
The resulting products are added and divided by total percentage of sand grain retained.

3.1.4 Permeability Test

Permeability may be defined as the property of moulding sand which allows stream and other
gas generated in the mould during the pouring of molten metal to escape out.
It depends on (i) grain size (ii) grain shape (iii) binder type and amount

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(iv) degree of ramming (v) water of content of moulding sand
First, a specimen of standard size is prepared by Specimen Rammer.
Permeability of sand specimen is determined by passing given volume of air through
the sand.
Permeability tester consists of
(i) an inverted bell jar, which floats in water.
(ii) specimen tube to hold the sand specimen.
(iii) manometer to read the air pressure.
The apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.16.

Test Procedure
(i) 2000 cc of air held in inverted bell jar is forced to pass through sand specimen.
(ii) At some point the airflow stabilizes i.e., amount of air entering the specimen = amount
of air escaped through the specimen to atmosphere.
(iii) By this, a stable reading is obtained in manometer.
(iv) Using stopwatch, time required for the total 2000 cc of air to pass through the sand
specimen is also recorded.

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(v) Now permeability number can be calculated as follows

3.1.5 Strength Test

Strength of a moulding sand can be determined by
(i) Compression test
(ii) Tensile test
(iii) Shear test
(iv) Transverse test
Among all the above compression test is most commonly used. All the tests can be done on
sand specimen tester by using different attachments. The strength testing equipment is shown
in Fig. 1.17

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 CHAPTER 4
DEFECTS IN CASTI NGS
4.1 Casting Defects
Any unwanted deviation from the desired requirements in a cast product results in a defect.
Some defects in the cast products are tolerable while others can be rectified by additional
processes like welding etc. The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in
sand
4.1.1 Shrinkage
Shrinkage of molten metal as it solidifies is an important issue in casting. It can reduce the 5-
10% volume of the cast. Gray cast iron expands upon solidification due to phase changes.
Need to design part and mould to take this amount into consideration. The thickness of the
boss or pad should be less than the thickness of the section of the boss adjoins and the
transition should be gradual. The radius for good shrinkage control should be from one half to
one third of the section thickness. Shrinkage defect can be reduced by decreasing the number
of walls and increasing the draft angle.

Figure 4.1:Schematic pictorial presentation of various casting defects

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4.1.2. Porosity
Porosity is a phenomenon that occurs in materials, especially castings, as they change state
from liquid to solid during the manufacturing process. Casting porosity has the form of
surface and core imperfections which either affects the surface finish or as a leak path for
gases and liquids. The poring temperature should be maintained properly to reduce porosity.
Adequate fluxing of metal and controlling the amount of gas-producing materials in the
moulding and core making sand mixes can help in minimizing this defect.

4.1. 3 Hot tear

Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities or crack on the casting surface,
caused by rapid contraction occurring immediately after the metal solidified. They may be
produced when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take place; no
proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are inappropriately placed. Hot tear
may be caused when the mould and core have poor collapsibility or when the mould is too
hard causing the casting to undergo severe strain during cooling. Incorrect pouring

temperature and improper placement of gates and risers can also create hot tears. Method to
prevent hot tears may entail improving the casting design, achieving directional solidification
and even rate of cooling all over, selecting proper mould and poured materials to suit the cast
metal, and controlling the mould hardness in relation to other ingredients of sand.

4.1.4 Scar
It is usually found on the flat casting surface. It is a shallow blow.
4.1.5 Blowhole
Blowholes are smooth round holes that are clearly perceptible on the surface of the casting.
To prevent blowholes, moisture content in sand must be well adjusted, sand of proper grain
size should be used, ramming should not be too hard and venting should be adequate.
4.1.6 Blister
This is a scar covered by the thin layers of the metal.
4.1.7 Dross
The lighter impurities are appearing on the top of the cast surface is called the dross. It can be
taken care of at the pouring stage by using items such as a strainer and a skim bob.

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4.1.8 Dirt
Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get embedded on the top surface of a
casting. When removed, these leave small angular holes is known as dirts.
4.1.9 Wash
It is a low projection on the drag surface of a casting commencing near the gate. It is caused
by the erosion of sand due to high velocity liquid metal. It refers to a long fairly shallow broad
depression at the surface of a casting of a high temperature metal. Due to very high temperature
of the molten metal, expansion of the thin layered of the sand at the mould face takes place. As
this expansion is obstructed by the flux, the mould tends to bulge out forming a V shape.
4.1.10 Rat tail
It is a long shallow angular depression found in a thin casting. The cause is similar to buckle.
4.1.11 Shift
A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of a casting usually as a parting line.
Misalignment is common cause of shift. This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper
alignment of the pattern for die parts, moulding boxes, and checking of pattern flux locating
pins before use.
4.1.12 Warped casting
Warping is an undesirable deformation in a casting which occurs during or after
solidification. Large and flat sections are particularly prone to wrap edge. Wrap edge may
also be due to insufficient gating system that may not allow rapid pouring of metal or due to
low green strength of the sand mould or inadequate / inappropriate draft allowance in the
pattern / mould cavity.
4.1.13 Metal Penetration and Rough Surfaces
This defect appears as an uneven and rough external surface of the casting. It may be caused
when the sand has too high permeability, large grain size, and low strength. Soft ramming
may also cause metal penetration.
4.1.14 Fin
A thin projection of metal, not intended as a part of casting, is called a fin. Fins occur at the
parting of the mould or core sections. Moulds and cores in correctly assembled will cause the
fin. High metal pressures due to too large downsprue, insufficient weighing of the moulds or
improper clamping of flasks may again produce the fin defect.

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4.2 Inspections of Casting
1. Visual Inspection
Visible defects that can be detected provide a means for discovering errors in the pattern
equipment or in the molding and casting process. Visual inspection may prove inadequate
only in the detection of sub surface or internal defects.
2. Dimensional Inspection
Dimensional inspection is one of the important inspections for casting. When precision
casting is required, we make some samples for inspection the tolerance, shape size and also
measure the profile of the cast. This dimensional inspection of casting may be conducted by
various methods:
• Standard measuring instruments to check the size of the cast.
• Contour gauges for the checking of profile, curves and shapes
• Coordinate measuring and Marking Machine
• Special fixtures X-Ray Radiography
In all the foundries the flaw detection test are performed in the casting where the defects are
not visible. This flaw detection test is usually performed for internal defects, surface defects
etc. These tests are valuable not only in detecting but even in locating the casting defects
present in the interior of the casting. Radiography is one of the important flaw detection test
for casting. The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength)
version of the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come
from an X-ray generator or a radioactive source.
3. Magnetic Particle Inspection
This test is used to reveal the location of cracks that extend to the surface of iron or steel
castings, which are magnetic in nature. The casting is first magnetized and then iron particles
are sprinkled all over the path of the magnetic field. The particles align themselves in the
direction of the lines of force. A discontinuity in the casting causes the lines of the force to
bypass the discontinuity and to concentrate around the extremities of the defect.
4. Fluorescent Dye-penetration Test
This method is very simple and applied for all cast metals. It entails applying a thin

26
penetration oil-base dye to the surface of the casting and allowing it to stand for some time so
that the oil passes into the cracks by means of capillary action. The oil is then thoroughly
wiped and cleaned from the surface. To detect the defects, the casting is painted with a coat
of whitewash or powdered with tale and then viewed under ultraviolet light. The oil being
fluorescent in nature, can be easily detect under this light, and thus the defects are easily
revealed.
5. Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing used for detecting internal voids in casting is based on the principle of
reflection of high frequency sound waves. If the surface under test contains some defect, the
high frequency sound waves when emitted through the section of the casting, will be
reflected from the surface of defect and return in a shorter period of time. The advantage this
method of testing over other methods is that the defect, even if in the interior, is not only
detected and located accurately, but its dimension can also be quickly measured without in
any damaging or destroying the casting.
6. Fracture Test
Fracture test is done by examining a fracture surface of the casting. it is possible to observe
coarse graphite or chilled portion and also shrinkage cavity, pin hole etc. The apparent
soundness of the casting can thus be judged by seeing the fracture.
7. Macro-etching Test (macroscopic examination)
The macroscopic inspection is widely used as a routine control test in steel production
because it affords a convenient and effective means of determining internal defects in the
metal. Macro- etching may reveal one of the following conditions:
• Crystalline heterogeneity, depending on solidification
• Chemical heterogeneity, depending on the impurities present or localized segregation and
• Mechanical heterogeneity, depending on strain introduced on the metal, if any.
8. Sulphur Print test
Sulphur may exist in iron or steel in one of two forms; either as iron sulphide or manganese
sulphide. The distribution of sulphur inclusions can easily examined by this test.
9. Microscopic Examination
Microscopic examination can enable the study of the microstructure of the metal alloy,

27
elucidating its composition, the type and nature of any treatment given to it, and its
mechanical properties. In the case of cast metals, particularly steels, cast iron, malleable iron,
and SG iron, microstructure examination is essential for assessing metallurgical structure and
composition. Composition analysis can also be done using microscopic inspection.
Distribution of phase can be observed by metallographic sample preparation of cast product.
Grain size and distribution, grain boundary area can be observed by this procedure.
Distribution of non-metallic inclusion can also be found from this process of inspection
10. Chill Test
Chill test offers a convenient means for an approximate evaluation of the graphitizing
tendency of the iron produced and forms an important and quick shop floor test for
ascertaining whether this iron will be of the class desired. In chill test, accelerated cooling
rate is introduced to induce the formation of a chilled specimen of appropriate dimension. It
is then broken by striking with a hammer in such a manner that the fracture is straight and
midway of its length. The depth of chill obtained on the test piece is affected by the carbon
and silicon present and it can therefore be related to the carbon equivalent, whose value in
turn determines the grade of iron.

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 CHAPTER 5
5.0 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CASTING
In the production of castings, there are certain considerations that have to be put in pace in
order to get the actual dimension and quality of the desired part. These incude the following:
1. Compensate the shrinkage of the solidified molten metal by making patterns of slightly
oversize.
2. In sand casting, it is more economical and accurate if the parting line is on a flat plane.
Contoured parting lines are not economical. Further, some degree of taper, or draft is
recommended to provide to the pattern for its easy removal. The recommended draft angles
for patters under various conditions are given elsewhere.
3. In sand casting, it is recommended to attach the raiser near to the heavier section. The
thinnest sections are farthest from the raiser and solidify first and then the solidification
proceeds toward the direction of raiser i.e. towards the heavier section.
4. Sharp corners in a casting design cause uneven cooling and lead to formation of hot spots
in the final cast structure. Moreover sharp corner in a casting structure acts as a stress raiser.
Rounding the corner decreases the severity of the hot spot and lessens the stress
concentration.
5. Abrupt changes in sections should be avoided. Fillets and tapers are preferable to sharp
steps.
6. The interior walls and sections are recommended to be 20% thinner than the outside
members to reduce the thermal and residual stresses, and metallurgical changes.
7. When a hole is placed in a highly stressed section, add extra material around the hole as
reinforcement.
8. To minimize the residual stresses in the gear, pulley or wheel casting, a balance between
the section size of the rim, spokes and hub is maintained.
9. An odd number of curved wheel spokes reduce cast-in-residual stresses
10. Similar to sand casting, permanent mould castings also require draft for the easy
withdrawal of the casting from the mould. The recommended draft angles are given elsewhere.
11. Due to pattern shrinkage, investment shrinkage and metal shrinkage during solidification,
there is always a tendency for an investment part to “dish” (develop concave surfaces where
flat surfaces are specified). This condition takes place in areas of thick cross section. Dishing
is minimized by designing parts with uniformly thin walls.

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5.2 Pattern Allowances
Pattern is always larger in size than that of final casting. Because, certain allowances are
provided due to metallurgical (shrinkage) and mechanical (machining draft, shake and
distortion)
reasons.
The various allowances in pattern are
(i) Shrinkage/Contraction
(ii) Machining/Finish
(iii) Draft / Taper
(iv) Distortion / Camper
(v) Shake / Rapping
Casting 15
5.2.1 Shrinkage Allowance
Practically all metals shrink except bismuth. There are two types of shrinkage such as (i) liquid
and (ii) solid.
(i)Liquid shrinkage is the reduction in volume from liquid to solid stage at solidus
temperature. Risers are provided in mould to compensate this.
(iii) Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume when metal looses temperature in solid
state. Shrinkage allowance is provided to compensate this. Different metals shrink at different
rates. For this, patternmaker is provided with a special rule. This rule has two scales on each
side.The graduation is oversized proportionately eg. on one size scale, 1mm for each 100
mm. This contraction is still a guideline because actual contraction depends on several
factors such as
(i) composition of metal and impurity present (ii) moulding method
(iii) pouring temperature (iv) complexity of design

5.2.2 Machining Allowance

Surface finish and accuracy is normally less in sand casting. So machining is sometimes
required to improve these parameters. Scales generated on ferrous materials are to be removed.
So extra material is provided which is removed by either machining or cleaning.
Machining allowance depends on
– metal to be cast
– type of moulding
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– accuracy required
– surface complexity
Machining allowance may vary from 2 to 20 mm. Another classical way to reduce it is to
keep the casting in drag flask totally so that dimensional variation and other defects due to
parting plane are reduced to minimum.

5.2.3 Draft Allowance

At the time of removal of pattern from sand mould, the vertical faces of the pattern are
continuously in contact with the sand. So there is chance of damage of mould cavity. To reduce
this, vertical surfaces are tapered from parting line. It is called draft allowance.
▪ It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
▪ It is given for easy removal of pattern without damaging mould cavity.
▪ Amount of taper depends on
– shape and size of pattern vertically
– moulding method
– moulding materials
▪ It is provided on both external and internal surfaces.
External 10 to 25 mm/m
Internal 40 to 65 mm/m

5.2.4 Shake Allowance

A pattern is rapped by striking with a wooden piece. It is done so that the pattern is
loosened a little in mould for easy removal. This activity increases the size of mould
cavity a little which results in larger size casting .For this reason a negative allowance
is provided in pattern. This is called shake allowance. It is generally given in big castings and
neglected in small ones.

5.2.5 Distortion Allowance

Just after solidification, casting is very weak and may distort. This tendency is more, for
weaker sections such as U, V sections i.e., which has thin, long sections connected to
thick sections. For this reason some extra material is provided

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 CHAPTER 6
6.0 PATTERN
6.1 What is Pattern?
Pattern may be defined as a model or replica of the object to be cast. The only variation
according to dimension between casting and pattern is the various allowances. Sand is packed
around the pattern and after its removal mould cavity is formed in which molten metal is poured
to form final cast product.

6.1.1 Difference between Pattern and Casting

▪ Main difference between pattern and casting is their dimensions i.e., a pattern is
slightly larger in size than the casting because it carries shrinkage allowance (1 – 2
mm per 100 mm), draft allowance (1° and 3°) for tenal and internal surfaces and
machining allowance.
▪ Pattern carries core prints.
▪ Pattern can be in two or three pieces but casting is a single piece object.
▪ Material required for both are different.

6.1.2 Functions of Pattern

▪ Produces mould cavity in sand.
▪ Its casting has a core pattern contains coreprints.
▪ It defines parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
▪ Properly made patterns provide finished and smooth surface to casting and reduce
defects.
▪ Properly constructed patterns reduce the overall cost of process.

6.1.3 Types of Pattern

▪ Single piece/ one piece pattern (solid pattern)
▪ Split/ Two piece pattern
▪ Loose piece pattern
▪ Match plate pattern
▪ Cope and Drag pattern
▪ Sweep pattern
▪ Gated pattern
▪ Skeleton pattern
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 ▪ Follow board pattern

6.1.4 Single Piece Pattern

▪ Simplest pattern and inexpensive
▪ Made out of one piece and does not contain loose pieces or joints.
▪ Large size single castings are manufactured.
▪ Moulding operations are manual and so much time is required.
▪ Generally small numbers of castings are produced.
▪ Material used are wood or metal (depend on quantity of production)

6.1.5 Split Pattern

▪ Castings of complicated shape can not be prepared in single piece because of some
difficulties like withdrawing the pattern from the mould, etc.
▪ Upper part kept on cope and lower part in drag of mould.
▪ Alignment is maintained by using dowel pins. (i.e., parting line for both pattern and
mould are same)
▪ Taps, water stopcocks.

6.1.6 Loose Piece Pattern

Some patterns can not be removed after putting them in moulding sand. So for removing
them, they are made of loose pieces, which are attached to the main body by lower pins. The
main body drawn out first and then loose pieces.

6.1.7 Match Plate Pattern

It has a match plate on both side of which number of split patterns are fastened. Pattern of
different size and shape can be fitted to a match plate which is clamped with drag by locator
holes. Runner and gates are attached to the pattern assembly. After ramming the whole
assembly is removed.

6.1.8 Cope and Drag Pattern

This is a kind of split pattern. Difference is that in this pattern, gating and risering system is
attached to both the halves using separate metal/wooden plate. Both the cope and drag parts of
the final mould can be produced separately and assembled finally. This is usually used for
heavy castings inconvenient to handle.
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6.2 Pattern Materials
Selection of pattern material depends on the following factors.
▪ Number of castings to be produced
▪ Required dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
▪ Process used like, sand, investment, shell, etc.
– Moulding, hand/machine.
– Shape, complexity and size of casting
Materials used for pattern are: Wood, Metal, Plastic, Plaster and Wax.

6.2.1 Wood pattern

Wood patterns are used where large size patterns are needed to produce small number of
castings. Types of wood pattern include: White pine, Mahogany, Teak, Deodar, etc
Advantages of wood pattern
– Inexpensive
– Availability
– Light in weight
– Easy to machine
– Easy to join for obtaining complex shapes
Limitations
– Shrinkage and swelling
– Poor wear resistance
– It easily absorb moisture and result in change of shape and size.
– Weak compared to metal patterns.
6.2.2 Metal
These are castings produced from wooden patterns or machined. Generally used where large
number of castings are to be produced. They include: Aluminium alloys, steel, cast iron, brass.
Advantages of Metal pattern
– Stronger and accurate than wooden pattern.
– More life than wood.
– Greater resistance to abrasion
– Greater wear resistance
– Surface finish obtained is good.
– Stable in different environments.
34
Limitations
– More expensive as compared to wooden.
– Heavier than wooden (ferrous pattern).
– Get rusted easily (Ferrous Patterns).
– Can’t be easily repaired (Al) or machined.
.
6.2.2.1 Aluminium and Al alloys
Advantages
– Best pattern material
– Good resistance to corrosion, swelling
– Good machinability, wear resistance and strength.
– Do not rust
– Pattern cost moderate
Limitations
– Do not withstand to rough handling
– Poor repairability

6.2.2.2 Cast-iron
Advantages
– Less expensive
– Durability is high
– Resistance against abrasive action of sand.
– Easily machined
Limitations
– More weight
– It is hard and brittle, so it can be broken easily
– Gets rusted in presence of moisture.

6.2.2.3 Steel
Advantages
– Good machinability
– High wear resistance
– High strength
– Good repairability
35
Limitations
– High weight
– Poor resistance to rust and corrosion.

6.2.3 Plastic
Advantages
– Durable
– Smooth cast surface
– Moisture resistant
– No markable change in shape and size during use.
– High abrasion resistance
– Good resistance against chemicals
Limitations
– Fragile and so may need metal reinforcements.
– Not satisfactory under shock (m/c moulding / jolting)

6.2.4 Wax
Wax pattern is commonly used in Investment casting process
Advantages
– Very good surface finish
– High accuracy in cast product.

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