Dynamic Characteristics of

Instruments

Dr. G.Uma
Associate Professor
Dept. of Instrumentation and control
Engineering
National Institute of Technology -
Tiruchirappalli
 Dynamic characteristics
• The characteristics of the system which changes with
respect to time and frequency (time response/frequency
response) is called the dynamic characteristics.

• The relationship between the input to the sensor/

instrument and output when the input varies rapidly.

• Dynamic characteristics only related to the period of

time.

• Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor

responds to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the
sensor or the measurement system must be able to respond
fast enough to keep up with the input signals.

2
Types of dynamic characteristics:

• The dynamic characteristics are of two types:

(1) Transient
(2) steady state periodic.

• Dynamic characteristics describe the instrument

behaviour in the transient period.

• The steady state periodic quantity is one whose

magnitude has a definite repeating time cycle, whereas
the time variation of a transient magnitude does not
repeat.

3
 Classification of systems

• A measuring system can be characterised by examining its

behaviour to each of the three test inputs

• Measurement systems can be classified based on their

response into one of three groups
➢ Zero Order
➢ First Order
➢ Second Order

• Each type of system has a different response to each of the

three types of test inputs.

4
Generalized Mathematical Model of
Measurement System:-
The widely useful mathematical model for the study of
measurement system (Instrument) dynamic response is
the ordinary linear differential equation with constant
coefficients. The relation between input and output can be
written as

5
 then the above equation can be written as

Zero order instrument:-

All a’s and b’s other than are taken as zero, the differential
equation then degenerates into the simple algebraic equation

Any instrument or system that closely obeys the above

equation over its intended range of operating conditions is
defined to be a zero order instrument.
The above equation can be

6
 The zero order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic
• performance.
Input and output are related by an equation of the type

• Zero-order is the desirable response of a sensor

➢ No delays
➢ Infinite bandwidth
➢ The sensor only changes the amplitude of the input signal
• Zero-order systems do not include energy-storing elements
• Example of a zero-order sensor
➢ A potentiometer used to measure linear and rotary
displacements
➢ This model would not work for fast-varying displacements
First order instrument:-

All a’s and b’s other than are taken as zero, we get

Any instrument that follows the above equation is, by

definition, a first order instrument.

The above equation can be

The time constant τ always has the dimensions of time, while
the static sensitivity K has the dimensions of output divided
by input.
The operational transfer function of first order instrument is

9
 Second order Instrument or System
All a’s and b’s other than are taken as zero, we get

(1)

(2)

Any instrument that follows the above equation is, by

definition, a second order instrument.

(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)
 (7)

Taking the Laplace transform

(8)
(9)
 Dynamic Characteristics of first order instruments:
The sensor response to a variable input is different from that
exhibited when the input signals are constant (the latter is described
by the static characteristics)

The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of energy-

storing elements.

➢ Inertial: masses, inductances

➢ Capacitances: electrical, thermal

Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response

of the sensor to a family of variable input waveforms:

➢ Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal, white noise…

14
Laplace Transform (review)

15
Step function:

Fig: Step function 16
17
Ramp function:

It is one whose first derivative M with

respect to time is constant, but not zero, V(t)=Mt+C
usually the constant C is zero to describe a start-up
process for a system initially at rest.

The ramp response can be used to determine how well

the system’s output follows the start-up command.

The unit ramp has a slope of unity (M=1) for C=0

18
Ramp function:

f(t)

Fig: Ramp function 19

 Impulse Function:
It is defined as, the input applied instantaneously(for short duration of time ) of
very high amplitude as shown in the above figure.

It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.

Area of impulse = Its magnitude

If area is unity, it is called Unit Impulse Input denoted as r(t)

Mathematically it can be expressed as 

In Laplace Transform R(s) = 1 if A = 1
20
Sinusoidal function:

21
 Parabolic function:
• The input which is one degree faster than a ramp type of
input as shown in the below figure or it is an integral of a
ramp.

• Mathematically a parabolic signal of magnitude

If A = 1, a unit parabolic function is defined as r(t) = t 2 /2*u(t)

22
 Step Response of the First order instrument

Any instrument that follows this equation is by

definition a first
order instrument

23
Taking Laplace transform

Transfer function for first order system is

( =1)

24
Let a unit step input u(t) be applied to the first order
instrument

Taking Laplace transform

25
Taking partial fractions and applying Laplace
inverse transform

26
Taking inverse Laplace transform

and

27
It is seen that the output rises exponentially from zero
value to the final value of the unity.

The initial slope of the curve is given by

28
The dynamic error is for step response of first order
instrument

Time constant:

The time constant is the time taken for the output of the
transducer to reach 63.2% of the final value is
determined by the graph which gives the time constant29
Fig: Step function response of first order instrument
30
Fig: Settling-time definition

Settling time:

The settling time is the time taken for the output to

reach and stay within a specified percentage of steady31
 Impulse Function:-
It is defined as, the input applied instantaneously(for short duration of time ) of
very high amplitude as shown in the above figure.

It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.

Area of impulse = Its magnitude

If area is unity, it is called Unit Impulse Input denoted as r(t)

Mathematically it can be expressed as 

In Laplace Transform R(s) = 1 if A = 1
32
Impulse Response of first order Instruments:-

Consider the pulse function p(t) defined graphically in Fig.

The impulse function of “strength” (area) A is defined by the
limiting process

If area A is taken as 1,it is called the unit impulse function

δ(t).
Thus an impulse function of any strength A is written as
Aδ(t).
For 0<t<T , we have

Since, up until time T, this is no different from a step input of

size A/T, our initial condition is and the
complete solution is 33
This solution is valid only up to time T. at this time we have

Now for t>T, our differential equation is

Which gives

34
The constant C if found by imposing initial condition

Gives finally

35
Fig.1b shows a typical response, and fig.1c shows the effect of
cutting T in half. As T is made shorter and shorter, the first
part(t<T) of the response becomes of negligible consequence,
so that an expression for is obtained by taking the limit of
above equation as T 0.

an indeterminate form

36
 Applying L’Hospital’s rule yields

Thus finally the equation for the impulse response of a

first-order instrument is

37
Fig:1 Impulse response of first order instrument.
38
Fig:2 Exact and approximate impulse response.
39
Ramp function:

f(t)

Fig: Ramp function 40

Ramp Response of first-order instrument:-

Fig.1.Block diagram of first order system

41
 Fig.2.Simplified block diagram

• When t=0 the input suddenly starts to change at

constant rate.
• If the applied input is unit ramp, this is defined as
=t.

42
Laplace transform of the unit ramp function

time
Fig.3.Unit ramp
function

43
Taking partial fractions and applying Laplace
inverse transform

By solving the above, we get

44
Applying Laplace inverse transform

We know

45
 Steady state error

Steady state time lag  τ

Fig.4.Ramp response of the first order

instrument

46
An important property of linear time invariant
systems:-
1. In the analysis above, it has been shown that for the unit-
ramp input the output is

2. For unit-step input, which is the derivative of unit-ramp

input, the output is

3. Finally, for the unit impulse input, which is the derivative

of unit step input, the output is

47
Comparison:- of the system response to these three
inputs clearly indicates that

“Response to the derivative of an input signal can be

obtained by differentiating the response of the
system to the original signal”.

It can also be seen that the “response to the integral

of the original signal can be obtained by integrating
the response of the system to the original signal and
determining the integration constants from the zero
output initial condition”.

48
Step Response to the Second order Instrument or
System:-

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)
 (7)

Taking the Laplace transform

(8)
 (9)

G(s)
Now, apply a unit step input to the second order system

time
Fig: Unit step input function
Sensors and Transducers 52
 Fig: Block diagram of Second order system

(10)

By taking partial fraction

Sensors and Transducers 53
 (11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

Sensors and Transducers 54
 (16)

(17)

Sensors and Transducers 55
 (18)

Sensors and Transducers 56
 (19)

Sensors and Transducers 57
For ζ=0 ; damping ratio is UNDAMPED RESPONSE
zero

(20)

Taking Inverse Laplace

transform
(21)

Undamped natural frequency

rad/sec
Sensors and Transducers 58
For ζ=1 ; damping ratio
Critically damped case
is
equal to one

(22)

(23)

Sensors and Transducers 59
Taking Inverse Laplace
transform

(24)

Sensors and Transducers 60
For ζ<1 ; damping ratio
UNDER DAMPED SYSTEM
is
less than one

Sensors and Transducers 61
Sensors and Transducers 62
By Taking Inverse Laplace
transform

Sensors and Transducers 63
• This result can, of course, be obtained directly by using a table
of LT. it can be seen that the frequency of transient oscillation is
the damped natural frequency and thus varies with the
damping ratio .

Sensors and Transducers 64
For ζ>1 ; damping ratio
OVER DAMPED SYSTEM
is
greater than
one

Equation 10 can be written as, (assume K=1)

Sensors and Transducers 65
By Taking Inverse Laplace
transform

Sensors and Transducers 66
 Thus, the response includes two decaying
exponential terms.

• If the damping ratio ζ is equal to zero, the response becomes

undamped and oscillations continue indefinitely.

Sensors and Transducers 67
 • We see that represents the undamped natural frequency
of the system.
is that frequency at which the system would oscillate if the
damping were decreased to zero.
• If the linear system has any amount of damping, the
undamped natural frequency can not be observed
experimentally. The frequency which may be observed is the
damped natural frequency which is equal to

• Damped natural frequency lower than the undamped

natural frequency. An increase in ζ would reduce the damped
natural frequency .

• If ζ is increased beyond unity, the response becomes over

damped and will not oscillate.

Sensors and Transducers 68
• It can be seen that the frequency of transient oscillation is
the damped natural frequency and thus varies with the
damping ratio ζ.
• The error signal for this system is the difference between the
input and output is

• This error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation. At

steady state or at , no error exists between input and
output.
Sensors and Transducers 69
Fig: Step response of second order system damping
cases
Sensors and Transducers 70
Fig: Effect of different damping ratio, ξ
Sensors and Transducers 71
 Maximum
over shoot

Delay  time

Rise time

peak time
Settling time

Fig: Transient response of second order system

Sensors and Transducers 72
1. Delay time:- :- Is the time required for the response
to reach half of the final value he very first time.

2. Rise time:- :- Is the time required for the response to

rise from 10 to 90% or 5 to 95% or 0 to 100%of its final
value. For under damped second order systems, 0 to
100% rise time is normally used. For over damped
systems, the 10-90% rise time is commonly used.

3. Peak time:- :- Is the time required for the response

to reach the first peak of the overshoot.

Sensors and Transducers 73
4. Maximum(Percent) over shoot:- :-The maximum
overshoot is the maximum peak value of the response
curve measured from unity. If the final steady state
value of the response different from unity, then it is
common to use the maximum % overshoot.

The amount of maximum(percent) overshoot directly

indicates the relative stability of the system.

5. Settling time:- :-The settling time is the time required

for the response curve to reach and stay with in a range
about the final value of size specified by absolute
percentage of the final value (usually 5% or 2%). The
settling time is related to largest time constant of a
control system. Sensors and Transducers 74
Comments:-
1. The time domain specifications just given are quite
important since most control systems are time-domain
systems; that is they must exhibit acceptable time
responses. (This means that the control system must be
modified until the transient response is satisfactory)

2. Note that if we specify the values of

then the shape of the response curve is virtually
determined. This may clearly from fig.

3. Note that not all these specifications necessarily apply

to any given case. For example, for an over damped
system, the term peak time and maximum overshoot do
not apply.

Sensors and Transducers 75
Ramp Response of Second Order System:-

The ramp input has a finite slope equal to is applied to a

second order system, the differential equation is
For ζ>1 ; damping ratio
OVER DAMPED SYSTEM
is
greater than
one
The solution is found to be

For ζ=1 ; damping ratio

Critically damped case
is
equal to one
The solution is found to be
For ζ<1 ; damping ratio
UNDER DAMPED SYSTEM
is
less than one
The solution is found to be
 Fig: Ramp response of second order
instrument
1. Steady state error .

2. The steady state error can be reduced only by reducing

ζ and increasing .

3. Steady state time lag .

Sensors and Transducers 79
 Impulse Response of Second Order System:-

The impulse response is equivalent to the free (unforced)

response if the initial conditions produced by the
impulse are taken into account.

The differential equation to be solved is then

 For ζ>1 ; damping ratio
OVER DAMPED SYSTEM
is
greater than
one
The solution is found to be

For ζ=1 ; damping ratio

Critically damped case
is
equal to one
The solution is found to be
For ζ<1 ; damping ratio
UNDER DAMPED SYSTEM
is
less than one
The solution is found to be
Fig: Non dimensional impulse response of second order
instrument
Sensors and Transducers 83
 Frequency response:-

• A linear transducer is excited with a sinusoidal input the

output will
also be a sinusoid after the transient has died down.

• The amplitude and phase of the output may be different

from that of
the input.

• The output comprises of two parts namely transient and

• Frequency response is defined as the steady-state output
steady state.
of a
transducer when it is excited with sinusoidal input.
• The frequency response of any system can be obtained
from the
frequency transfer function. Frequency transfer
function is obtained
by replacing s by jω, in the Laplace transfer function.
Fig: Sinusoidal input and output of linear
system
Sinusoidal response of first order systems:

Consider the sine wave f (t) = sin ωt, with unit amplitude and
angular frequency ω.

The laplace transform of f(t) is f (s) = ω/(s2 + ω2).

Thus if a sine wave of amplitude Î is input to a first-order

element, then the Laplace transform of the output signal is
 Frequency response of first-order Instrument:-

The frequency transfer function of a first-order transducer is

given by

Apply complex conjugate for term 1+jωτ

Magnitude:- The magnitude of complex number a+jb is
Phase angle:- The phase of complex number a+jb is

The phase shift between output and input is given by

• The time constant τ becomes smaller the amplitude ratio plot
tends to become flatter, approaching an ideal situation.

• Ideal transducer is one whose amplitude ratio is constant for

all frequencies.
Fig: Frequency response of first-order
transducer
x-axis in the logarithmic scale
Y-axis in decibel gain and phase angle in degrees.

Fig: Frequency Response of First-Order

Transducer
 Frequency response of second-order Instrument:-

The frequency transfer function of a second-order transducer is

given by replacing s by jω

The magnitude of system is given by

 The phase shift between output and input is given by

• The various frequency response plots namely, bode plot, polar

plot and Phase angle Vs Magnitude plot can be obtained for the
above function.
• The normalised frequency response plot is shown in fig. This
can be obtained by plotting

Let
Fig: Amplitude plot-Second order system.
Fig: Phase angle plot-Second order system.
• A transducer is considered to be good if it has a flat amplitude
plot and
zero phase shift for all frequencies.

• In a practical situation, it is difficult to get a transducer with

zero phase shift for all frequencies. In that case a linear
variation of phase shift with frequency is acceptable.

• From the above fig it is observed that, the amplitude plot is

flat for the
largest frequency range when damping ratio, ζ lies between
0.6 to 0.7.
• The phase shift, ϕ also varies linearly with frequency ω for the
same range
0.6 to 0.7.
 Bandwidth:-

Fig: Bandwidth of a transducer-frequency

response.
• Bandwidth is used to quantize the flat useful region of the
amplitude plot of the frequency response.

• The bandwidth is defined as the frequency range in which the

amplitude ratio is more than 0.707 of the final value.
• Transducer will faithfully reproduce the input if all the
frequency components of the input lie within the bandwidth of
the transducer.

• The input signal contains frequency component outside the

bandwidth, the output will be distorted.
Dynamic Characteristics:
Frequency response:
Describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)

Bandwidth:
the frequency band over which M(ω) ≥ 0.707 (-3 dB in
decibel unit)

Cut-off frequency:
the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.

101
Thank U