Fourth Semester: Syntax, Different Types of Sentence Formation: Simple, Compound, Complex Etc

Fourth Semester
Sub: English-II
Unit-I
Question:. Syntax, Different types of sentence formation: simple,
compound, complex etc.
Syntax: syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a
given language.
Sentence: A sentence is a group of words that are put together to mean something. A sentence is the
basic unit of language which expresses a complete thought. A complete sentence has at least a subject
and a main verb to declare a complete thought. Example- Ram goes to college.
Clauses and phrases:
A clause is defined as a group of related words that contains a subject and predicate (verb).
e.g. he came.
A phrase is defined as a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb.
e.g. on the table.
Consider the following example.
He is laughing at a joker.
The above sentence has two parts “he is laughing” and “at a joker”.
The first part of the sentence “he is laughing” is a clause because it has a subject (he) and a predicate
(is laughing).
The second part of the sentence “at a joker” is a phrase because it does not contain subject and verb.
The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause consists of both subject and verb, but a
phrase lacks a subject and verb.
Types of sentence:
 A simple sentence has only one clause. sentence contains a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete thought. The cat is sleeping.,
 A compound sentence has two or more clauses. These clauses are joined together with
conjunctions, punctuation, or both. The dog is happy, but the cat is sad.
 A complex sentence has one clause with a relative clause. The dog, which is eating the bone, is
happy.
 A complex-compound sentence (or compound-complex sentence) has many clauses, at least
one of which is a relative clause: The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy, but the cat is sad.
1.Simple Sentences
A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject, a verb, and a
completed thought.
Examples of simple sentences include the following:
1. Joe waited for the train.
"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb
2. The train was late.

"The train" = subject, "was" = verb
3. Mary and Samantha took the bus.

"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb
ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 1

4. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.
"I" = subject, "looked" = verb
5. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for the bus.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "waited" = compound verb
2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or complete
sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating
conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN BOYS":
 For
 And
 Nor
 But
 Or
 Yet
 So
Examples of compound sentences include the following:
1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
2. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before
noon and left on the bus before I arrived.
3. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus
before I arrived.
4. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at the bus
station.
3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or complete sentence, but
it lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence.
Examples of dependent clauses include the following:
 because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon
 while he waited at the train station
 after they left on the bus
Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they can be added
to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.
Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the most
common subordinating conjunctions:
 after
 although
 as
 because
 before
 even though
 if
 since
 though
 unless

 until
 when
 whenever
 whereas
 wherever
 while
 A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.
 The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent clause, as
in the following:
1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at
the station.
2. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.
3. After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train
station.
Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the dependent
clause, as in the following:
Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to separate the two
clauses.
1. I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station
before noon.
2. Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.
3. Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station after they left on the
bus.
Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a complex
sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships between the main parts of the sentence.
The word "before," for instance, tells readers that one thing occurs before another. A word such
as "although" conveys a more complex relationship than a word such as "and" conveys.

Question:. Basic Sentence formation
Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement
Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular
sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite complicated. For
the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed here.
The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.
SUBJECT
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the
sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. The simple subject usually
contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
PREDICATE
The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate contains the verb and
can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The man / builds a house.
The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In addition,
there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning or detail. These
elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of these elements can
be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or compound/complex sentences.
DIRECT OBJECT
The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The man builds a house.
The man builds it.
INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being done. The
indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The man builds his family a house.
The man builds them a house.
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is usually a noun,
pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb within the sentence
(often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).
The man is a good father. (father = noun which renames the subject)
The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)
Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts of a sentence, a noun can
function within a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, or subject
complement.
Introduction:
To understand sentence structures in the English language, you must first have a general understanding
of the types of words that are used to make sentences.
Noun – a person, place or thing
Singular examples (one): brother, home, sock, mouse
Plural examples (more than one): brothers, homes, socks, mice

Verb – an action
Examples: jump, sit, talk, have
Adjective – describes a noun

Examples: colorful shirt, funny story, tall boy
Adverb – describes other words (not nouns)

Examples: jumped yesterday, talks fast, sings loud, very pretty, luckily for us
Subject – the noun or nouns that perform the action

Example: The dog jumped.
Example: Dogs and cats sleep.
Object – the noun or nouns that receive the action

Example: The child drank milk.
The object of this sentence is the noun, milk, because the child is drinking the milk. The milk is receiving
the action.
Example: She is eating bread and cheese.

The objects of this sentence are the nouns, bread and cheese. The subject is eating them both.
Five basic sentence structures

There are five basic sentence structures in the English language.
1. Subject-Verb
Examples:
 The boy plays.
 Jack eats.
 Sara sits.
2. Subject-Verb-Object
Examples:
 The girl pets the cat.
 I love apples.
 Bill kicks the ball.
3. Subject-Verb-Adjective
Examples:
 Lisa is pretty.
 They are nice.
 I am sad.
4. Subject-Verb-Adverb
Examples:
 Maria laughs loudly.
 The dog jumps high.
 Apples are everywhere.
5. Subject-Verb-Noun
Examples:
 I am the teacher.
 Jon is a carpenter.
 The boy is a student.

Question:. Transformation of sentence

Question:. Parts of speech, their need and significance
Part of Speech:
In the English language, words can be considered as the smallest elements that have distinctive
meanings. Based on their use and functions, words are categorized into several types or parts of
speech. This article will offer definitions and examples for the 8 major parts of speech in English
grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, conjunction, preposition, and interjection.
1. Noun
This part of a speech refers to words that are used to name persons, things, animals, places, ideas,
or events. Nouns are the simplest among the 8 parts of speech, which is why they are the first
ones taught to students in primary school.
Examples:
• Tom Hanks is very versatile.
• The italicized noun refers to a name of a person.
• Dogs can be extremely cute.
• In this example, the italicized word is considered a noun because it names an animal.
• It is my birthday.
• The word “birthday” is a noun which refers to an event.
There are different types of nouns namely:

• Proper– proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refers to specific names of
persons, places, or things.
• Examples: Volkswagen Beetle, Shakey’s Pizza, Game of Thrones
• Common– common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just generic names
of persons, things, or places.
• Examples: car, pizza parlor, TV series
• Concrete– this kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses.
• Examples: folder, sand, board
• Abstract- unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t perceive
through your five senses.
• Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery
• Count– it refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.
• Examples: kitten, video, ball
• Mass– this is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable
nouns, and they need to have “counters” to quantify them.
• Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
• Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter
• Collective– refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.
• Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of lions)
This great list of nouns can help you explore more nouns.
2. Pronoun
A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. Some examples of
pronouns are: I, it, he, she, mine, his, hers, we, they, theirs, and ours.
Sample Sentences:
• Janice is a very stubborn child. She just stared at me and when I told her to stop.
• The largest slice is mine.
• We are number one.
The italicized words in the sentences above are the pronouns in the sentence.
3. Adjective
This part of a speech is used to describe a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives can specify the quality,
the size, and the number of nouns or pronouns.
Use this link to get a list of adjectives.
Sample Sentences:
• The carvings are intricate.
• The italicized word describes the appearance of the noun “carvings.”
• I have two hamsters.
• The italicized word “two,” is an adjective which describes the number of the noun
“hamsters.”
• Wow! That doughnut is huge!
• The italicized word is an adjective which describes the size of the noun “doughnut.”
4. Verb
This is the most important part of a speech, for without a verb, a sentence would not exist.
Simply put, this is a word that shows an action (physical or mental) or state of being of the
subject in a sentence.
Examples of “State of Being Verbs” : am, is, was, are, and were
Sample Sentences:
• As usual, the Stormtroopers missed their shot.
• The italicized word expresses the action of the subject “Stormtroopers.”
• They are always prepared in emergencies.
• The verb “are” refers to the state of being of the pronoun “they,” which is the subject in
the sentence.
5. Adverb
Just like adjectives, adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is that adverbs
describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb.

The different types of adverbs are:
• Adverb of Manner– this refers to how something happens or how an action is done.
• Example: Annie danced gracefully.
• The word “gracefully” tells how Annie danced.
• Adverb of Time- this states “when” something happens or “when” it is done.
• Example: She came yesterday.
• The italicized word tells when she “came.”
• Adverb of Place– this tells something about “where” something happens or ”where”
something is done.
• Example: Of course, I looked everywhere!
• The adverb “everywhere” tells where I “looked.”
• Adverb of Degree– this states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing
happens or is done.
• Example: The child is very talented.
• The italicized adverb answers the question, “To what degree is the child talented?”
6. Preposition
This part of a speech basically refers to words that specify location or a location in time.
Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before, near, and since
Sample Sentences:
• Micah is hiding under the bed.
• The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “under the bed,” and tells
where Micah is hiding.
• During the game, the audience never stopped cheering for their team.
• The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “during the game,” and tells
when the audience cheered.
7. Conjunction
The conjunction is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.
Examples of Conjunctions: and, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so
Sample Sentences:
• This cup of tea is delicious and very soothing.
• Kiyoko has to start all over again because she didn’t follow the professor’s instructions.
• Homer always wanted to join the play, but he didn’t have the guts to audition.
The italicized words in the sentences above are some examples of conjunctions.
8. Interjection
This part of a speech refers to words which express emotions. Since interjections are commonly
used to convey strong emotions, they are usually followed by an exclamation point.
Examples of Interjections:
Sample Sentences:
• Ouch! That must have hurt.
• Hurray, we won!
• Hey! I said enough!

Unit-II
Question: Use and importance of language in media
The Importance of Language
In media it is important not only to think about what you say, but how you say it. To
communicate effectively, it is not enough to have well organized ideas expressed in complete
sentences and paragraphs. One must also think about the style, tone and clarity of his/her writing,
and adapt these elements to the reading audience. Again, analyzing one's audience and purpose is
the key to writing effectiveness. In order to choose the most effective language, the writer must
consider the objective of the document, the context in which it is being written, and who will be
reading it.
The Importance of English Language has globally accepted. It is the only language which is
being taught second language and as an official language in almost 90 countries. It is not only
currently considered the most important language for those who speak it as their first language
but also for them who speak it as a second language. English is essential when it comes to
finding jobs or career in both government departments and multinational companies.Every
country has their own national languages local languages are spoken and understood by people
in different regions.Some languages are spoken by millions of people, the others by just a few
thousand people.
Characteristics of Effective media Language
There are six main characteristics of effective media language. Effective language is: (1) concrete and
specific, not vague and abstract; (2) concise, not verbose; (3) familiar, not obscure; (4) precise and clear,
not inaccurate or ambiguous; (5) constructive, not destructive; and (6) appropriately formal.
1.Concrete and Specific Language

Concrete language includes descriptions which create tangible images with details the reader can
visualize. Abstract language is vague and obscure, and does not bring to mind specific visual
images. Consider the two sets of statements below. The statement at the top is abstract, but the
statements become increasingly concrete and specific toward the bottom.
He is a bad roommate
He is lazy and discourteous
He is untidy and unclean
He doesn't clean up his own messes
He leaves his dirty dishes on the kitchen counter
Your relationship with John is unacceptable
You do not get along well with John
You and John have a lot of arguments
You and John insult each other too much
You and John call each other derogatory names
Notice how much more effective the statements become as the language becomes more specific
and concrete. The statements at the top, which are more abstract, can be interpreted in many
possible ways, and leave many questions answered. The statements at the bottom, which are
more concrete, are less open to multiple interpretations.
2.Concise Language
A hallmark of effective writers is the ability to express the desired message in as few words as
possible. Good writers, in other words, use language which is straightforward and to-the-point.
Consider the following examples.

(1) It is widely discussed by employees that many of them will be forced to change jobs and take
on new responsibilities when the merger takes place between the two companies.
(2) Before making a decision about whether the person on trial is guilty or innocent in this case,
the members of the jury should be sure to carefully think about, ponder and reflect on all of the
important and relevant testimony in the case.
Notice how long-winded these sentences are, and how easily they could be shortened and simplified. An
important part of revising and editing involves re-phrasing sentences to eliminate excessive wordiness.
One way to reduce wordiness is to eliminate redundant words or phrases. Consider example one above.
The phrases "to change jobs" and "take on new responsibilities" are redundant, and could be combined
into one short phrase to be expressed more concisely.
Consider example two above. The phrase "...should be sure to carefully think about, ponder and reflect
on..." contains three ways of saying the same thing. This sentence could be improved by using only one
of the key phrases: "...to reflect on..."
A second way to reduce wordiness is to eliminate "filler" words which serve no purpose in the
sentence. Consider example one above. Replace the phrase "...when the merger takes place
between the two companies" with "...when the two companies merge." Consider example two
above. Notice the excessive wordiness in the following phrase: "Before making a decision about
whether the person on trial is guilty or innocent in this case ..." This sentence could simply read:
"Before determining the defendant's guilt or innocence..."
3.Familiar Language
Familiar language is that which the readers easily recognize and understand because they use it
on a regular basis. One of the most important functions of language is to build "homophily" or a
sense of commonality with one's readers. Language which is foreign and unfamiliar to the reader
tends to emphasize the differences between writer and reader, and makes the message difficult to
understand. By using language that is familiar to the reader, the message is likely to have more
impact.
An assignment given to a class of business students by their philosophy professor:
"The presently assigned paper necessitates an eloquently articulated analysis of the Existentialist
perspective as it pertains to contemporary living. You should adumbrate the points which
represent the sine qua non of your analysis."
A letter sent to high school students warning them of the risks of an unhealthy diet:
"Individuals who maintain a diet of high fat content are exposed to an increased risk of
developing atherosclerosis, which is a buildup of fat deposits on the inner walls of the arteries.
This condition can reduce or cut off the flow of blood in the arteries serving the major organs of
the body. This can lead to poor health."
In both examples above, the language that is used is unfamiliar to the readers. As a result, the
message loses its impact.
4.Precise and Clear Language

The use of appropriate language is a tricky matter because the meaning of words is relative and
situational. In other words, words can be interpreted in different ways by different people in
different situations. For this reason, it is important to choose language which is as precise and
clear as possible. The more precise and clear one's use of language becomes, the fewer the
number of possible interpretations for a message. Consider the following words. What numerical
value would you assign to each of them? If something is "probable what percentage of the time
does it occur? P>
(1) probable
(2) doubtful

(3) certainly
(4) unlikely
(5) perhaps
Would other people assign the same value to these words as you did? In actuality, the range of
values varies greatly because these terms are relative: they can mean different things to different
people in different situations. How could one be more precise in his/her use of these terms?
Consider the examples below. Notice that these terms can vary widely in the meaning to
different people. The best way to use such relative terms, then, is to compare them to something
concrete and "known" to the reader. For example: "Is that Acura an expensive car?" is best
answered with a comparison: "Compared to that Honda, the Acura is expensive. Compared to
that Lexus, it is inexpensive."
expensive
hot
intelligent
good
spicy
Consider the following examples. Note the potential confusion or ambiguity in these phrases.
(1) Why the student body should continue in this state of apathy is not really understandable.
(2) Our student body is dull and slack-minded.
(3) The practice and theory of politics are studied in the classroom but political habits on campus
do not seem to benefit from such labor.
(4) He's an interesting individual.
(5) It is difficult to estimate the number of people affected by AIDS.
Each of the following are actual headlines printed in newspapers. Notice their double meaning.
(1) Include your children when Baking Cookies
(2) Safety Experts Say School Buss Passengers should be Belted
(3) Bank Drive-in Window Blocked by Board
(4) Killer Sentenced to Die for Second Time in Ten Years
(5) Eye Drops Off Shelf
In short, it is wise to think carefully about your choice of words and their potential
interpretations. To communicate effectively, precise and clear language is essential.
5.Constructive Language
Constructive language phrases a potentially negative message in a positive way, whereas
destructive language directs blame and criticism toward the reader, creating defensiveness.
Readers are likely to become defensive when the writer's language expresses any or all of the
following:
 Superiority over the reader
 Indifference or apathy about an issue of importance to the reader
 Negative evaluation or judgment of the reader (as opposed to neutral descriptions or
observations)
 Command or control over the reader
 Skepticism or doubt about the reader's credibility or the legitimacy of their claims
(1) Boss to employee: "Your job performance recently has been unacceptable and there
are no excuses for it. You have claimed that you are having some serious personal
problems, but even if this is true, you cannot allow it to affect the quality of your work. If
your work doesn't improve, I'll have to replace you with someone else."
(2) Student to instructor: "You have confused me so badly with your lectures that I don't
know what to do. I am considering dropping out and taking the class next quarter from

Dr. Johnstone, who can explain the information much more clearly. I don't want to drop
out, but I have never been so frustrated with an instructor in my whole life."
(3) Instructor to student: "I have never had a student who was so confused with this
material. Perhaps you should take an easier course from an easier professor. It makes no
difference to me."
Why would these examples create defensiveness in the reader? How could you change
the use of language to make these examples more constructive?
6.Formality of Language
The formality of the language one uses should match the formality of the situation and the
relationship between the writer and reader. Consider the following examples.
Very Formal: Exceedingly large segments of the population are expressing their
discontent with medical practitioners who appear to more engrossed in amassing
financial assets than in providing efficacious care to people with health disorders.
Formal: A large number of consumers are complaining about medical doctors who are
apparently more interested in making money than in provide effective health care.
Informal: A lot of people are unhappy with their doctors who only seem to care about how
much money they make, and not about giving their patients good care.
Notice that any of the three examples could be effective, depending upon the reader, the
writer's relationship with the reader, and the situation. Under what conditions might you
want to use these different levels of formality?
Notice the difference in formality between the two words shown in pairs below. Either
word might be equally appropriate, depending upon the reader and situation.

Question: Importance of English in the usage of internet
The importance of English in the Internet needs no arguing for. Computers are in any case
English-oriented. Netscape and Java are in English, the vocabulary of computing and of the
Internet is in English, and most of the texts that are accessed through it are in English. The search
engines are in English and are in the US. The reasons for the dominance of English are firstly
historical -- the Internet began in the USA, which is still the leading user of it, and the USA is an
English-using nation. The norms of the Internet are established in ASCII texts, and even now
texts transmitted unaltered from (for example) Francophone keyboards may produce garbage on
English-favouring keyboards.
Access to the Internet

Access to the Internet is empowering. It gives access to uncensored material of enormous
variety. Access to a world-size (though rather messy) encyclopedia. Access to almost instant
communication with individuals located thousands of miles away. A person using the Internet
can adopt a new persona -- you can change gender, acquire beauty, lose disability, develop
aggression....... There is information available, entertainment, insight into other cultures. Various
governments (including those of the USA, France, and Singapore) have attempted to control
some of this information, either in terms of what can be placed in URLs or in terms of what can
downloaded. But so far no effective way of controlling the reading of documents placed on the
web has been found.
The current situation
In general, the universal language on the Internet is English, or more exactly a vague collection
of languages called "English" because their common origin is the national language spoken in
England by the English. That national language has spread over the world, and several variants
such as American (US) English, Australian English, etc exist. A great number of people whose
native language is none of the variants know English as a foreign language. They typically use a
more or less simplified variant, e.g. excluding most of the idioms of British, American,
Australian etc English. Of course, they make mistakes, and sometimes the "English" used by
people as a foreign language on the Internet is almost incomprehensible to anyone else. In
addition, people who use English as their native language do not know how to spell difficult
words, since they basically know English as a spoken language.
Effects of the importance of the Internet and English

The importance of the Internet grows rapidly in all fields of human life, including not only
research and education but also marketing and trade as well as entertainment and hobbies. This
implies that it becomes more and more important to know how to use Internet services and, as a
part of this, to read and write English.
But although Internet services themselves are, generally speaking, easy to learn and use, you will
find yourself isolated on the Internet if you are not familiar with English. This means that
knowledge or lack of knowledge of English is one of the most severe factors that cause
polarization. Learning to use a new Internet service or user interface may take a few hours, a few
days, or even weeks, but it takes years to learn a language so that you can use it in a fluent and
self-confident manner. Of course, when you know some English, you can learn more just by
using it on the Internet, but at least currently the general tendency among Internet users is to
discourage people in their problems with the English language. Incorrect English causes a few
flames much more probably than encouragement and friendly advice.

An official language for the Internet
There is no conceivable way in which any authority could define an official language for the
Internet. The Internet as a whole is not controlled by anyone or anything, and this could only
change if, by miracle, all countries made an agreement on it or if the entire world were taken to
the control of one government.
Thus, if the question "whether or not English should be made the universal language of the
internet" is interpreted as concerning the official status of English, the answer is simply that
English, or any other language, cannot be made the official universal language. It is fruitless to
ask whether an impossible thing should be made.
A constructed international language

The discussion above shows that it would be highly desirable to have a constructed language for
international communication. It is well known that a large number of attempts to that effect have
been made, with little results. Advocates of the basic idea have hardly agreed on anything but the
basic idea, and most constructed languages have had no use as a language. People who strongly
support the idea have typically designed their own proposal, a perfect language, and they do not
want accept anything that is not perfect - "best" is the worst enemy of "good".
An alternative: machine translation

An alternative view of the future is that after a few years or decades, no universal language is
needed: machine translation will allow you to use your own language. If the machine translation
tools had sufficient quality and speed, you could sit on your terminal writing your news article or
an IRC message in, say, Finnish, and another person in New Zealand would read your text in
English, due to automatic translation "on the fly".
During the last few decades, quite a lot of predictions and even promises have been presented
regarding machine translation, but useful software and systems for it have not been available
until recently. This has caused disappointments and pessimism to the extent that many people
consider machine translation as definitely unrealistic. Actually, machine translation is
operational for a wide range of texts, although corrective actions by human translators may be
necessary. Corrections are needed to resolve ambiguities which exist due to the limitations of the
software and to fix errors caused by the fact that translation of human languages requires
extralinguistic information.

Unit-III
Question: Structure of writing: Preparation, introduction, body and conclusion
Introduction:
Developing a simple framework for your writing before you start can save considerable time and
will prevent the text from meandering.
You will often be able to use the titles of the main sections as headings and subheadings within
the text since these help the reader to navigate through the piece. However, even if the section
titles are not desired in the finished piece, they still help you as author to structure your writing
to the desired framework. There is no one set structure or framework that covers all possible
forms of written communication, except perhaps that writing should start with an introduction
and finish with a conclusion. There are however many examples of structures for different forms
of writing available on the web and within study guides.
Structures of wrting
1.Categorical: In a categorical structure, a series of equally important topics are addressed. A
political speech, like a campaign speech or even The State of the Union Address, is a good
example of categorical writing. You might use a similar structure in a cover letter for a job
application, in which you describe all of your traits that would make you an ideal candidate for
the position.
2.Evaluative: In an evaluative structure, a problem is introduced, and then pros and cons are
weighed. You might employ an evaluative structure when writing an e-mail to ask a close friend
for advice.
3.Chronological: When your focus is more the actual telling of the story than the end result,
employ a chronological structure. Think of joke telling. "Three guys walk into a bar…" sets up a
sequence of events to deliver that final punch line. Similarly, most short stories and novels are
written chronologically.
4.Comparative: This structure is similar to evaluative, but it is used when there are more layers
to the situation at hand that is being weighed. You might use a comparative structure if you were
writing a speech for a debate team to explain the various reasons why you feel your point is
stronger than your opponent’s. Or you might use a comparative structure to write a letter to the
editor explaining all the reasons you disagree with the city council’s decision to raise local taxes.
5.Sequential: This structure is similar to Chronological, but is normally employed with a how-to
voice when a step-by-step process is being described. If you were going to write about how to
make your famous chocolate layer cake, or how to get to a great bed-and-breakfast you
discovered out in the country, you would write sequentially, using words like, "First," "Next,"
"Then," and "Finally" to clarify your instructions.
6.Causal: This structure might at first glance seem similar to Comparative structures, but it
differs in that it does not involve weighing options against one another. Instead, it discusses the
causes and then the effects regarding a particular topic or issue in that order. You might use this
structure if you were writing an article on how something has come about, such as the
contributing factors to air pollution. Or you might employ this technique in a letter explaining
why you have decided to resign from your job.

Question: Paragraph writing
Paragraphs are comprised of sentences, but not random sentences. A paragraph is a group of
sentences organized around a central topic. In fact, the cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to
focus on one idea. A solidly written paragraph takes its readers on a clear path, without detours.
Master the paragraph, and you’ll be on your way to writing “gold-star” essays, term papers, and
stories.

Question: Story writing
 A sense of immediacy: Although Twain's narrative is couched in the past tense, we sense
that whatever is going on is happening in the very recent past or even now, as we speak.
This is especially true as he goes from jeweler to jeweler to get his watch fixed. The
appalling movement of his watch after each repair feels real to us. Although Twain's
story is couched entirely in the past tense, the past tense does not feel past to us in fiction.
In fact, short story writers and novelists call the simple past tense the "fictive present" or
"fictional present" because when you're reading it, you feel as if you're reading something
that is going on – now.
 The sense of reality: Although we might sense that Twain exaggerates the erratic
movements of his watch and his imagination is often fantastic, we also sense the reality
of his condition. There's the shock of familiarity for you. We have heard automobile
mechanics and computer technicians spout technical gibberish to us and been convinced
that we had to spend lots of money to have our beloved devices brought back to life.
Details, details, details. Showing instead of telling.
 Movement: Action is indispensable in a narrative essay, the sense of people and things
moving through time and space. Close study of short story writers will pay off in the long
run here. The non-intuitive device most of them use is knowing that when you want to
describe something that happens very fast, your text and your selection of details and
descriptions of action must slow down. It would be instructive to reproduce here
comedian Eddie Murphy's description of his auntie falling down the stairs – something
she apparently did repeatedly, predictably, and without injury. Murphy reproduces all the
sounds she makes at every step as his aunt bounces down the stairway, calling upon every
saint and deity she ever heard of and pronouncing ruin upon the house and its residents.
The bit is hilarious and takes probably a minute or more to describe what must have
taken, in reality, only a couple of seconds. All of us, to our horror, know that "slow
motion" effect as we slide on an icy road; the trick is to recapture that in our text. Practice
by describing such an event or describing the details of eating an Oreo cookie or fig
newton cookie. Leave nothing out.
 In media res: Twain's narrative jumps right into the telling. A Latin phrase, in media res,
means just that, in the middle of things, and describes the technique by which story
writers begin their tale in the middle of the action. Here, Twain picks up the story about
his situation after something has already happened to get him to this place and time. Then
he will harken back to the beginning, the necessary background. It's an age-old trick to
get the reader involved immediately in the action of the story.
 Quoted language: There is not much in the way of quoted language in Twain's narrative.
Notice, though, how the little bits of conversation with the various jewelers seem to leap
off the page – especially at the very end. It's as if another sense has been called into play,
as if you suddenly hear as well as see and read. Using quoted language is something that
short-story writers and novelists must master before they get very far in their craft. It can
be difficult to create this illusion of the spoken voice, but it's worth the effort, as nothing
can make an essay feel more alive, faster, than to give your reader a bit of voice. It lends
texture, dimension, to your essay.
 Knowing when to quit: Twain could undoubtedly have gone on and on with this kind of
thing, but he was wise to quit when he did. Knowing when to quit is indispensable, but
hard to learn. A good rule to live by: if you think your readers would like a little more,
write the little bit more and then delete it before you hand over your text to anyone.

Question: Translation
Translation is the transmittal of written text from one language into another. Although the terms
translation and interpretation are often used interchangeably. By strict definition, translation Refers to
the written language, and interpretation to the spoken word.Translation is the action of interpretation
of the meaning of a text, and subsequent production of an equivalent text, also called a translation,
that communicates the same message in another language.
Rules of translation:
Translation must take into account constraints that include context, the rules of grammar of the two
languages, their writing conventions, and their idioms. A common misconception is that there exists a
simple word-for-word correspondence between any two languages, and that translation is a
straightforward mechanical process. A word-for-word translation does not take into account context,
grammar, conventions, and idioms.
Who Uses Translation Services:

Businesses often seek translation services in an effort to serve their customers better and keep up with
their demands. As this world gets more and more competitive, it's imperative that businesses convey
their message clearly and accurately to their customers.
As more and more companies make their services available through the Internet, the need for the
translation of websites and web content has also grown. Furthermore, talk radio, pod casts, surveys,
focus groups, and corporate meetings often need translation services.
Translator Jobs
The demand in the translating field is greater than ever before. Many translators work as freelancers
and others are employed by international organizations as well as government agencies. Nonprofit and
religious organizations also hire or contract the services of translators for document translation.
If you want to work independently, you may want to start by marketing your services to local
businesses. Insurance companies, hospitals, doctor's offices, and real estate companies are sectors in
your community that may benefit from your translating skills
Significance of Translation
Quality language translation aims to bridge the communication gap by helping companies reach
a multivariate global audience by talking in a language their clients can understand and relate to.
Whether it is a traditional brick and mortar businesses or an emerging online venture, translation
services coupled with the rising online population offers a lucrative market that wasn't possible
20-30 years back. That's the reason why people have woken up to quality translation and its
importance in this era of globalization. Some of the places where translation plays an important
role include -
 Growth of Multinational Companies
Translation is exceptionally important for companies and businesses which operate in
multiple countries and often need to share and receive information from different global
offices and branches across the world. In such cases, the shared information needs to be
translated into a locally preferred language so that everyone involved is on the same
page. Translation is also useful when companies need to tie up with local businesses, or
make governmental proposals.
 Cultural Interchange

Music, literature, films, and various other art forms transcend global boundaries because
of the way they are effectively translated to reflect local languages and sentiments.
Translated and subtitled films today generate more revenue than ever for the global film
industry, with blockbuster movies looking at China as the next big market, where the
success of translated films have led production houses touch the $1bn mark more
frequently than ever. And it's not only the film industry which has benefited from
translation, as translated music and literature allows artists to earn more royalties and
international fame as an added bonus.
 A Nation's External Affairs
Today, international diplomacy is the most important aspect of a nation's external affairs.
Be it a global summit or new economic deal, diplomats and world leaders always present
their ideas and thoughts in a language they are comfortable in. It is very important that
these ideas are translated in an expressive, non-condoning, and accurate manner, barring
which it can lead to significant problems between diplomatic relations of two or more
nations.
 Accurate Transfer of News
Unless transferred and translated properly, world news would be nothing more than
gibberish when received by news agencies. Whether it is news coming from local bodies,
regional centers, or even countries with strict news censorship, translation serves as an
effective tool without which news will remain ineffective and unreliable.
 Boost in Tourism
Translation can effectively help in solving one of the biggest tourist dilemmas, that of
being short-changed or fleeced by unfamiliar people in foreign destinations. At the same
time, translated tourism materials not only help tourists feel welcome in an unknown
country, but also boosts the country's popularity as a tourist friendly destination, thereby
leading to significant tourism-related revenues.


Question:. Comprehension
Comprehension is the understanding and interpretation of what is read. To be able to accurately
understand written material, children need to be able to (1) decode what they read; (2) make
connections between what they read and what they already know; and (3) think deeply about
what they have read.
One big part of comprehension is having a sufficient vocabulary, or knowing the meanings of
enough words. Readers who have strong comprehension are able to draw conclusions about what
they read – what is important, what is a fact, what caused an event to happen, which characters
are funny. Thus comprehension involves combining reading with thinking and reasoning.
A kid's perspective:
Children will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements
like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how
comprehension difficulties in particular affect their reading:
 It takes me so long to read something. It's hard to follow along with everything going on.
 I didn't really get what that book was about.
 Why did that character do that? I just don't get it!
 I'm not sure what the most important parts of the book were.
 I couldn't really create an image in my head of what was going on.
 Click here to find out what kids can do to help themselves.
A parent's perspective:
Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with comprehension:
 She's not able to summarize a passage or a book.
 He might be able to tell you what happened in a story, but can't explain why events went the
way they did.
 She can't explain what a character's thoughts or feelings might have been.
 He doesn't link events in a book to similar events from another book or from real life.
A teacher's perspective:
Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have problems with comprehension:
 He seems to focus on the "wrong" aspect of a passage; for example, he concentrates so much
on the details that the main idea is lost.
 She can tell the outcome of a story, but cannot explain why things turned out that way.
 He does not go behind what is presented in a book to think about what might happen next or
why characters took the action they did.
 She brings up irrelevant information when trying to relate a passage to something in her own
life.
 He seems to have a weak vocabulary.
 She cannot tell the clear, logical sequence of events in a story.
 He does not pick out the key facts from informational text.
 He cannot give you a "picture" of what's going on in a written passage; for example, what the
characters look like or details of where the story takes place.
How to help
With the help of parents and teachers, kids can learn strategies to cope with comprehension
problems that affect his or her reading. Below are some tips and specific things to do.

What kids can do to help themselves
 Use outlines, maps, and notes when you read.
 Make flash cards of key terms you might want to remember.
 Read stories or passages in short sections and make sure you know what happened before you
continue reading.
 Ask yourself, "Does this make sense?" If it doesn't, reread the part that didn't make sense.
 Read with a buddy. Stop every page or so and take turns summarizing what you've read.
 Ask a parent or teacher to preview a book with you before you read it on your own.
 As you read, try to form mental pictures or images that match the story.
What parents can do to help at home
 Hold a conversation and discuss what your child has read. Ask your child probing questions
about the book and connect the events to his or her own life. For example, say "I wonder why
that girl did that?" or "How do you think he felt? Why?" and "So, what lesson can we learn
here?".
 Help your child make connections between what he or she reads and similar experiences he has
felt, saw in a movie, or read in another book.
 Help your child monitor his or her understanding. Teach her to continually ask herself whether
she understands what she's reading.
 Help your child go back to the text to support his or her answers.
 Discuss the meanings of unknown words, both those he reads and those he hears.
 Read material in short sections, making sure your child understands each step of the way.
 Discuss what your child has learned from reading informational text such as a science or social
studies book.
What teachers can do to help at school
 As students read, ask them open-ended questions such as "Why did things happen that way?" or
"What is the author trying to do here?" and "Why is this somewhat confusing?".
 Teach students the structure of different types of reading material. For instance, narrative texts
usually have a problem, a highpoint of action, and a resolution to the problem. Informational
texts may describe, compare and contrast, or present a sequence of events.
 Discuss the meaning of words as you go through the text. Target a few words for deeper
teaching, really probing what those words mean and how they can be used.
 Teach note-taking skills and summarizing strategies.
 Use graphic organizers that help students break information down and keep tack of what they
read.
 Encourage students to use and revisit targeted vocabulary words.
 Teach students to monitor their own understanding. Show them how, for example, to ask
themselves "What's unclear here?" or "What information am I missing?" and "What else should
the author be telling me?".
 Teach children how to make predictions and how to summarize.

Question: Punctuation: Need & Usage
Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is constructed and
how it should be read.
Sentences are the building blocks used to construct written accounts. They are complete
statements. Punctuation shows how the sentence should be read and makes the meaning clear.
Every sentence should include at least a capital letter at the start, and a full stop, exclamation mark or
question mark at the end. This basic system indicates that the sentence is complete.
1.The Comma (,)

The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
 pause before proceeding
 add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
 separate items on a list
 use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)
For example, The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the opening
door.
Commas are also used to separate items in a list.

For example:
The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and
cartons of milk.
2.Full Stop (.)

A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has been made
and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point.
Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section of a
quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:
“The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.”
A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in the
following examples:
Telephone Number = Tel. No.

September = Sept.
Pages = pp.
3.Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is also used
to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word.
For example:
“Help! I love you!”
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction

“Stop! Police!”
or to indicate humour
“Ha! Ha! Ha!”

4.Question Mark (?)
The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the end of a
sentence:
For example:
Are we at the end?
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.
5.Semi-colon (;)
The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt, avoid
using it and convert the added material into a new sentence.
As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways:
 When joining two connected sentences.

For example:
We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.
 The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists.

For example:
The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France; Paris, Texas; London, UK; Stockholm,
Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Mumbai, India.
6.Colon (:)
The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two main uses
of the colon:
It is most commonly used when listing.
For example:
She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and cartons of
milk.
Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.

For example:
Human Resource Management: Guidelines for Telephone Advisers
7.Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses.
The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership.
For example:
The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).
This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.
The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more than one hat).
This indicates that the hats belong to the girls.
Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted:
For example:
We're going to do this course. (We are going to do this course.)
Isn’t this a fine example of punctuation? (Is not this a fine example of punctuation?)
The time is now 7 o’ clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)
See also: Common Mistakes in Writing for more on using apostrophes correctly.
Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”)
Quotation or speech marks are used to:
To mark out speech

When quoting someone else's speech
For example:
My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."
8.Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used to link words together.
For example:
sub-part
eighteenth-century people
week-end
second-class post
gender-neutral
non-verbal
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be placed between
syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the word will be completed on the
next line.
9.Brackets ( )
Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of the main
flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the sentence should still make sense.
For example:
“The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as the intervention
continues.”
Another example is as follows:

“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic resources, that
strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership of wealth, together with
occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major classes that exist in Western societies are
an upper class (the wealthy, employers and industrialists, plus tops executives – those who own or
directly control productive resources); a middle class (which includes most white-collar workers and
professionals); and a working class (those in blue-collar or manual jobs).”
10.Square Brackets […]

A different set of square brackets [ ] can be used:
to abbreviate lengthy quotations
to correct the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of your own sentence
to add your own words to sections of an abbreviated quotation.

Unit-IV
CV Writing
What is a CV?
CV stands for curriculum vitae. It is a summary of your experience, skills and education. The CV
covers your education as well as any other accomplishments like publications, awards, honours
etc. It can be laid out over two or more pages.
What should I include in my CV?
Your CV needs to be packed with relevant information to help an employer make the decision to
hire you. It should include:
1. contact details - include full name, address, mobile phone number and email address;
2. education - list and date all previous education, placing the most recent highest up the page.
Include any professional qualifications;
3. referees - two people who can provide positive comments on your previous employment or
experiences;
4. skills - for example, the ability to work in a team, manage people, customer service skills, or
specific IT skills;
5. work experience - this can be internships, voluntary roles or previous jobs. Add the most
recent/relevant positions and examples of tasks.
How to Write a CV
 Know what information a CV generally contains. Most CVs include your personal
information, your education and qualifications, your work experience, your interests and
achievements, your skills, and references.
 Consider the job you are applying for. Research the company. A good CV is tailored to
the specific job and company you are applying for. What does the company do? What is
their mission statement? What do you think they are looking for in an employee? What
skills does the specific job you are applying for require? These are all things to keep in
mind when writing your CV.
 Check the company’s website for extra information about the CV. See if there is any specific
information they want you to list in your CV. There might be specific directions listed on the
application page. Always double check this.
 Make a list of jobs you have held. These can be both jobs you hold currently and jobs you have
held in the past. Include the dates that you began and ended your term at each particular job.
Brainstorm your hobbies and interests. Unique interests or hobbies will make you stand out.
Be aware of the conclusions that might be drawn from your hobbies. Try to list hobbies that
portray you as a team-oriented individual rather than as a solitary, passive person. Companies
want someone who works well with others and can take charge if need be.
 Hobbies and interests that paint a positive image: Being the captain of your soccer (or
football) team, organizing a charity event for an orphanage, secretary of your school’s
student-run government.
 Hobbies that imply a passive, solitary personality: watching TV, doing puzzles, reading. If
you are going to put any of these things, give a reason why. For instance, if you are applying
for a job at a publishing house, put something like: I enjoy reading the great American
writers such as Twain and Hemingway because I think their writing gives a unique
perspective into American culture at the time they were writing.

Letter writing
Introduction:
A letter is a written message from one party to another containing information. Letters promote
the preservation of communication between both parties; they may bring friends or relatives
closer together, enrich professional relationships and provide a means of self-expression.
Types of letter
There are a number of different types of letter:
 Formal letter
 Informal letter
 Business letter
 Letter of thanks
 Letter to the editor
 Love letter
 Open letter
1.Formal letter
A formal letter is any letter written in the professional language, with a prescribed format for a
formal purpose, i.e. it can be a recommendation letter, enquiry letter, complaint letter, cover
letter and so on. All business letters are formal, but vice versa is not possible. Such letters are
used for a variety of reasons like a formal invitation, proposal, reference, making a complaint or
inquiry, applying for a job. While writing a formal letter one should keep in mind the following
things:
 It should be in specified format.
 It should avoid the use of unnecessary words.
 It should be straight to the point.
 It should be relevant and objective.
 It should be complex and thorough.
 It should be polite, even if it is a complaint letter.
 It should be free from any mistakes, i.e. grammatical or spelling.
2.Informal letter
An informal letter is a letter written to someone; we know fairly well. The letter can be used for
some reasons like conveying message, news, giving advice, congratulate recipient, request
information, asking questions, etc. It is a personal letter, written to whom you are familiar with,
like friends, siblings, parents or any other closed one. There is no specific format prescribed for
writing this letter.
While writing an informal letter, one can afford to be friendly, and make use personal or
emotional tone. Slang or colloquial terms, codes, abbreviations, etc. can also be used at the time
of writing it, depending on the familiarity with the recipient.
How to write a letter:

 Salutation
The salutation is also known as the greeting. Formal letters often begin with Dear Sir/Madam. If
you know the name of the person you are writing to, use it instead of the impersonal Sir/Madam.
In formal and semi-formal letters, it is common to put a colon after Dear X. In informal letters
you can put a comma or nothing at all.

 Introduction
The introduction doesn’t have to be particularly long. Explain in one or two sentences the reason
for your writing. That’s enough.
 Body
This is where you have to outline the information you need to communicate. Be concise but
don’t forget to provide all the necessary information. In formal and semi-formal letters, you
should also include a formal conclusion. Examples are given below.
Thank you for your time. I look forward to hearing from you.
Thank you for your help and consideration.
 Closing and signature
Yours sincerely is the most common closing used in formal and semi-formal letters. When the
name of the addressee is not known the phrase Yours faithfully should be used. Note that in
American English Yours faithfully is not normally used.

Report writing
What is a report
A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information and evidence are
presented, analysed and applied to a particular problem or issue. The information is presented in a clearly
structured format making use of sections and headings so that the information is easy to locate and
follow.
When you are asked to write a report you will usually be given a report brief which provides you with
instructions and guidelines. The report brief may outline the purpose, audience and problem or issue that
your report must address, together with any specific requirements for format or structure. This guide
offers a general introduction to report writing; be sure also to take account of specific instructions
provided by your department
Report Writing: Formatting the Report Elements

Here are the main sections of the standard report writing format:
 Title Section - If the report is short, the front cover can include any information that you feel is
necessary including the author(s) and the date prepared. In a longer report, you may want to
include a table of contents and a definitions of terms.
 Summary - There needs to be a summary of the major points, conclusions, and
recommendations. It needs to be short as it is a general overview of the report. Some people
will read the summary and only skim the report, so make sure you include all the relevant
information. It would be best to write this last so you will include everything, even the points
that might be added at the last minute.
 Introduction - The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain the
problem and show the reader why the report is being made. You need to give a definition of
terms if you did not include these in the title section, and explain how the details of the report
are arranged.
 Body - This is the main section of the report. The previous sections needed to be written in plain
English, but this section can include jargon from your industry. There needs to be several
sections, with each having a subtitle. Information is usually arranged in order of importance
with the most important information coming first. If you wish, a “Discussion” section can be
included at the end of the Body to go over your findings and their significance.
 Conclusion - This is where everything comes together. Keep this section free of jargon as most
people will read the Summary and Conclusion.
 Recommendations - This is what needs to be done. In plain English, explain your
recommendations, putting them in order of priority.
 Appendices - This includes information that the experts in the field will read. It has all the
technical details that support your conclusions.
Tips for Good Writing
Here are a few tips for good writing.
 Keep it simple. Do not try to impress, rather try to communicate. Keep the sentences short
and to the point. Do not go into a lot of details unless it is needed. Make sure every word
needs to be there, that it contributes to the purpose of the report.
 Use an active voice rather than passive. Active voice makes the writing move smoothly and
easily. It also uses fewer words than the passive voice and gives impact to the writing by
emphasizing the person or thing responsible for an action. Here is an example: Bad
customer service decreases repeat business.
 Good grammar and punctuation is important. Having someone proofread is a good idea.
Remember that the computer can not catch all the mistakes, especially with words like “red,
read” or “there, their.”

Press release
Introduction:
A press release, news release, media release, press statement or video release is a written or recorded
communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of announcing something
ostensibly newsworthy. Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment editors and
journalists at newspapers, magazines, radio stations, online media, television stations or television
networks.
 Headline – used to grab the attention of journalists and briefly summarize the news.
 Dateline – contains the release date and usually the originating city of the press release. If the
date listed is after the date that the information was actually sent to the media, then the sender
is requesting a news embargo, which journalists are under no obligation to honor.
 Introduction – first paragraph in a press release, that generally gives basic answers to the
questions of who, what, when, where and why.
 Body – further explanation, statistics, background, or other details relevant to the news.
 Boilerplate – generally a short "about" section, providing independent background on the
issuing company, organization, or individual.
 Close – in North America, traditionally the symbol "-30-" appears after the boilerplate or body
and before the media contact information, indicating to media that the release has ended. A
more modern equivalent has been the "###" symbol. In other countries, other means of
indicating the end of the release may be used, such as the text "ends".
 Media contact information – name, phone number, email address, mailing address, or other
contact information for the PR or other media relations contact person.
Essentials of press release

1. Start with an attention-grabbing headline in bold font.
2. Begin the body with the date and city.
3. Summarize the subject in the lead sentence.
4. Describe the important details of your story for the rest of the body.
5. Include your contact information at the end of the press release.

Essay writing
Introduction:
An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument. Essays have traditionally
been sub-classified as formal and informal. Formal essays are characterized by "serious purpose, dignity,
logical organization, whereas the informal essay is characterized by "the personal element (self-
revelation, individual tastes and experiences, confidential manner), humor, graceful style, rambling
structure, unconventionality or novelty of theme," etc.
How to write an essay:
1. Pick a topic.
You may have your topic assigned, or you may be given free reign to write on the
subject of your choice. If you are given the topic, you should think about the type
of paper that you want to produce. Should it be a general overview of the subject
or a specific analysis? Narrow your focus if necessary.
2. Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
In order to write a successful essay, you must organize your thoughts. By taking
what’s already in your head and putting it to paper, you are able to see
connections and links between ideas more clearly. This structure serves as a
foundation for your paper. Use either an outline or a diagram to jot down your
ideas and organize them.
3. Write your thesis statement.
Now that you have chosen a topic and sorted your ideas into relevant categories,
you must create a thesis statement. Your thesis statement tells the reader the point
of your essay. Look at your outline or diagram. What are the main ideas?
4. Write the body.
The body of your essay argues, explains or describes your topic. Each main idea
that you wrote in your diagram or outline will become a separate section within
the body of your essay.
5. Write the introduction.
Now that you have developed your thesis and the overall body of your essay, you
must write an introduction. The introduction should attract the reader’s attention
and show the focus of your essay.
6. Write the conclusion.
The conclusion brings closure of the topic and sums up your overall ideas while
providing a final perspective on your topic. Your conclusion should consist of
three to five strong sentences. Simply review your main points and provide
reinforcement of your thesis.
7. Add the finishing touches.
After writing your conclusion, you might think that you have completed your
essay. Wrong. Before you consider this a finished work, you must pay attention to
all the small details.

Fourth Semester: Syntax, Different Types of Sentence Formation: Simple, Compound, Complex Etc

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fourth Semester: Syntax, Different Types of Sentence Formation: Simple, Compound, Complex Etc

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fourth Semester: Syntax, Different Types of Sentence Formation: Simple, Compound, Complex Etc

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fourth Semester

2. The train was late.

3. Mary and Samantha took the bus.

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 1

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 2

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 3

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 4

Adjective – describes a noun

Adverb – describes other words (not nouns)

Subject – the noun or nouns that perform the action

Object – the noun or nouns that receive the action

Example: She is eating bread and cheese.

Five basic sentence structures

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 5

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 6

There are different types of nouns namely:

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 10

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 11

1.Concrete and Specific Language

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 12

4.Precise and Clear Language

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 13

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 14

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 15

Access to the Internet

Effects of the importance of the Internet and English

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 16

A constructed international language

An alternative: machine translation

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 17

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 18

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 20

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 22

Who Uses Translation Services:

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 23

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 24

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 25

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 26

1.The Comma (,)

Commas are also used to separate items in a list.

2.Full Stop (.)

“The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.”

Telephone Number = Tel. No.

3.Exclamation Mark (!)

In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 27

 When joining two connected sentences.

 The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists.

Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 28

Another example is as follows:

10.Square Brackets […]

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 29

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 30

How to write a letter:

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 31

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 32

Report Writing: Formatting the Report Elements

ravinderinsan25@gmail.com Shah satnam ji boys’ college, sirsa. Page 33