Practical Research 2 PDF

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Contents
Prefacevii
Acknowledgmentsix
unit i Nature of Inquiry and Research

Lesson 1 Inquiry vs. Research: A Review 1
1. Nature of Inquiry and Research
2. Characteristics of Research
3. Methods of Research
4. Inquiry vis-à-vis Research
Lesson 2 Quantitative Research 7
1. Definition of Quantitative Research
2. Characteristics
3. Classification
4. Importance
5. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Lesson 3 Experimental Research 13
1. Definition of Experimental Research
2. Classification
3. Research Design of Non-Experimental Research
4. Quasi-Experimental Research
Lesson 4 Non-Experimental Research 20
1. Definition of Non-Experimental Research
2. Characteristics
3. Definition of Survey Research
4. Purposes of Survey Research
5. Planning a Survey Research
6. Strengths of Survey Research
7. Ethical Principles and Rules in Survey Research
Lesson 5 Variables 28
1. Definition
2. Basic Types
3. Variable Relationships
4. Other Types of Variables
unit ii Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Lesson 6 Quantitative Research Problem 35
1. Nature of Quantitative Research Problem
2. Sources of Quantitative Research Problem
iii
3. Research Questions vs. Quantitative Research Problem
4. Guidelines in Formulating a Quantitative Research Prob-
lem and Research Questions
5. Research Problems in Experimental Research
6. Types of Quantitative Research Questions
7. Approaches to Quantitative Research Questions
Lesson 7 Hypotheses 44
1. Definition of Hypothesis
2. Purposes of Hypotheses
3. Hypotheses vs. Research Questions
4. Categories of Hypotheses
5. Types of Hypotheses
6. Guidelines in Formulating Hypotheses
unit iii Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

Lesson 8 Review of Related Literature (RRL) 51
1. Definition of RRL
2. Purposes of RRL
3. RRL in Quantitative Research
4. Steps in Conducting a Systematic Review
5. Meta-analysis in Quantitative Research
6. In-text Citation and Referencing Styles
7. Examples of MLA Referencing Style
8. Examples of APA Referencing Style
9. Ethical Standards in Literature-Review Writing
Lesson 9 Conceptual Framework 65
1. Definition of Conceptual Framework
2. Purposes of Conceptual Framework
3. Concept Map
4. Conceptual Framework vs. Theoretical Framework
5. Pointers in Writing a Conceptual Framework
Lesson 10 The Language of Research 73
1. Characteristics of the Language of Research
2. Research-Language Formation
3. Operational Definition
unit iv Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Lesson 11 Quantitative Research Designs 83
1. Meaning of Quantitative Research Design
2. Types of Quantitative Research Design
2.1 Experimental Research Design
2.2 Non-Experimental Research Design
iv
Lesson 12 Quantitative Data-Collection Techniques 94
1. Definition of Quantitative Data
2. Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data
2.1 Observation
2.2 Survey
2.3 Experiment
2.4 Content Analysis
3. Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data
3.1 Nominal Scale
3.2 Ordinal Scale
3.3 Interval Scale
3.4 Ratio Scale
unit v Finding Answers through Data Collection

Lesson 13 Quantitative Data Analysis 107
1. Basic Concept
2. Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis
2.1 Preparing the Data
2.2 Analyzing the Data
2.2.1 Descriptive Statistical Technique
1) Frequency Distribution
2) Measure of Central Tendency (Mean,
Median, Mode)
3) Standard Deviation
2.2.2 Advanced Quantitative Analytical
Methods
1) Correlation
2) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
3) Regression
Lesson 14 Statistical Methods 117
1. Basic Concept
2. Statistical Methodologies
2.1 Descriptive Statistics
2.2 Inferential Statistics
3. Types of Statistical Data Analysis
4. Statistical Methods of Bivariate Analysis
4.1 Correlation or Covariation
4.2 Cross Tabulation
5. Measure of Correlation
5.1 Correlation Coefficient
5.2 Regression
v
Lesson 15 Sampling Procedure 126
1. Basic Concept
2. Factors Affecting Sample Selection
3. Sampling Methods
3.1 Probability Sampling
3.2 Non-probability Sampling
4. Random Sampling vis-à-vis Statistical Methods
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Five Basic Sampling
Techniques
unit vi Reporting and Sharing Findings

Lesson 16 Research-Report Writing 135
1. Basic Concept
2. Research Writing vs. Report Writing
3. Guidelines in Research-Report Writing
4. Research-Report Writing Styles or Format
References145
Index149
vi
Preface
Wondering a lot about your world, you are always in quest of

knowledge about people, things, places, events, and so on. One, two, or
three things seem incomprehensible to you that you try to exhaust all the
ways and means by which you can unravel the mystifying existence or
condition of the objects of your curiosity.
Thirsting for knowledge, you decide to research on the exact cause
of your wonderment. Thus, you inquire, investigate, read, observe, and
interview, among others, to gather data or facts and information from
where you can deduce what are valid or true about the focus of your
bewilderment or confusion.
Collecting and analyzing data accurately, you come to a certain
understanding of a phenomenon. But what could be the extent of your
understanding about this remarkable event, person, or thing? In your hands
are collected and analyzed data to trigger off your opinionated knowledge
about such phenomenon.
However, your personal thoughts, feelings, views, and attitudes about
this are true only in so far as they are related to your own perceptions. They
are your subjective understanding of a person or a thing which cannot be
quantified, measured, or expressed with precision or accuracy. Resulting
from your interpretative thinking, your views about something are just
your approximation, assumption, or prediction of what the thing really is.
The truth about a person, a thing, or any case is the sine qua non or
bottom line of any research work. And the type of research that enables you
to express the true, exact, or definite nature of something is Quantitative
Research. This is the type of research that makes you obtain an accurate
or objective knowledge, rather than an estimated or subjective knowledge
about your sensory experience. It fuels your curiosity by letting you think
that each research leads you to a discovery of knowledge that is not only
valid and acceptable to you but also to people in general.
Using statistical and scientific methods of arriving at the truthfulness
of something, quantitative research is apt to measure things involved in the
research and to present the results in numerical forms. Appearing in its exact
measurement or value in the form of a number, any data or findings enter
vii
into the minds of people as true or valid discoveries, because numerical
information always carries or expresses a specific value or measurement.
Giving a thing or any variable a specific number to represent its exact
value indicates certainty rather than doubts in the minds of people about
such thing. Further, dealing with something definite enables any person
to verify the truthfulness of such variable. Quantitative research, then,
is one investigative method of determining what are accurate, precise,
or convincing to the world. This is precisely the concept that underlies
this book.
Conceptualized on this basis, that is, on the accuracy or validity of any
declarative and procedural knowledge you encounter, this book zeroes in
on the extensive use of the modern pedagogical methods and techniques.
Underpinned by the learning approaches of discovery, constructivism,
transformative learning, and other correlative assumptions resulting from
any paradigm shift in teaching-learning situations, these contemporary
learning methodologies and strategies are empowered to satisfy your quest
for the right or exact answers to your problems or questions about your
surroundings in your day-to-day living. In short, this book is your way
of knowing not only what to learn and practice, but also how to know
and perform things in life with all accuracy or precision so that you will
avoid producing erroneous decisions; but rather, make this world more
meaningful and beautiful to live in.
E. L. B.
viii
Acknowledgments
I am deeply indebted to all the book authors and Internet website

writers whose paraphrased and summarized ideas on research are used
in this book. Heartfelt thanks likewise, go to the owners of quoted words
in this book, to the university librarians who willingly assisted me in my
research work for the production of this book, and to all my former UP
professors and other people who gave me good foundation knowledge on
research and all those who stirred in me a genuine interest in coming out
with this book on quantitative research.
ix
x
Unit Nature of Inquiry
I and Research
There are many things you want to know in this world. People, things, places,
events—their characteristics or qualities make you wonder continuously, frequently,
or intermittently. Marveling at them, you tend to immerse yourself in a situation
where you seem to be grappling with a problem or a puzzle. Questions after
questions on the many aspects of the object of your curiosity prod you to move, act,
or do something to find answers to your questions or to discover truths about your
inferences or speculations on such object. Behaving like an investigator, asking and
seeking answers to some questions about the thing you find puzzling indicates the
true nature of inquiry or research.
LESSON 1 Inquiry vs. Research: A Review
Intended Learning Outcomes

After this lesson, you should be able to:
1. relate an unfamiliar term with other terms to discover the meaning of such
difficult term;
2. explain the meaning of research in relation to inquiry;
3. point out the similarities and differences of research and inquiry;
4. distinguish lower-level questions from top-level questions to give stress to
investigative kind of thinking;
5. judge the applicability of inquiry or research to a given situation; and
6. appraise the value of concepts learned about inquiry and research.
1
2 • PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Concept Linkers
Old and New Concept Fusion
Activity 1: Vocabulary Improvement
Directions: Based on your stock knowledge and on the words surrounding the middle
word, define the middle word in each cluster.
study
scrutinize inspect
probe
investigate peruse
mixed
haphazard
consider reflect
unplanned random illogic
ponder
Disorderly
meditate Contemplate
Activity 2: Vocabulary Practice
Directions: On the lines provided, construct sentences using the newly learned words.

UNIT I – NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH • 3
Image Intensifier
LOOPING OR FREE WRITING

What do you recall about these two words: Inquiry and Research? Write them
freely on the following lines without worrying about your grammar.

Concept Discovery
What else do you know about Inquiry and Research? Expand what you know
about them by reading the following text.
INQUIRY vs. RESEARCH: A REVIEW
Nature of Inquiry and Research

One goal of education is knowledge acquisition. However, education is not
just stocking your brain with knowledge, but it also encourages you to use acquired
knowledge for a deeper understanding of the world—an understanding that inspires
you to create, construct, or produce things for the betterment of not only your own life,
but of the whole world as well. How is this possible?
Inquiry, a term that is synonymous with the word ‘investigation,’ is the answer
to this question. When you inquire or investigate, you tend to ask questions to
probe or examine something. You do this kind of examination through your HOTS
or higher-order thinking strategies of inferential, analytical, critical, creative, and
appreciative thinking to discover more understandable or meaningful things
beyond such object of your inquiry. Thinking in this manner makes you ask open-
ended questions to elicit views, opinions, and beliefs of others in relation to your
research. (Small 2012)
Characteristics of Research
Research is a scientific, experimental, or inductive manner of thinking. Starting
from particular to more complex ideas, you execute varied thinking acts that range
from lower-order to higher-order thinking strategies reflected by these research
activities: identifying the topic or problem, gathering data, making theories,
formulating hypotheses, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Cognitively

driven terms like empirical, logical, cyclical, analytical, critical, methodical, and
replicable are the right descriptive words to characterize research. These powerful
modifiers that your previous research subject, Practical Research 1, explained to a
certain extent, are the very same terms to characterize any quantitative research you
intend to carry out this time.
The data you work on in research do not come mainly from yourself but also
from other sources of knowledge like people, books, and artworks, among others.
Hence, one cardinal principle in research is to give acknowledgment to owners of
all sources of knowledge involved in your research work. Giving credit to people
from whom you derived your data is your way of not only thanking the authors
of their contribution to the field, but also establishing the validity and reliability of
the findings of your research that ought to serve as instrument for world progress.
(Muijs 2011; Ransome 2012)
Methods of Research
To be a researcher is to be a scientist, who must think logically or systematically;
that is, your research activities must follow a certain order, like doing inductive thinking
that makes you ponder on specific ideas first, then move to more complex concepts
like conclusions or generalizations. Or, do the opposite of inductive thinking which
is deductive thinking that lets you start from forming generalizations to examining
details about the subject matter. These are not the only approaches, though, that you
can adhere to in planning your research work. Depending on your topic and purpose,
you are free to choose from several approaches, methods, and types of research you
learned in your previous research subject, Practical Research 1. (Gray 2011; Sharp 2012)
Inquiry vis-à-vis Research

One scholarly activity that greatly involves inquiry is research. Similar to inquiry
that starts from what you are ignorant about, research makes you learn something
by means of a problem-solving technique. Both inquiry and research encourage you
to formulate questions to direct you to the exact information you want to discover
about the object of your curiosity. Your questions operate like a scrutiny of a person’s
attire to find out what are hidden between or among the compartments or folded
parts of his/her clothes. Although the core word for both inquiry and research is
investigation or questioning, they are not exactly the same in all aspects. Research
includes more complex acts of investigation than inquiry because the former follows
a scientific procedure of discovering truths or meanings about things in this world.
(Goodwin 2014; Lapan 2012)
Concept Explanation
WHOLE CLASS ACTIVITY

Comprehension Check
Directions: Explain your understanding of inquiry and research by answering the
following questions.
1. Compare and contrast Inquiry and Research.
2. Which is easier to carry out: Inquiry or Research? Give reasons for your
answer.
3. How can a researcher be a scientist?
4. What if you do things randomly in research, what will be the consequences?
5. Should you immediately concern yourself with data analysis prior to
research approach? Why? Why not?
6. Could Inquiry and Research go together? Explain your point.
7. What do you think of this line: Inquiry occurs completely with excessive
familiarity with the physical looks of an object?
8. Do these two words, Inquiry and Research, somehow indicate strength of
character?
9. Have you had an application of Inquiry and Research in your day-to-day
life? Explain.
10. Name some institutions or organizations that often engage themselves in
inquiry and research. Describe their ways of doing it.
Concept Elaboration
Directions: GROUP WORK. Form a group of three and do any of these group activities.
1. Speculative thinking. Prove how inquisitive you are by raising investigative
questions about these topics: 21st Century Educational Strategies, Era of
Globalization, Social Networking, Climate Change, Digital Age, Sustainable
Community, Carcinogenic Foods, Email vs. Postal Mail, Stem-Cell Therapy,
Proliferation of Dermatological Clinics, and Food Supplements. Classify
your questions into lower-level and top-level questions.
2. Determine whether Inquiry or Research is applicable to the given situations.
Check the corresponding column of your answer.
Situation Inquiry Research
1. A person wants to know the occupant of

one condominium.
2. A student wants to know the medicinal
effects of guava leaves.
3. Mr. Cruz wants to know the technique to
make his electric fan function instantly.
4. Professor Gomez wants to discover
the impact of social networking on his
students’ learning abilities.
5. Aling Rosa wants to know the reason
behind the decrease of her sales for the day.
6. A business man wants to find out which
between these two marketing strategies:
free tasting and attractive packaging, could
increase daily sales.
Concept-Learning Assessment
Directions: Use percentage grade (50% to 100%) to indicate the extent of your learning
about each of the following topics:
1. Differences and similarities between Inquiry and Research
2. Behavior of people practicing Inquiry and Research
3. Reasons behind people’s inquisitive attitudes
4. Research as an inductive thinking
5. Lower-order and higher-order thinking strategies
Concept Transformation
Examine the setup of your family, your school, or any organization you are a
member in. Which aspect of each group do you want to know more through inquiry
or research? Present your answers to this question in a tabular form.
LESSON 2 Quantitative Research

1. familiarize themselves with vocabulary terms to clarify things about
quantitative research;
2. communicate with others using the newly learned vocabulary terms;
3. speculate about quantitative research;
4. define quantitative research accurately;
5. compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative research based on some
criteria or standards;
6. draw distinctions between a qualitative question from a quantitative
question;
7. ask questions any quantitative research seeks to answer; and
8. analyze the power of print media or electronic devices to trigger off students’
quantitative questioning.
Concept Linkers
Directions: To acquire substantial knowledge on some topics in this lesson, activate

your schemata about the underlined word in each sentence. Get clues from its
use in the sentence.
1. Demonstrate through a hand gesture the magnitude of the screen that you
think is enough to block the window.
Meaning: ��
2. In looks, Malaysians are analogous to Filipinos, but in language, they are not.
Meaning: ��
3. Please use precise words to explain your point for the listeners’ quick
understanding of your ideas.
Meaning: ��
4. The plastic bag becomes inflated with much air blown into it; deflated, with
air released from such container.
Meaning: ��
7
5. A person experiences moral instability if he does not pattern his life after
Jesus Christ, the way, the truth, and the life.
Meaning: ��
Directions: Have a dialog with your partner. Use the newly learned words in your
conversation.
Image Intensifier
Which between these two sets of statements is easier or quicker to understand?
Justify your point.
Set A – Ninety five (95%) of the examinees passed the licensure exams.
Twenty pages of the book contain grammatically incorrect sentences.
Set B – A big number of examinees passed the licensure exams.
Several pages of the book contain grammatically incorrect sentences.
Concept Discovery
What do you think? Does your choice between Set A and B align itself to the
content of the following selection or run counter to the text? Read the text to find out
the truth.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Definition of Quantitative Research

Expressions like numerical forms, objective thinking, statistical methods, and
measurement signal the existence of quantitative research. One word that reflects the
true nature of this type of research is numerical. This term, numerical, is a descriptive
word pertaining to or denoting a number or symbol to express how many, how much,
or what rank things are or have in this world. Expressing meaning through numerals
or a set of symbols indicates specificity, particularity, or exactness of something.
Quantitative research makes you focus your mind on specific things by means
of statistics that involve collection and study of numerical data. Thus, to give the
basic meaning of quantitative research is to say that research is a way of making any
phenomenon or any sensory experience clearer or more meaningful by gathering and
examining facts and information about such person, thing, place, or event appealing to
your senses. You use mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, division, and
multiplication to study and express relationships between quantities or magnitudes
shown by numbers or symbols. Involving measurements and amounts, quantitative
research seeks to find answers to questions starting with how many, how much, how
long, to what extent, and the like. Answers to these questions come in numerals,
percentages, and fractions, among others. (Suter 2012; Russell 2013)
Characteristics
Since quantitative research uses numbers and figures to denote a particular thing,
this kind of research requires you to focus your full attention on the object of your study.
Doing this, you tend to exclude your own thoughts and feelings about the subject or
object. This is why quantitative research is described as objective research in contrast
to qualitative research that is subjective. Characterized by objectiveness, in which only
the real or factual, not the emotional or cognitive existence of the object matters greatly
to the artist, quantitative research is analogous to scientific or experimental thinking.
In this case, you just do not identify problems but theorize, hypothesize, analyze,
infer, and create as well. Quantitative research usually happens in hard sciences like
physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine; qualitative research, in soft sciences such as
humanities, social sciences, education, and psychology, among others.
Classification
Quantitative research is of two kinds: experimental and non-experimental.
Each of these has sub-types. Falling under experimental are these specific types:
true experimental, quasi-experimental, single subject, and pre-experimental.
Quasi-experimental comes in several types such as: matched comparative group,
time series, and counterbalanced quasi-experimental. Non-experimental research, on
the other hand, has these sub-types: survey, historical, observational, correlational,
descriptive, and comparative research.
Importance
The importance of quantitative research lies greatly in the production of results
that should reflect precise measurement and an in-depth analysis of data. It is also
useful in obtaining an objective understanding of people, things, places, and events in
this world; meaning, attaching accurate or exact meanings to objects or subjects, rather
than inflated meanings resulting from the researcher’s bias or personal attachment to
things related to the research. Requiring the use of reliable measurement instruments
or statistical methods, a quantitative study enables people to study their surroundings
as objective as they can. This kind of research is likewise an effective method to obtain
information about specified personality traits of a group member or of the group as a
whole as regards the extent of the relationship of their characteristics and the reason
behind the instability of some people’s characteristics. (Muijs 2011; Gray 2012)
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Having obtained much knowledge about qualitative and quantitative research,
you are now able to compare and contrast the two based on some standards or criteria
appearing in the following table. (Muijs 2011; Sharp 2012)
Standards Qualitative Quantitative

Mental survey of reality Results from social interactions Exists in the physical world
Cause-effect Explained by people’s objective Revealed by automatic
relationships desires descriptions of
circumstances or conditions
Standards Qualitative Quantitative

Researcher’s Subjective; sometimes personally Objective; least
involvement with the engaged involvement by
object or subject of the researcher
the study
Expression of data, Verbal language (words, visuals, Numerals, statistics
data analysis, and objects)
findings
Research plan Takes place as the research Plans all research aspects
proceeds gradually before collecting data
Behavior toward Desires to preserve the natural Control or manipulation of
research aspects/ setting of research features research conditions by the
conditions researcher
Obtaining knowledge Multiple methods Scientific method
Purpose Makes social intentions Evaluates objective sand
understandable examines cause-effect
relationships
Data-analysis Thematic codal ways, Mathematically based
technique competence-based methods
Style of expression Personal, lacks formality Impersonal, scientific, or
systematic
Sampling technique More inclined to purposive Random sampling as the
sampling or use of chosen most preferred
samples based on some criteria
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: Circle the letter of the correct word to complete the sentence.
1. You tend to inflate something in a qualitative research because of
your ____________.
a. objective views c. personal traits
b. teacher’s influence d. mathematical skills
2. This line, “The truth is out there.” is true for ____________.
a. qualitative research c. all research designs
b. quantitative research d. any research type
3. People inclined to doing a quantitative research wants to discover
truth in ____________.
a. an exact manner c. an indirect way
b. a careful way d. a personal way
4. Some think of quantitative research as complex because of its use of _________.

a. hypotheses c. factual data
b. numerical data d. theories
5. A quantitative research presents research findings in this manner:
a. Many prefer to study with textbooks.
b. Students find textbooks indispensable or necessary.
c. Perhaps, 30% consider textbook unnecessary in their studies.
d. Out of 100 college students, 90 find textbooks beneficial to their studies.
Activity 2
Directions: Work in pairs for any of the following activities.

1. Ask each other questions about quantitative and qualitative research.
Or, do a guessing game in which you describe something in relation to a
research type and let your partner identify the idea being referred to. Be sure
you know the right identification of your descriptions or answers to your
questions as these are your basis to determine the correctness of the given
answers. Decide how you will reward each other for having given more
correct answers to questions raised.
2. Formulate a quantitative research question about each of the following topics:
a. Gender (male and female)
b. Learning styles (visual, audio, kinesthetic, etc.)
c. Philippine transportation system (MRT, LRT, buses, FX, jeeps, taxi, etc.)
d. Communication media (TV, newspaper, cellphones, email, Facebook,
Instagram, etc.)
e. Public order and safety (labor strikes, crime, drug addiction, robbery, etc.)
Note: You may think of your own topic as the basis of your questions.
Concept Elaboration
Directions: In a group of three, formulate quantitative research questions out of the
given qualitative questions.
1. Which of these expressions serves as the favorite of teenagers nowadays:
OMG! My gosh, Oh, yak, Hey, you! My golly! Oh, my!
2. At which part of PNoy speech did the audience express their appreciation
through rising from their seats?
3. How did the Miss Universe contestants answer questions pertaining to
climate change?
4. In which country do OFWs love to work?

5. Which social media networking activity is the most favorable among
Filipino college students?
6. What kind of pick-up lines did the lady Senator utter in front of the
graduates?
7. What stand did the student leaders express about their school’s new policy
on tardiness and absences of students?
8. What reasons did the senators give about the arrest of the suspected drug
lords?
9. Which shopping mall do people love to spend the most of their shopping
time?
10. What noontime TV program ranks as the most watched program all over the
Philippines?
Write a short essay about things you learned the most and the least through the
topics dealt with in this lesson. Give your essay an interesting title.
Ponder on the headlines of big newspapers in town or on some TV programs;
then, try asking quantitative questions about them. Give your teacher and classmates
a written copy of your questions.
LESSON 3 Experimental Research

1. increase your vocabulary by giving the meanings, characteristics, and
examples of terms used to explain some concepts about experimental
research;
2. obtain a thorough or an in-depth understanding of experimental research;
3. justify the link between scientific thinking and experimental thinking;
4. identify the reasons behind the differences between experimental research
and quasi-experimental research;
5. sequence the events to take place in any quasi-experimental research; and
6. synthesize your understanding of experimental research through a specific
graph or a topical outline.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Using your experience or background knowledge about the given words
that were used in the reading selection for this lesson, know the meaning
of such words situated in the middle of the Frayer Model Map. Explain your
understanding of the word by writing some details about it in each quadrant of
the map. Be guided also by the clues in the sentence below each graph. The first
one serves as an example.
13
Definition/Meaning Characteristics
Manage, direct, guide Depends on the doer’s

leadership, directions,
author
Conduct
Examples Non-examples
organizing seminars, soldiers obeying their

managing a class head, servants following
orders
Absolute
Downplay
Definition/Meaning
Characteristics
Disintegrate
PANTOMIME
Act out a certain situation related to one of the newly learned words. Let
your partner guess the target word referred to by your pantomime. Stress that the
acceptability of your partner’s answer depends on the correctness of the use of the
term in the sentence. Switch roles after every correct answer.
Image Intensifier
Name some famous and great inventions you have known since birth. What
makes you say they are great? How do you think did the inventors come to discover
the value or greatness of their creations?
Concept Discovery
Could the following selection give you the answers to your questions about the
inventors? Read the text to discover answers to your questions.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Definition of Experimental Research

Experimental research is a quantitative research that treats or deals with the object
or subject of the research in a definite or exact manner and determines the extent of the
effects or influence of the treatment on the object/subject, then discovers the causes of
such effects. Two groups are involved in any experimental research: the experimental
group, the one on which the treatment or influence is applied, and the control group, which
does not receive any treatment. The objects or subjects involved in these types research
are chosen randomly or selected by chance, rather than by the decision of the researcher.
Classification
Experimental research is categorized into two: true experimental research and
quasi-experimental research. Based on where the experimental research is done, it is
either laboratory research or field research. Your manner of selecting the participants
indicates whether it is true experimental or quasi-experimental. The true experimental
research absolutely uses random selection in determining who among the participants
should compose the experimental group or the control group. The quasi-experimental
research adopts a comparative technique in choosing the subjects.
The experimental group on which the treatment or condition is applied is not
chosen randomly but matched or compared with another group whom you, the
researcher, believe as having the same characteristics as the experimental group
under treatment. Employing researcher’s influence in sampling or subject selection,
quasi-experimental research fails to qualify as a genuine experimental research.
Hence, discoveries or findings resulting from this kind of experimental research are
susceptible to doubts. (Sharp 2012; Gray 2013)
Research Design of Non-Experimental Research

Any plan you have about a non-experimental research must have the following
aspects that take place in a sequential manner:
1. Specify the problem or topic of your research.
2. Formulate the research problem or hypotheses.
3. Determine the dependent and independent variables.

4. Select the participants or subjects.
5. Decide on the specific type of experimental research; meaning, whether it
will be a true experimental or quasi-experimental research.
6. Conduct the experiment.
7. Collect, analyze, and interpret the results.
In conducting an experimental research, first, give a pre-test to examine the
initial condition of both groups in relation to a variable, condition, or factor; second,
apply to the control group a new condition; and third, give the latter group a
post-test to determine the effects or influence of the treatment or condition applied
on them.
There are many ways of letting a variable, factor, or condition intervene or have
an application on the subjects, and of later determining the effects of such intervention.
Here are some of these methods: (1) treatment evaluation; and (2) pre-test and post-test
of multiple treatments or conditions. The first one is also called ex post facto or after
the fact; meaning, evaluation comes after the treatment. Multiple treatment, on the
other hand, makes you apply on the subjects, not just one, but also varied treatment
methods like using books, interview, or social networking. You resort to this method
when you want to discover the extent of student learning by means of these sources of
data. (De Mey 2013; Creswell 2013)
Quasi-Experimental Research
Usually, participants chosen in a quasi-experimental research are those forming
a class that remains as one group incapable of disintegration. The not randomly
chosen participants are subjected to any of these types of quasi-experimental research
(Muijs 2011):
1. matched comparison – choosing a treatment group and another group that has
similarities with the treatment group
2. time-series quasi-experimental research – giving them series of pre-tests and
post-tests
3. single-subject quasi-experimental research – controls treatment and condition
applied to just one individual or a group
In which field of knowledge does a true experimental research usually take place?
People in hard sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Pharmacy, and the like) love to
do this kind of research; those in soft sciences (Psychology, Sociology, Humanities,
Literature, Education, and other subjects falling under Social Sciences) usually do
quasi-experimental research. (Gray 2012; Laursen et al. 2010)
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Explain your understanding about the text by

answering the following questions on the given lines.
1. Compare and contrast the two basic types of experimental research.

2. Why is an experimental research also called a scientific method?

3. What is the primary factor in determining whether a research is true

experimental or quasi-experimental?

4. What are the implications of declaring what is true by means of a

quasi-experimental research?

5. Which is better between the two types of experimental research? Justify

your choice.

6. How do you know when one is doing a true experimental or a

quasi-experimental research?

7. Do you know somebody who has already done an experimental research?

Describe this person including how he/she carried out his/her research
work.

Concept Elaboration
Activity 1: Idea Clarification
Directions: PAIR WORK. Show through a PowerPoint Presentation a flow

chart showing the sequential occurrence of the research stages in each type of quasi-
experimental research.
Activity 2
Directions: GROUP WORK. In a group of three, graphically present the major

and minor classifications of experimental research.
Activity 3
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Make a written outline of all the ideas you
have discovered from the reading selection of this lesson.
Based on how well or poor your learning is of the topics you listed in your outline
in the Concept Elaboration Activity 3, rank them in order on the lines provided. See to
it that the topics you have learned the most are in the higher rank, and those you have
learned the least, are in the lower rank.

Discover more about the ins and outs of experimental research by interviewing
some professors in hard sciences. Share your discoveries with your teacher and friends
by giving them a copy of the interview results.
LESSON 4 Non-Experimental Research

1. increase the number of English words you know;
2. express your world views using newly learned words;
3. familiarize yourself with the nature of non-experimental research;
4. trace the development of survey research;
5. present a good plan of your survey research;
6. practice honesty and integrity in researching; and
7. conduct a practicable survey research.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Give the meaning of the underlined word in each sentence. Be guided by
the contextual clues.
1. How could the light be diffused all over the place, if it was placed between
the two posts?______________
2. Give me a concrete evidence of the veracity of that to make me say yes to
your offer right away.______________
3. A greedy man tends to manipulate things for his own benefit.______________
4. Being a versatile actor, he is able to give an excellent portrayal of various
character roles. ______________
5. Try to understand the poem in conjunction with the picture near its title.
______________
Q&A TIME
Directions: PAIR WORK. Ask your partner a question using one of the newly learned
words. Your partner’s answer must reflect his/her understanding of the meaning
of the new term. Swap roles after every correct response.
20
Example:
Q: If you are versatile, can the company assign you to any kind of work?
A: Sure, because as one who has the ability for varied tasks, I can do any kind
of work.
Image Intensifier
Accomplish the following KWL Chart to form mental pictures about the reading
material titled, Non-Experimental Research that you are about to read a few minutes
from now.
What I learned
What I already know What I want to know
(Do this after reading the text)
Concept Discovery
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Definition of Non-Experimental Research

Non-Experimental research is a way of finding out truths about a subject by
describing the collected data about such subject and determining their relationships
or connections with one another. Any treatment or condition is not involved in this
type of research. But there is a measuring of variables here; hence, once you do a
non-experimental research, you deal with both qualitative and quantitative data. Your
desire to discover people’s thoughts, views, feelings and attitudes about a certain
societal issue, object, place, or event causes you to use non-experimental research.
Characteristics
1. It is incapable of establishing cause-effect relationships; by itself, it is able, if
it takes place in conjunction with other experimental and quasi-experimental
research methods.
2. It involves various ways of data analysis:
 Primary – analysis of data collected by the researcher himself
 Secondary – examination of data collected by other people
 Meta-analysis – analysis of data expressed numerically.
3. It uses research method that applicable to both quantitative and qualitative data.
It collects data through survey, observation, historical studies, case studies,

documentary analysis, and so on. (Suter 2012; Sarantakos 2013)
Definition of Survey Research

Many immediately come to think of Survey Research the moment they hear or
read the expression, Non-experimental research. This is so because Survey research is
the most used non-experimental research in the field of Sociology, Psychology, and
Humanities. Inquiries, investigations, and experiments also happen in this type of
non-experimental research, but in terms of types and analysis of data, Survey research
follows a standard that is applicable to social sciences. (Schreiber 2011)
Survey research is a method of research that aims at knowing what a big number
of people think and feel about some sociological issues. The data it collects from these
people serving as “representatives or informants” explain or describe the society’s
thoughts, attitudes and feelings towards environmental issues. Although survey
research is a very old research technique that began in the period of the ancient
Egyptian rulers, many still consider this as a very popular means of social inquiry.
(Babbie 2013, p. 383)
The extensive use of survey research is proven by the fact that more than one-third
of published research online in Sociology, Psychology, and Humanities were done the
through survey research. Usually used by researchers to study issues affecting a large
population, survey research requires data-gathering techniques such as interview,
questionnaire, online survey, and telephone interview that primarily consider the
size of the group being studied. (Schutt 2013). Here, the researcher selects a sample
of respondents from a small/large population and provide the chosen subjects a
formalized questionnaire.
Purposes of Survey Research

1. To obtain information about people’s opinions and feelings about an issue.
2. To identify present condition, needs, or problems of people in a short span
of time.
3. To seek answers to social problems.
4. To give school officials pointers on curricular offerings, guidance and
counselling services, teacher evaluation, and so on.
Planning a Survey Research

The research design of a survey research is similar to that of the experimental
research, only, that when it comes to data collection method and instrument, survey
research goes through the following phases:
1. Explanation of objectives clearly
2. Formulation of research questions or hypotheses to predict relationships of
variables
3. Determination of the exact kind of data referred to by the hypotheses or
research questions
4. Assurance of the population or group of people to which the findings will

be applied to
5. Finalization of the sampling method for selecting the participants
6. Identification of the method or instrument in collecting data; that is, whether
it is questionnaire on paper, through phone, via computer, or face-to-face.
Strengths of Survey Research

Stressing the effectiveness and usefulness of survey research, Schutt (2013) gives
the following pluses of survey research:
1. Versatility. It can tackle any issue affecting society.
2. Efficiency. It is not costly in terms of money and time, assuming there is
excellent communication or postal system.
3. Generality. It can get a good representation or sample of a large group of
people.
4. Confidentiality. It is capable of safeguarding the privacy or anonymity of the
respondents.
Here are the weak points of survey research appearing in several books about
this type of quasi-experimental research:
1. It cannot provide sufficient evidence about the relationships of variables.
2. It cannot examine the significance of some issues affecting people’s
social life.
3. It cannot get data reflecting the effects of the interconnectedness of
environmental features on the research study.
4. It cannot consider man’s naturalistic tendencies as the basis of human
behaviour unless his ways or styles of living are related to his surroundings.
5. It cannot promote interpretive and creative thinking unless its formation of
ideas results from scientific thinking.
6. It cannot have an effective application to all topics for research.
7. It cannot use a questioning or coding method that can accurately register
differences among the participants’ responses.
8. It cannot diffuse the main researcher’s abilities to control and manipulate
some factors affecting the study.
9. It cannot account for real or actual happenings, but can give ideas on
respondents’ views, beliefs, concepts, and emotions.
Ethical Principles and Rules in Survey Research

You are in a Higher Education Institution called college or university that
always considers academic excellence as its number one goal. Be academically
competent by producing excellent research paper that will mirror not only your
intellectual abilities but your valuing system as well. Considering the importance
of honesty and integrity in conducting a research paper, keep in mind the following
ethical principles and rules in producing an honest-to-goodness research paper
( Ransome 2013; Corti 2014):
1. Respect whatever decision a person has about your research work for his
participation in your study comes solely from his or her own decision-
making powers.
2. Make sure that your study will be instrumental in elevating the living
conditions of people around you or in bringing about world progress.
3. Conduct your research work in a way that the respondents will be safe from
any injury or damage that may arise from their physical and emotional
involvement in the study.
4. Practice honesty and truthfulness in reporting about the results of
your study.
5. Accept the reality that the nature, kind, and extent of responses to your
questions depend solely on the dispositions of the respondents.
6. Decide properly which information should go public or secret.
7. Stick to your promise of safeguarding the secrecy of some information you
obtained from the respondents.
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Answer each question intelligently.

1. Describe one doing a survey research.

2. How does a survey research differ from other experimental research methods?

3. How popular is a survey research? Justify your answer.

4. Explain the relevance of survey research to education.

5. Do you agree that survey research is better than the other research methods?

6. As to how prestigious a research should be, what can you say about a survey
research?

7. Why is the number of respondents crucial to sample selection?

8. Account for the historical development of survey research.

9. Has the history of research affected its present status?

10. How would you describe yourself as a researcher with integrity?

Activity 2
Directions: Write the letter of the expression in B that matches the one in A.
A B
_______ 1. Involves treatment a . data-gathering instrument

_______ 2. Statistical studies b. confidentiality
_______ 3. Stress on one’s views c. where most survey research
happen
_______ 4. Phone, email, questionnaire d. points to exact data
_______ 5. Variable predictors e. meta-analysis
_______ 6. Data types and analysis f . generality
_______ 7. Secret identity of the subject g. makes survey different from
others
_______ 8. Social sciences h. true experimental research
_______ 9. Research questions i. hypotheses
_______ 10. Stands for lots of people j. variables
k. survey research
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Fill in the blank with the correct answer.
True experimental and _____1______are the two types of experimental research.
___2____selection of subjects happen in true experimental research; purposive
selection occurs in a_____3_____. Another basis of______4____experimental
research is_______5______the experiment is done. If the study happens in
a place surrounded by walls, it is a___6_____But if it is _____7___it is a field
experiment. Actually, the only thing that makes the two types of experimental
research___8______from each other is the method of ___9____the subjects. If the
selection is randomized, it is definitely a___10________.
Activity 2: Research Conference
Directions: GROUP WORK. Form a group of five. Pretend you are guest speak-
ers in a research conference. Take turns in discussing about one topic on non-experi-
mental research.
Based on the extent of your understanding of non-experimental research, rank
the following from 1 to 10, with 1 being the most learned and 10, not learned well.
_______ Meaning of non-experimental research
_______ Relation between non-experimental and quasi-experimental
_______ Meaning of quasi-experimental research
_______ Ethics in social research
_______ Pluses and minuses of survey research
_______ Survey research design
_______ Purposes of survey research
_______ Characteristics of non-experimental research
_______ Data-gathering techniques of a sociology researcher
_______ Nature of survey research
Considering all factors affecting a research work, think of one doable research
study or one that you can do in a short span of time. Your school environment, circle
of friends, and barangay or subdivision conditions may give you an idea on what to
research on. Or, find out which topic appears interesting to you in various fields of
knowledge, like Humanities, Architecture, Engineering, Science, Business, Psychology,
or Education, among others. In pondering on any of these fields, much more, in
presenting a written report of your research work, give stress to the importance of
your study to the field of knowledge under which your research study falls. Actualize
your research interest by going through the phases of a survey research.
LESSON 5 Variables

1. widen your vocabulary in English;
2. express your perceptions using the newly learned words;
3. define variables;
4. characterize variables;
5. compare and contrast types of variables;
6. distinguish independent variables from dependent variables; and
7. determine the connection between variables and research problems.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Go to the main reading text of this lesson and look for the underlined
word that has the same meaning as the word in the following list. Write the word
you found opposite the given word.
1. Power, strength – ________________
2. Carry – ________________
3. To come to the surface – ________________
4. Causing annoyance or disturbance – ________________
5. Give, present – ________________
6. Suffering from something – ________________
7. Show – ________________
8. Changes done to suit one’s purpose – ________________
9. Very necessary – ________________
10. Points to something, refers to – ________________
28
ADS OR POSTER MAKING

Directions: Imagine that you own a business company. In the space provided, create
a poster or an advertisement to promote the product of your company. Provide
your work with a caption that uses the words you have newly learned.
Image Intensifier
Think about this title of the reading material that you will soon read: Variables.
What comes to your mind upon hearing this word? Ask questions to express your
curiosity about this word.
Concept Discovery
Find out what this reading material has to say about “Variables.”
VARIABLES
Definition
Variables are “changing qualities or characteristics” of persons or things like age,
gender, intelligence, ideas, achievements, confidence, and so on that are involved in
your research study. Made up of the root or base word “vary” which means to undergo
changes or to differ from, variables have different or varying values in relation to
time and situation. For instance, as years go by, your age or intelligence increases.
But placed in a situation where you are afflicted with a disease or have no means of
reading or no access to any sources of knowledge, your intelligence tend to decrease.
(Suter 2013, p. 137)
In research, especially in a quantitative research, one important thing you have to

focus on at the start of your study is to determine the variables involved in your study.
Unless you spend some time pondering on variables in your research, your work has
no chance of attaining its goal. Your research problem or research topic to which you
devote much of your initial research time finalizing stands great, if it has wordings on
the basic variables involved in your study.
Basic Types
Basically, variables are of two types: independent variables and dependent variables.
Independent variables are those that cause changes in the subject, while dependent
variables are those that bear or manifest the effects caused by the independent
variables. Hence, in a causal relationship, the cause comes from the independent
variables; the effects, on the dependent variables.
In an experimental research, the independent variable as the condition or treatment
applied to the experimental group is under the control, direction, or manipulation
of the researcher or experimenter. For instance, to determine the positive effects
of one modern grammar theory called SFG (Systemic Functional Grammar) on IC
(Intercultural Competence), you apply this theory in varied ways like realizing this in
a collaborative, oral, or written activity. In this case, the SFG serves as the independent
variable and the IC as the dependent variable.
Variable Relationships
In a scientific way of studying cause-effect relationships, these two variables,
independent and dependent are part and parcel of the research because the first one
is the cause; the second, the effect that you can subject to any form of measurement.
However, as you carry out the research, itis possible that one, two, or more variables or
extra variables crop up to create an impact on the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables. Being extra variables, they form this other type of variables
called extraneous variables.
For example, in the case of SFG vs. IC, (the first as the independent variable; the
second as the dependent variable) extraneous variables like age, gender, or personality
traits may suddenly surface to create effects on the relationships of the two basic
variables. Such extraneous variables are called participant variables if they refer to the
moods, emotions, or intelligence of the subject; situational variables, if they pertain to
nature of the place: smelly, chilly, cold, hot, spacious, and the like.
Other Types of Variables

Extraneous variables are to be controlled by you, the experimenter. But if they do
not give in to your control, they become confounding variables that can strongly influence
your study. Dealing with these types of variables gives you difficulty in determining
the real cause of changes in the dependent variables; that is, whether it is due only
to the independent variable or to the combination between the confounding and the
independent variables. The involvement of confounding variables in the research
results in the production of “mixed up, confusing, or bewildering results.” Involved
not within the research situation but outside the research process, the extraneous
variables exist as “nuisance variables,” whose potency need to go down to prevent it

from affecting the results negatively. (Suter 2013, p. 137; Thomas 2013; Schreiber 2012).
There are other types of variables which are as follows (Russell 2013; Babbie 2013):
1. Constant – do not undergo any changes during an experiment
2. Attribute – characteristics of people: intelligence, creativity, anxiety, learning
styles, etc.
3. Covariate – included in the research study to create interactions with the
independent and dependent variables
4. Continuous – quantitative in nature and is used in interval or ratio scale of
measurement
5. Dichotomous – has only two possible results: one or zero
6. Latent – cannot be directly observed like personality traits
7. Manifest – can be directly observed to give proofs to latent variables
8. Exogenous – found outside an identified model
9. Endogenous – found inside; as a part of identified model
Concept Explanation
Activity 1: Idea Extension
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Keeping in mind the meaning of variables in

research, check all words in the list that can operate as variables in any research
study.
__ water __ voice __ academic grades
__ skills __ ghost __ aspirations
__ ghost __ handwriting __ textbooks
__ experience __ guardian angel __ academic grades
__ world __ life plans __ economic status
__ dreams __ class size __ mental pictures
__ reading comprehension __ physical exercise
Activity 2
Directions: Write C if the sentence is correct; W, if not.

_______ 1. The experimenter relates himself/herself with the independent
variable.
_______ 2. Extraneous variables are nuisance variables.
_______ 3. Extraneous variables are as significant as independent variables.

_______ 4. All variables are prone to changes or variations.
_______ 5. All variables are controllable.
_______ 6. The effects of something on dependent variables are measurable.
_______ 7. Only words can express the effects of variables on dependent
variables.
_______ 8. The effects of something can be shown through fractions and
percentages.
_______ 9. It is wrong to expose the variables to changeable factors.
_______ 10.
Attribute variables have the same meaning as participants’
variables.
Activity 3: Guessing Game
Directions: WHOLE CLASS ACTIVITY. A student describes one type of variable.

The first one to guess it correctly earns bonus points and becomes the next quiz
master.
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1: Variable Identification
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Identify the independent and dependent variables

in each research problem. Write your answer under the right column.
Research Queue Independent Variable Dependent Variable
1. How does logical thinking

develop critical thinking?
2. What are the effects of
Koreanovelas on the
Filipino value system?
3. In what way does
collaborative learning
increase communicative
competence?
4. To what extent does

texting decrease students’
grammatical competence?
5. What corrupt practices

trigger off one’s resignation?
Activity 2
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Think of your own research problems then write
them on the lines provided. Underline once the independent variable; twice, the
dependent variable.

Directions: Rate your understanding of the concepts behind the following topics by
checking the column of your answer.
Topics Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent

1. Meaning of variables
2. Dependent variables
3. Independent variables
4. Relationship between
the two basic variables
5. Role of extraneous
variables
6. Confounding variables
7. Essence of variables
8. Types of attribute
variables
9. Differences among
variables
10. Control variables vs.
Controlled variables
11. Nuisance variables
Discover who among your professors have MA or PhD degrees. Know and
evaluate the titles of their papers based on how transparent the title is; meaning, how
visible the independent, dependent, and other variables are in the title.
Unit Identifying the Inquiry and
II Stating the Problem
In research, you are prone to thinking in various levels that range from the
simplest to the most complex modes or patterns of thinking. Your initial thinking acts
here pertain to what you want to research on or what you intend to subject more to
higher levels of thinking as you go through the several stages of research. The kind or
quality of thinking and attention you give to your acts of choosing your research topic
and of specifying questions you want your research study to find answers to strongly
determine the success of your research work.
LESSON 6 Quantitative Research Problem

2. communicate your world views through the newly learned words;
3. explain the meaning of a quantitative research problem;
4. evaluate the quality of qualitative research problem and research questions;
5. use prose and non-prose means of comparing and contrasting the approaches
and types of research questions;
6. distinguish a researchable from a non-researchable research problem; and
7. apply the guidelines in stating a quantitative research problem and
research questions.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Give the meaning of the underlined word in each cluster of words. Let the
other words in the set serve as clues to the meaning of the word.
1. maintain, assert, aver, warrant
2. perplexities, difficulties, problems, confusions
3. puzzle, enigma, problem, conundrum
4. approximate, near, close, adjacent
5. treasures, cherish, nurtures, sustains
35
6. exactness, peculiarity, specificity, definiteness

7. direct, geared, fit, control,
8. drive, goad, urge, prod
9. thrust, dive, plunge, jump,
10. think, mull over, ponder, reflect
Directions: On the lines provided, construct sentences fusing two or three of the newly
learned words.

Image Intensifier
WHOLE CLASS ACTIVITY

Brainstorming Session...In what condition are you, now? Happy, anxious,
contented, confused, puzzled, problematic, and what have you? What do you mean
by problem?
Concept Discovery
Could the following reading material, Quantitative Research Problem, contain
ideas approximating your thoughts and feelings about the term, problem? Find out by
reading this text intelligently.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Nature of Quantitative Research Problem

Life is not always a bed of roses. It is made up of both negative and positive
aspects of life. Experiencing something negative or making you fail to aver or affirm
the existence of a thing you expected to see or happen is a natural occurrence in
UNIT II – IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM • 37
life. This situation in life, where you find difficulty in knowing or finding answers
or solutions to questions causing you worries or perplexities is called a problem. By
nature, you or any person on earth do not want to stay long in a problematic kind of
life. Once you encounter a problem, being an inquisitive, speculative, and creative
person, you immediately would like to find ways and means to free yourself from
such conundrum in your life.
Sparked by your curiosity or interest, you get to ponder on a problem needing
answers. You resort to thinking of what to solve, whom to ask, where to go, and how
to do all the things you want to happen to find the answer to the problem. Behaving
this way, you are then confronted with a research problem. A research problem is
something that nurtures in your mind a difficulty or uncertainty, enough to push
you to do an empirical investigation whereby you search for answers to a problem
by collecting and analyzing data or information through which you can find the
right answer or solution.
Requiring you to adopt an empirical attitude toward your problem in a way
that you depend on your sensory experience, conduct experimentation, or perform
a scientific method in arriving at the truth about something makes your problem a
researchable problem. Being researchable, your research problem becomes a Quantitative
Research Problem, not a qualitative research problem that people consider not
researchable because it is more inclined to explaining or describing people’s views,
values, attitudes, opinions, and other subjective traits. Unlike a quantitative research
problem that is not only characterized by precision, specificity, or stability, but
also geared toward a possible result, qualitative research problem is described as
expansive, widespread, and developing and it is focused more on processes rather
than on outcomes. (Matthews 2010; Schreiber 2012)
Sources of Quantitative Research Problem

What are the things around you that could trigger your mind to mull over one
problematic area in your life that you want to look into empirically? One of the following
could give rise to a quantitative research problem (Edmonds 2013; Punch 2014):
1. Agencies of the government, or any non-government institutions
2. Your own experience or genuine interest in something
3. Previous research findings which you want to validate or consider as studies
suffering from some inconsistencies or discrepancies
4. Present political social or economic issues in society
5. Review of related literature
Research Questions vs. Quantitative Research Problem

Several reasons prod you to define or finalize a research problem or a research
topic. But this does not mean that after spending time thinking about a research
problem, immediately, you plunge into carrying out an investigation or collecting and
analyzing data. Thinking of a research problem or a topic to research on is a beginning
act in research. Another initial research act is asking a set of specific questions or
identifying sub-problems about your research problem.
These specific or subquestions, called Research Questions to specify the scope

and the method in collecting and analyzing data,give you the right direction in your
research. In addition, they are questions to give further definition or explanation of
the research problem by stressing the fact that they elicit answers to clarify or solve
the research problem, which is the main problem of the research. Here are examples
of statements to show the relationship between a quantitative research problem and
research questions. (Thomas 2013; Layder 2013)
Research Problem
Interrogative statement: What percentage of Manila private universities consider
the use of grammar textbooks as the most effective way to help college students attain
communicative competence?
Declarative statement: The main objective of this study is to find out the percentage
of Manila private universities considering the use of grammar text books as the most
effective way to help college students attain communicative competence.
Research Questions
Interrogative statements:
1. What is an English grammar textbook?
2. What is communicative competence?
3. What components of the grammar textbook work for communicative-
competence development?
4. How many Manila private universities require the use of grammar
textbooks?
5. How many Manila private universities use grammar textbooks as
references only?
6. To what extent do Manila private universities find grammar textbooks
effective in helping college students attain communicative competence?
Declarative statements:
Likewise, this study aims at finding answers to the following specific objectives:
1. To define a grammar textbook
2. To explain the meaning of communicative competence
3. To identify the components of the grammar book that work for
communicative-competence development
4. To determine the number of Manila private universities requiring the use of
grammar textbooks
5. To determine the number of Manila private universities using grammar
textbooks as references only
6. To determine the extent of Manila private universities considering grammar
textbooks as the means by which they can help the college students attain
communicative competence
Guidelines in Formulating a Quantitative Research Problem and Research Questions

1. Formulate a research problem that is researchable; meaning, open to
empirical investigation.
2. See to it that you state your quantitative research problem clearly, concisely,
and possibly, if under APA referencing style, not beyond 12 words.
3. Have your research problem focus on a general understanding of your
research topic.
4. Construct a research problem that mirrors the importance of carrying out
the research for finding answers or solutions to a problem.
5. Let your quantitative research problem state the variables and their
relationships with one another.
6. Construct an introductory statement to present your research problem,
which is the main problem of your research.
7. State your research questions or sub-problems, not in the form of yes-or-no
questions, but in informative questions.
8. Express your research problem and research questions either in an
interrogative or declarative manner, but some research books say that the
former is more effective than the latter form. (Babbie 2013; Punch 2014;
Walliman 2014)
Research Problems in Experimental Research

You came to know through the previous lessons in this book that quantitative
research may either be non-experimental or experimental, and that the latter is
of two types: true experimental or quasi-experimental research. In most aspects of
experimental research, both of these two types have similarities, like both include
selection of subjects, pre- and post-tests, and the use of treatment or control group.
Among these three key aspects of experimental research, randomized selection is its
leading characteristic, so much so, that the absence of random selection of participants
denies its identity as a true experimental and converts it into a quasi-experimental or
semi-experimental research in which the selection process takes place not by chance
but by the experimenter’s purpose or decision.
Regardless of several contrasting characteristics of true and quasi-experimental
research, both tackle research problems that require you to deal with these four basic
elements of experiments (Schreiber 2012):
1. Subjects or objects (people, places, things, events, etc.)
2. The subject’s condition before the actual experiment
3. The treatment, intervention, or condition applied on the subject
4. The subjects’ condition after the treatment
Types of Quantitative Research Questions

A quantitative research problem can generate a set of research questions or
sub-problems that fall under any of these types of research questions:
1. Descriptive research questions – ask questions on the kind, qualifications, and
categories of the subjects or participants
2. Relation questions – are questions about the nature and manner of connection
between or among variables
3. Causal questions – reasons behind the effects of the independent variable on
the dependent variable is the focus of these types of research questions
Approaches to Quantitative Research Questions

Likewise, you may start asking research problems or research questions based on
any of these two approaches:
1. Deductive Approach
Your questions begin from “hunches or predictions” or expectations about
the outcome of your research. Ask questions centering on a theory or concept,
discover the accuracy of the theory, ponder on variables to represent the
extent of the application of the theory, and make up your mind on which
variable to study through observation, interview, or experimentation.
Explaining the meaning of a variable based on its involvement or role in the
research process, particularly, in the measurement, manipulation, or control
of the concept application is giving such term its operational definition.
2. Inductive Approach
Deductive approach goes from bigger ideas such as theories or concepts
to smaller ideas; conversely, inductive approach starts from smaller and
simpler ideas to bigger or more complex ones. Inductively formulated
research questions focus on description of things to prove an idea or a
system. Central to this approach are specific details to prove the validity of
a certain theory or concept. (Walsh 2009, p. 35)
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: WHOLE CLASS ACTIVITY. Make your mind clear to all your classmates
about each of the following expressions by stating what you mean about such
word or phrase.
1. Research questions vs. Research problems
2. Researchable problem
3. Source of a research problem
4. The nature of a quantitative research problem
5. Research question approaches

6. Components of a quantitative research problem
7. Types of research questions
8. Interrogative statement vs. Declarative statement
9. Twelve-word limit
10. Pointers on quantitative research problem and research questions
Activity 2
Directions: PAIR WORK. Using numbers 1 to 5, rank the following chronologically.

1. _____ collecting data
_____ formulating research questions
_____ stating a research problem
_____ being interested in something
_____ analyzing data
2. _____ pre-test
_____ population issue
_____ post-test
_____ sampling process
_____ treatment or intervention
Activity 3
Directions: Check the column that speaks of the quality of the given quantitative
research problem. Accomplish the last column, too.
Quantitative Non- Comments, reasons,

Researchable
Research Problem researchable reactions
1. What are the viewers

thoughts and feelings about
the ending of the movie?
2. What percentage of the
movie viewers find the
ending tragic?
3. How many find the movie
unrealistic?
4. Does the movie reflect
Philippine culture?
Quantitative Non- Comments, reasons,

Researchable
Research Problem researchable reactions
5. What fractional number

represents the extent of
the movie’s projection of
Filipino culture?
6. In the director’s attempt to
explain the cultural impact
of the movie, what reasons
did he give?
7. What kind of reasons or
causes did he give to clarify
the viewers’ questions
on Philippine culture in
relation to the movie?
8. In terms of frequency of
different causes given by
the director, in what rank
order is the reason on lack of
intercultural competence?
9. How many causes are
attributed to globalization?
10. What value system of the
director did the movie
reflect?
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: In the space below, give a graphical presentation of your answers in

Concept Explanation, Activity 2.
Activity 2
Directions: Give one significant research term or concept you encountered or learned
in this lesson about quantitative research problem. Under time limit, your partner
elaborates such term or concept. Switch roles after getting a 2-point correct answer.
Submit to your teacher a copy of the summary of the honestly-recorded points.
Recall every concept or topic on quantitative research problem that you have
learned in this lesson. Evaluate the extent of your understanding of an item by entering
such concept or topic in the right column.
Excellent learning Average learning Little learning Poor learning Zero learning
Look at your surroundings: your family, friends, classmates, school, plants, varied
modern technological gadgets or devices like your cell phones, tablets, ear phones,
computers, vehicles, and so on. Center your mind on one problem or puzzling thing
about any of these things, people, or places you are exposed to. State your quantitative
research problem and formulate a set of research questions about your research
problem. Be careful in formulating your research questions as these indicate the scope
and delimitation of your study; meaning, the specific topics your research work has
to focus on. Likewise, mention the advantages or benefits of your study as well as
those who will experience the benefits of your research project. Exchange output with
one another. Keeping in mind all the things you learned about quantitative research
problem and research questions, critique one another’s work.
LESSON 7 Hypotheses

1. widen your English vocabulary;
2. express using newly learned words;
3. define a hypothesis;
4. differentiate hypotheses from research questions;
5. classify hypotheses based on a set of standards;
6. evaluate the quality of hypotheses;
7. formulate hypotheses based on a set of guidelines; and
8. explain the relationship of hypotheses with research problem and research
questions.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Circle the letter of the word that corresponds in meaning to the
underlined word in the sentence.
1. The enrolment date given by the registrar is tentative, so we have several
days more to catch up with the deadline of the registration.
a. temporary c. slowly
b. fixed d. recorded
2. I’ll try to infer the meaning of your puzzle, but let me be guided by some clues.
a. repeat c. think
b. answer d. guess
3. Keep on reading to improve your craft in writing.
a. penmanship and grammar c. articulation and prediction
b. time and effort d. art plus skills
4. Between husband and wife or writing and reading, there is a correlative
relationship.
a. doubtful c. close
b. mutual d. instant
44
5. Read the memo to ascertain the truth about the new salary scheme.
a test c. find out
b. prove d. reach out
Directions: On the lines provided, use the newly learned words in sentences.

Image Intensifier
Complete the following KWL Chart. Accomplish the last column later on.
What I Already Know What I Want to Know What I Have Learned
Concept Discovery
HYPOTHESES
Definition of Hypothesis
What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or an answer to a
question about variables, their relationships, and other facts involved in the research.
A research always ends up with a result. However, you are free to hypothesize;
meaning, to infer, propose, or guess about factual things related to the research.
It is an inferential thinking that makes you guess something based not only on
whatever experience or factual knowledge you have about such thing but also on
conclusions that were logically drawn by other research studies. A hypothesis has to
be tested through analytical investigation to prove how true or false it is. (Creswell
2014; Russell 2013)
Purposes of Hypotheses
Some researchers find hypotheses essential because of the following reasons:
1. They guide you on which aspect of the research to focus on.
2. They provide opportunities to prove the relationship between variables.
3. They give the right direction of the research.
4. They outline your thoughts on your manner of summarizing the results and
of explaining the conclusions.
5. They push for an empirical study to prove the existence of relationship
of variables and the effects of independent variable on the dependent
variable.
Hypotheses vs. Research Questions

In an experimental research that takes place in a scientific method, one of your
initial acts is formulating these two: research questions and hypotheses. Both are
related to your research but they are not exactly the same. Their difference lies in
the amount of stock knowledge you have about the focus of your study. If you
know much about the variables or have lots of knowledge about other factual
data involved in the research through your review of related literature, you can
formulate hypotheses. Otherwise, form research questions. At any rate, the purpose
of these two forms of inferential thinking is to propose possible or probable answers
or solutions to the research problem focused on by the study. The results of your
research or investigation prove whether the hypotheses are correct, incorrect, or
partially correct. (Schreiber 2012)
Categories of Hypotheses
There are two categories of hypotheses: null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses.
A null hypothesis symbolized by Ho, which states the absence of relationship between
the independent and dependent variables. It is therefore a statement to disprove
the fact that the independent variable (treatment, intervention, or condition) has an
effect on the dependent variable. The opposite of null hypothesis is the alternative
hypothesis. Symbolized by Hi, the alternative hypothesis states the relationship
between the independent and the dependent variables and the fact that the first affects
the second one. (Morgan 2014; Thomas 2013)
Types of Hypotheses
Choosing which type of hypothesis to use depends solely on you, the researcher.
It does not mean, however, that choosing one of the following types of hypotheses
makes you come out with the best hypothesis because no type of hypotheses is
superior to any hypothesis. (Badke 2012; Morgan 2014)
1. Theory-driven vs. Data-driven hypotheses

A hypothesis that is based on existing theory to explain the relationship of
variables and the effects of one variable on the other variables is theory-driven.
But if it is based on the findings of previous research studies, it is a data-driven
hypothesis.
2. Directional (one-tailed) vs. Non-directional (two-tailed) hypotheses

Directional hypotheses state the relationship of two variables as well as of the
relationship of these variables. Non-directional hypotheses, on the other hand, state
the relationship of variables but not on the direction of the relationship.
3. Descriptive vs. Causal hypotheses

A statement specifying the relationship between two variables due to the
influence of something is a descriptive hypothesis; due to cause-effect relationship,
it is a causal hypothesis. True experimental or quasi-experimental research such
as a correlation study uses causal hypotheses; non-experimental research uses
descriptive hypotheses.
Guidelines in Formulating Hypotheses

The craft in hypotheses formulation requires you think of the following pointers
(Mc Bride 2013; Lapan 2012):
1. Express your hypotheses in a declarative sentence.
2. Support your hypotheses with ideas based on theories, known facts,
previous studies, or your own experience and wisdom.
3. Establish a logical relationship between the hypotheses and the research
problem.
4. Have your hypotheses predict the nature of relationship between or among
variables.
5. Ascertain the possibility of having some means of testing, analyzing, and
investigating your hypotheses.
6. Avoid wordiness by using clear, exact, or specific language in stating the
hypotheses.
Concept Explanation
Activity 1: Class Inquiry
Directions: WHOLE CLASS ACTIVITY. Take turns in asking questions about the text
on Hypotheses. Questions and answers reflecting HOTS (higher-order thinking
strategies of interpreting, criticizing, applying, and creating) will merit higher
recitation grade.
Activity 2
Directions: Answer each question intelligently and concisely.

1. Why is a hypothesis a tentative explanation of something?
2. Is hypothesizing an example of HOTS? Why? Why not?
3. How do you formulate hypotheses?
4. Describe the relationship between hypotheses and research questions.
5. In research, what is the appropriate research time for hypotheses formulation?
Explain your answer.
6. Should every research be provided with hypotheses? Give reasons for
your answer.
7. Can any researcher formulate hypotheses? Why? Why not?
8. How do you determine the quality of hypotheses?
9. If you were to advise your friend on hypotheses formulation, what would
you tell him/her?
10. Formulate hypotheses about the hottest issue in town.
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Complete this bubble graph with the right words
to indicate hypotheses classification.
Categories
of
Nature of Hypotheses
Relationship
Source
Varieties of
of Hypotheses
Hypotheses
Course
of
Relationship
Activity 2
Directions: Check the right column to indicate your judgment of the quality of the
given hypotheses.
Hypotheses Good Bad Reasons, Comments
1. Can the results of the survey

discourage candidate Garcia’s
supporters?
2. A survey to get the voters’

election preferences could
indicate candidate Garcia’s
winnable stand.
3. The survey results do not
indicate a candidate’s chances
to win.
4. Definitely, God will make
candidate Garcia win in the
election.
5. Lots of vote buying in Sta.
Fe made Garcia lose his
candidacy.
Activity 3
Directions: Write Ho on the line if the statement is a null hypothesis for the given
research problem; Hi, if it is an alternative hypotheses; and X if it is not a
hypotheses.
Quantitative Research Problem: In what order should the 18 senatorial candidates
be ranked on the basis of their experience on legal management?
_______ 1. One-half of the senatorial candidates are knowledgeable about law.
_______ 2. Two-thirds of the senatorial candidates have no knowledge about law.
_______ 3. Being lawyers means having rich background knowledge on law.
_______ 4. The lone lawyer among the candidates will be in rank one.
_______ 5. The only lawyer in the group will not be number one in the rank.
Check the column that speaks of the extent of learning you have had about
hypotheses.
Strongly Strongly
Concepts Agree Undecided Disagree
agree disagree
1. You can very well compare

and contrast the types of
hypotheses.
2. You know very well how

to formulate excellent
hypotheses.
3. You have learned very well

why you have to formulate
hypotheses.

the difference between
hypotheses and research
questions.

the difference between null
and alternative hypotheses.
Refresh your mind about the quantitative research problem and research questions
you formulated in the last part of Lesson 6 (Concept Transformation). Unless you
want to form another quantitative research problem and research questions, formulate
hypotheses (3 alternative and 2 null hypotheses) about your Lesson 6 quantitative
research problem.
Unit Learning from Others and
III Reviewing the Literature
Several reasons are behind your choice of a particular topic to research on.
Your curiosity or familiarity about an animate creature or inanimate object and its
functionality inspire you to discover more about such person or thing. Whatever
experience or background knowledge you have about your chosen topic becomes
valuable believable only as regards your acts of proving the validity or truthfulness
of your claims about your topic, if these ideas of yours are related to what the
world or other people already know or have already discovered or done about your
chosen topic. Aligning your thinking with other people’s ideas displayed legally and
professionally in varied literary works lends credibility to whatever ideas you have
about your research study.
LESSON 8 Review of Related Literature (RRL)

2. express worldviews freely using newly learned words;
3. enumerate the purposes of review of related literature;
4. familiarize with the review or related literature in quantitative research;
5. make a graphical presentation of the systematic review of related literature;
6. differentiate meta-analysis from other literature-review methods;
7. compare and contrast these two referencing styles: APA and MLA;
8. document your research paper by using your chosen referencing style properly;
and
9. practice the ethical standards in writing your literature-review results.
51
Concept Linkers
Directions: From the box, choose the word that is similar in meaning to the italicized
word in the sentence. Write you answer on the line provided.
hard appropriate to go
exactness total give
control
1. I have varied suggestions for the success of our project, but for now, let Mr.
Lee’s suggestion prevail. ____________________________________________
2. Not checking the essential parts of your car is not a simple case, but a sign of
gross negligence. ___________________________________________________
3. I know I have enough time and effort to stand the rigorous way of conducting
a research project. _________________________________________________
4. Please state with precision your final decision on the sale of the property
along the beach.___________________________________________________
5. That’s the apt answer to his question._________________________________
6. Stay at home. Resort to calling up your friends only in times of
emergency.______________________________________________________
7. To make the plants yield fruits fast, water them regularly. ______________
Directions: While away your time by having a chit-chat or a relaxed conversation

with your partner. Use the newly learned words in your conversation.
Image Intensifier
Be grand Speculators! Raise as many questions as you can about this term: Review
of Related Literature.
Concept Discovery
Do you think the following reading material has the answers to your questions?
Find out by reading this text intelligently.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL)
Definition of RRL
RRL is an important component of research regardless of the type of research. Be
it qualitative or quantitative research, you spend time and effort in reviewing related
UNIT III – LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE • 53
literature. Reviewing related literature is one major activity in research that makes you
examine or study again concepts or ideas related to your research that people man-
aged to publish in books, journals, or other reading materials in the past.
Purposes of RRL
Your reasons for reviewing related literature are true for both qualitative and
quantitative research. You re-examine written works related to your research for the
following purposes:
1. To find out the connection of your research to the current conditions or
situations of the world
2. To know more about theories or concepts underlying your research and to
learn from them with respect to your own research study
3. To discover the relation of your research with previous research studies
4. To obtain information on the accuracy or relevance of your research questions
5. To familiarize yourself with technical terms related to your research
RRL in Quantitative Research

You have learned that there are two basic methods of reviewing related literature:
traditional and systematic review. Traditional is for qualitative research; systematic,
for quantitative research. Systematic review, ‘a question-driven methodology’ is used
by quantitative researchers who begin their research work by asking questions—one
big question that states the main problem of the research and a set of sub-questions
that deal with specific aspects of the research. Qualitative research likewise begins
with research questions, but these are open-ended and subjective questions, in
contrast to quantitative questions that aim at obtaining exact, specific, and objective
answers whose origin or sources are easy to trace. (Ridley 2012, p. 189; Jesson 2011)
Steps in Conducting a Systematic Review

Systematic review of related literature happens through the following sequential steps:
1. Clarifying the research questions
2. Planning the research based on your understanding of the research questions
3. Searching for literature
4. Listing criteria for considering the values of written works
5. Evaluating the quality of previous research studies
6. Summarizing the various forms of knowledge collected
Obtaining results of the review of related literature by means of systematic
review that takes place in a step-by-step method is a scientific way of conducting a
re-examination of reading materials that have close connection with your research.
Adopting a systematic review of related literature prevents you from being bias in
dealing with the varied form of literature. The adherence of systematic review to
scientific method makes it the apt RRL method for quantitative research that likewise
follows the scientific method of looking into the truthfulness of something. (Babbie
2013; Russel 2013; Jesson 2011)
Meta-analysis in Quantitative Research

What is meta-analysis in relation to RRL? Meta-analysis is a kind of review of related
literature in which you re-examine and combine the results of two or more statistical
studies for coming out with a grand total to indicate stronger effects of the research
outcome. Putting the results together and making them appear as one result work to
strengthen whatever impact the independent variable has on the dependent variable.
Meta-analysis helps in guaranteeing the precision of the measuring method used
in a quantitative research. However, this merging of statistical results is not applicable
to all quantitative research studies. You resort to meta-analysis only if the statistics
that you intend to combine come from studies having several similarities like they
are comparable in terms of research questions, research design, treatment, measuring
technique, and measurable outcome. Similar in many ways, these studies that are apt
for combination purposes are called homogenous studies. Conversely, with a number of
differences from other studies, they are called heterogeneous studies and are exempted
from this type of systematic review of related literature called meta-analysis.
The qualitative approach of narrative synthesis which is a systematic review
using written verbal language to explain or describe test results is the appropriate
RRL method for heterogeneous studies. The meta-analysis systematic review prevails
strongly in the field of medicine where researchers must conduct studies to yield
medicines that, supported by sufficient evidence, are capable of reaching their certainty
level. (Ridley 2012; Jesson 2014)
In-text Citation and Referencing Styles

All reading materials related to your research that you intend to review or
re-examine offer you concepts, ideas, or information belonging to other people. Having
honesty, respect, or courtesy to the owners of these varied forms of knowledge as well
as gratefulness for their valuable contribution to the field, you see to it that the names of
these idea owners or authors appear in the appropriate sections of your research paper.
Other people’s ideas incorporated in the central section or main body of your
paper are to be cited or referred to the true owners of borrowed ideas. Referring to
authors within the main body of the paper is called Citation or In-text Citation; at
the end of the paper, it is called Bibliography or References. The two most commonly
used referencing styles are the MLA (Modern Language Association) and the APA
(American Psychological Association). The following table shows you how these two
referencing styles differ in some aspects.
Aspect APA System MLA System

Writing the Author’s name Full surname first, then Full surname first, followed
followed by initials of first by full first name, and optional
and middle name initial of the middle name
Writing the title of the Italicized title with only the Underlined or italicized
reading material beginning word capitalized title with all content words
(exception: capital for every capitalized
proper noun)
Writing the copyright date Written after the author’s Written after the publisher’s
name name
Examples of MLA Referencing Style

1. Citation or In-text Citation
(Zobel 287)
(Lopena, Torres, Bado 90–150)
(Carlos et al. 134–150)
(Gorio: 1: 66–70)
2. Documentary Notes
The same as the entries in a bibliography or References, except that, here, the
first name precedes the family name of the author.
Fely Decena, G. Globalization. Quezon City: GB Press. 2016
Mariano Lopez. Tropical Depressions.
3. Bibliography/References
One author
Decena, Fely G. Globalization. (Quezon City: GB Press. 2016).
Lopez, Mariano. Tropical Depressions. (Manila: Adarna Publishing
House, 2016).
Two Authors
Certeza, Nina C. and David, Jose L. Intercultural Competence. (Baguio
City: KLM Co., 2018).
Ramos, Hilario R. and Benitez, Rosie M. Academic Competitions.
(Manila: National Bookstore, 2016).
Three Authors (List down the names in the order they appear in the title page.)
Perez, Dino A., Mista, Dora C. and Paluan, Gloria F. Carcinogenic-
Foods. (Pasay City: ABC Press, 2016).
Flores, Lauro D. Aranda, Ben C., and Ferrer, Socorro V. The Manila
Voters. (Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, 2016).
Three or More Authors (Use the first name in the list)

Fuller, Norma N. et al. Trial Proceedings. (Quezon City: Rex
Bookstore, 2016).
Vinluan, Violeta et al. Labor Unions. (Pasig City: Hope Press, 2016).
Anonymous Author (If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the
title page, the name is given in brackets.
[Violeta Gamboa]. The Korean Telenovelas. (Nowhere: Nonesuch
Press, 2016).
[Cora Cruz]. Billiards Game. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication, 2016).
(If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the name
before the closing bracket.)
[Violeta Gamboa?]. The Korean Telenovelas. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Press, 2016).
Editor, Translator, Compiler

Fidel, Gabby. F. ed. Philippine Trial Courts. (Manila: PH Press, 2016).
Atayde, Luis F. comp. BIR Collection System. (Quezon City: Abiva
Publishing House, 2016).
Santos, John S. The Senior Citizens’ Club. trans. (Makati City: Rex
Press, 2016).
Editor, Translator, Compiler with an Author

Parayno, Gabriel. F. Philippine Politics. Edited by Kay Abante and Cora
Cortez. (Manila: PH Press, 2016).
Generoso, Luis F. Banking Systems. Compiled by Gina David.
(Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, 2016).
Formoso, John S. The Makati Business Club. Translated by Carlos Fojas.
(Makati City: Rex Press, 2016).
Organization, Association, or Corporation as Author

International Monetary Fund, Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6,
Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines (New York: International
Monetary Fund, 2008).
No Ascertainable Publication Facts

Carillo, Cory. The Marcos Regime. (n.p., n.d.)
Solis, Dianne. Philippine Law Schools. (n.p., n.d.)
Popular Magazines
Soriano, Mila. “ The French Dishes,” Panorama, March 2016, pp. 23–26.
Romulo, Arnold. “Oregano Leaves.” World Mission, May 8, 2016, p. 8.
Newspapers
News items from daily papers are rarely listed in a bibliography.
Rather, the name of the paper may be given either in the general
alphabetical list or in a separate section devoted to the newspapers.
Interviews
Interviews are best cited in texts or notes. It is not necessary to include
them in a bibliography, but if they are listed, the entries should appear
in this manner:
Baranda, Felicitas. “Laguna de Bay: Interview with Felicitas Baranda.”

By Gloria Manalad. The Manila Bulletin, 4 August 2016.
Theses, Dissertations, and Other Unpublished Works

Villaroman, Rina. D. “Traditional Language Theories” (Ph. D diss., U.P.
Diliman, 2016).
Ocampo, Dolores G. “Critical Evaluation of UST High School Language
Books” (M. A. UST, 2016)
Reference Books: Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Almanac, Indexes, etc.
Well-known reference books are usually not listed in bibliographies. When
such reference books are listed in notes, the facts about the publication are usually
omitted, but the edition, if not the first, must be specified.
References to encyclopedia, dictionary, or to the alphabetically arranged works
cite the items (not the volume or page number) preceded by S.V. or sub verbo,
meaning under the word.
1. Encyclopedia Britannica, 10th ed., S.V. “Ozone Layer.”

2. Columbia Encyclopedia, 5th ed., S.V. “Industrial Revolution.”
3. Webster’s New International Dictionary, 3rd ed., S.V. “cantankerous.”
Slides and Film’s Videocasettes

Fajardo, Carina C. “Yolanda Rescuers.” (Quezon City: Palmall Press,
2016) slides.
Arenas, Carl A. “Cars for Rent.” (Manila: SSG Press, 2016) filmstrip.
Materials through Computers

1. Signed article in a magazine
Smith, Robert. “Email Craze.” Interactions. July 2016.
http://www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/
2. Unsigned article in a magazine

“Power Interview.” Business Trends Magazine. August 2016.
<http://www.BusTRendscom/Bus Trends/Trends/ctshoot.htmlz>
3. Article in Journal
“Systemic Functional Grammar.” English Forum. 38.7(2016). 18 May 2016.
<http://www.jhu.edu/English Studies Journal/vol.83/83.1 strethson.htmlz.
4. Article in Newspaper
Salcedo, Jeorge. “Japanese traffic Rules.” New Daily Life Star. 21 December
2017. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26 world/28 MIDE.htmlz.
5. An Editorial
“Golden Gate at San Francisco City” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer.
July 7, 2016. http://www.a-pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.htmlz/
6. Online books
Barbour, Kate D. Constructivism. 2016. http: AMPRA 2
etext 2014/14w0310txtz.
Alison, Gloria G. “Skills and Strategies.” 15–20, May 2016 dialog ERIC
AED23376.
7. CD-ROM/Diskette
Diamante, Pete B. “Radiotherapy Treatment.” Manila Post News Bank.
April 2017:
TI Manila Post News Bank. CD-ROM. News Bank.
“Domestic Helper.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford UP, 2017.
Examples of APA Referencing Style

1. Citation or In-text Citation
(Lopena, 2016) (Olivarez, 2017)
(Cortez, Mabeza, Brado, 2016, pp. 120–130)
(Ligos et al., 2016)
According to Flores (2017)…
Olidan (2016) maintains that...
A study on the Pork Barrel Scam is a “doable research work”
(Abunda, 2016, p.78)
2. Bibliography/References
One author
Floro, J. A. (2016). The Colds Virus. Quezon City: GB Press.
Gorrez, B. M. (2017). The Philippine Educational System. Manila:
Adarna Publishing House.
Two Authors
ropesa, N. C. and Danes, J. L. (2017). Coron Islands. Baguio City: KLM
O
Company.
Reylado, M. R. and Sabando, J. M. (2017). Academic Institutions.
Manila: National Bookstore.
Three Authors (List down the names in the order they appear in the title page.)
egalaa, C. A., Bautista, C. C. and Laya, G. F. (2017). The Philippines’
R
Supreme Court Justice. Pasay City: ABC Press.
goda, J. D. Oracia, B. C., and Torres, S. V.(2017). The Rescuers of
A
super-typhoon Yolanda. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.
Three or More Authors (Use the name of the first author listed on the title page.)
Bora, E. N. et al. ( 2016). BIR Regional Offices. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore.
Avilla, V. et al. (2016). Labour Unions. Pasig City: Hope Press.
Anonymous Author (If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the
title page, the name is given in brackets.)
[Candelario, E.]. The opium craze. (2016). Nowhere: Nonesuch Press.
[Amarillo, L.]. Pragmatism. (2016). Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication.
(If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the name
before the closing bracket.)
[Candelario, E.?] The opium craze. Nowhere: Nonesuch Press.
Editor, Translator, Compiler

Parehas, G. F. (2016). ed. Folk’s lucky charms. Manila: PH Press.
Delarosa, L. F. (2016). comp. Philippine Banking System. Quezon City:
Abiva Publishing House.
Anahaw, J. S. ( 2016). Summer illnesses. trans. (Makati City: Rex Press.
Editor, Translator, Compiler with an Author

Garabillo, G. F. (2016). Science textbook writing. Edited by Gina Alano
and Chito Fortez. Manila: PH Press.
Lirado, Izza F. (2016). Classroom observations. Compiled by Baby Rapido.
Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.
Amante, J. S. ( 2016). Pope Francis. Translated by Carina Davalos. Makati
City: Rex Press.
Organization, Association, or Corporation as Author
International Monetary Fund, 2008. Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6,

Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Philippines. New York: International
Monetary Fund.
No Ascertainable Publication Facts

Corona, L. The rise and fall of the Roman empire. (n.p., n.d.)
Socorro, D. Private law schools. (n.p., n.d.)
Popular Magazines
Alamares, M. (March 2016). “The French cuisine.” Panorama, pp. 23–26.
Paras, A. (May 8, 2016). “The 2016 ASEAN conference.” World
Mission, p. 8.
Newspapers
Tan, C.S. “Posh subdivisions in Pasay City.” (2016). Philippine Daily
Inquirer. 7 May.
Manila Bulletin. (2017). Editorial, 2 December.
Malaya. (2016). Editorial, 18 July.
Interviews
Corpuz, F. (April 2016). “Quantitative research: interview with Felicitas

Corpuz.” April 2016. Interview by Anabelle Gomez. The Manila Bulletin,
Claro, E. (May 2017). “High-school institutions: interview with Dr. John.
Almeda.” Interview by Lina Carillo. The Daily Tribune.
Theses, Dissertations, and Other Unpublished Works

Parayno, R. D. (2016). “Meta-cognitive reading among basic learners.”
Ph. D diss., U.P. Diliman.
Mariano, D. G. ( 2017). “English plus textbooks in college: discourse
Analysis.” M. A. UST.
Slides and Film’s Videocasettes

Prudencio, K. C. (2016). “Urban planning.” Quezon City: Palmall Press.
slides.
Barcenas, E. A. (2017). “Philippine shopping malls.” Manila: SSG Press.
filmstrip.
Materials through Computers

1. Signed article in a magazine
Alegre, R. ( July 2016). “Social-media networks.” Personality growth. Retrieved
from http://www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/
2. Unsigned article in a magazine

“Unstructured interview. (August 2016).” Business Trends Magazine.
Retrieved from http://www.BusTRendscom/Bus Trends/Trends/ctshoot.
htmlz.
3. Article in Journal
“Linguistic competence. (18 May 2016).” English Forum. Retrieved from
http://www.jhu.edu/English Studies Journal/vol.83/83.1strethson.
htmlz.
4. Article in Newspaper
Davalos, J. “ The era of globalization.” (21 December 2016). New Daily Life
Star. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26 world/28 MIDE.
htmlz.
5. An Editorial
“Politics in the Philippines. (7 July 2016).” Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer.
Retrieved from http://www.a-pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.htmlz/
6. Online books
Silverman, F. D. (2016). American pragmatics. Retrieved from http: AMPRA 2
etext2014/14w0310txtz.
Forbes, J. G. (15–20, May 2017). “Non-verbal language.” Retrieved from
dialog ERIC AED23376.
7. CD-RM/Diskette
Muralla, P. B. (April 2016). “Stem-cell treatment.” Manila Post News
Bank. TI Manila Post News Bank. CD-ROM. News Bank.
“Maharishi.” (2016). The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM.
Oxford UP.
Ethical Standards in Literature-Review Writing

Nowadays, with the advent of modern technology causing the emergence of
varied electronic communication devices and online sources of information, collecting
data happens easily and speedily. Through computer technology with its powerful
Internet, you become exposed to extensive amount of knowledge that is so easy to lure
you into practicing the copy-and-paste technique of obtaining ideas for your research
paper. Unmindful of prestigious ways of working academically, there is a danger that

you may fall into this dishonest way of reviewing and writing related literature.
The ethical way of literature writing tells you to acknowledge the owners of
borrowed ideas and put quotation marks around copied words from books or articles.
Intentionally or negligently disregarding the use of quotation marks around words
copied exactly is not only unethical but an indication of gross plagiarism as well. You
must be aware of the fact that with the surfacing of online sources of information,
software to detect plagiarism from online sources has likewise become so available in
academic institutions. Proper citation and referencing is your way of freeing yourself
from plagiarism and of avoiding people from casting doubts on your honesty and
integrity as a researcher. (Fraenbel 2012; Ransome 2011)
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Fill in the blanks with correct answers to complete the text.
Review of related literature happens in two ways: (1) _______ and systematic
review. Systematic review is for (2) __________; traditional for qualitative research.
A review of statistical results makes you use (3) _________ kind of systematic review.
All test results are applicable to (4) _______’ except those coming from (5) __________
studies. (6) ______ review through meta- analysis are given by (7)________studies, not
by (8) _________ that are characterized by dissimilar research aspects. Whatever stud-
ies the statistical results come from, these should be (9) ______ -based results; meaning
they are based on facts. Not giving importance to proofs or evidence, you resort to
presenting literature review results in (10) ________.
Activity 2
Directions: Put a check mark before the correct answer.

1. Meta-analysis supports a review of related literature that is:
________ traditional
________ systematic
________ technical
________ total
2. A systematic review of related literature follows a certain:
________ theory
________ method
________ instruction
________ model
3. Being honest, truthful, and grateful in doing the review of related literature is
practicing:
________ smartness
________ cut-and-paste
________ ethics
________ individualism
4. Referencing within the body of the paper gives you this research-paper
component:
________ footnotes
________ bibliography
________ references
________ citation
5. Quantitative research uses meta-analysis; qualitative research uses:
________ narrative synthesis
________ discourse analysis
________ data analysis
________ thematic synthesis
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Graphically, show in the space provided the taking
place of a systematic review of literature.
Systematic Review of Literature

Activity 2
Directions: Check the right column for each referencing item.
True only for True only for For APA and

Referencing Item
APA style MLA style MLA styles
1. (Bravo, 2016, p.83)
2. Colon after publication place

3. Date after the author
4. Period after the bibliographical
entry
5. Underlined title of the book
6. Date after the publisher
7. Italicized title of the book
8. Capitalized content words in

the title
9. (Araullo 383)
10. Capitalized initial word and

proper nouns in the title
In a brief reflective essay, express how much you understood the concepts about
the RRL or Review of Related Literature in a quantitative research. Specify which ideas
sank into your mind or came to your understanding excellently, moderately, slightly,
poorly, or emptily.
1. Find in your computer a quantitative research study that applied the
systematic review of meta-analysis. Download it for further analysis
and clarifications on some concepts or ideas you have learned about
meta-analysis.
2. Visit the section of your school library where you can see theses and
dissertations. Examine the referencing styles used in these reading materials.
Find out the accuracy and consistency of the application of the referencing
style the researcher has chosen to use.
LESSON 9 Conceptual Framework

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
2. communicate thoughts and feelings using newly learned word;
3. explain the meaning of conceptual framework;
4. clarify the difference between a conceptual framework and a theoretical
framework;
5. justify the essence of a conceptual framework;
6. critique a conceptual framework based on some pointers; and
7. write a conceptual framework applying the guidelines on doing this
important aspect of the research.
Concept Linkers
Directions: PAIR WORK. Put a plus sign (+) under the heading of the column if it is
related with the vocabulary word; minus sign (-), if it is not related with the word.
Vocabulary Concrete Trait Abstract Direction Action
1. Holistically
2. Cognitive
3. Nutshell
4. Comprehensive
5. Scheme
Activity 2: Vocabulary Practice (Verbal to Non-Verbal Communication)
Directions: By means of gestures, bodily actions, facial expressions, eye movements,

or posture, express the meaning of one newly learned word. Have your partner
guess the new word you acted out. But his or her answer does not depend only
on the identification of the word but on the correct use of the word in a sentence
as well.
65
Image Intensifier
Examine this graph. What do you think of this schematic diagram?
Concept Discovery
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Definition of Conceptual Framework
Research is an academic activity that requires a great deal of abstraction or formation
of concepts or ideas in your mind about things in your surroundings. This activity in all its
stages immerses you into performing varied higher-order thinking strategies of interpret-
ing, criticizing, applying, and creating. Resulting from mental conceptions and viewed
holistically, research has to appear understandable to people who are enthusiastic to read
the research findings. Owing to the cognitive-based nature of this scholarly academic
work called research, you need a certain scheme or detailed plan or system to explain the
components of the research including the relationships of these research features.
Wanting to make clear the ins and outs of your research in a nutshell, you
resort to making a conceptual framework of your study. A conceptual framework is a
graphical presentation of your concepts or ideas on the basic structure or components
of your research as well as on the relationships of these elements with one another.
It is a graph or non-prose material, specifically, a schematic diagram that shows a
well-ordered elements of the research. Giving a carefully constructed arrangement of
the components of your study, conceptual framework is abroad outline or plan to give
shape to your research. (Shields & Rangarjan 2013)
Purposes of Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework shows the organization, order, and direction of your
research study. It is an essential initial activity of your research because by means of a
schematic diagram, explained verbally as well, it enables the readers to obtain a general
understanding of the research. It gives people a notion on the research activities you
want to perform, on the manner you want to carry these activities out, and on the
knowledge you have to prove your familiarity with your research topic or research
problem. It also serves the purpose of clarifying concepts and their relationships with
one another in a research study.
Concept Map
Made up of varied figures: lines, circles, boxes, and other marks or symbols
representing your concepts on these varied features of your research—research
question, review of related literature, research methodology, and variables, among
others—a conceptual framework looks like a map showing the main features of a
plan or project plus the relationship between or among the features or variables in
the research. Through the proper connection of lines and pointing of arrows to boxes
and other codes symbolizing your concepts about the research, the readers are able to
visualize a comprehensive picture of your study.
Here is an example of a Conceptual Framework of a research study.
Research Problem or Topic: “Improving Critical thinking through Systemic
Functional Grammar”
Systemic Functional Grammar or SFG is a modern language theory which states
that man’s critical thinking increases whenever he uses language for these reasons:
first, for ideational function or for knowledge acquisition; second, for interpersonal
function or creating human relationships, and third, for textual function or for strategic
and coherent expression of ideas. In this case, the independent variables are the SFG
components (ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions) and the dependent
variable is critical thinking. Here is the conceptual framework to present the concepts
underlying this study. (Ravich & Riggan 2012)
Ideational
Function
Systemic Functional
Interpersonal Grammar Textual
Function Function
Critical Thinking
A Sample Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Framework vs. Theoretical Framework

All your plans, concepts, or ideas about the many aspects of your research are
shown and clarified graphically and verbally in the conceptual framework. However,
looking so broad or numerous, all components of the study, concrete and abstract, are
not extensively and thoroughly explained by the conceptual framework. Hence, there
is this other part of your research paper, called theoretical framework that gives and
explains the theories, principles, generalizations, and research findings, which have
some connection to your research study.
Conceptual framework enables the readers to clearly see in their minds the basic
structure of the research and the relationships of variables and other factual things
involved in the study. Theoretical framework, on the other hand, makes people know
and understand evidence-based truths, concepts, speculations, and assumptions
underlying each aspect of the research and the relationships of these research features
with one another.
An in-depth knowledge of the theoretical principles governing or controlling the
things involved in the research makes you think well and accurately of the varied
aspects of your study; thereby, giving you the chance to have a better view of not
only the main problem of your research but also of its other components. You get
to read in the theoretical framework the basis or foundation of the research; in the
conceptual framework, the broad outline plan to carry out the research on the basis of
the theories, principles, or generalizations proven true by facts and logical reasoning.
(Shields & Rangarjan 2013; Walliman 2014)
Pointers in Writing a Conceptual Framework

1. Familiarize yourself with the objective of the conceptual framework.
2. Base the contents of the conceptual framework on your own understanding
of the elements and of the relationships of the research features.
3. See to it that all aspects of the conceptual framework are related to the
objective of the research.
4. Let others read your conceptual framework for comments or feedback for
improvement purposes.
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Answer each question intelligently and concisely.

1. Describe the behavior of one writing a conceptual framework of a research.

2. In what stage of research is conceptual framework written? Give reasons for

your answer.

3. Why should a research be given a conceptual framework?

4. Suppose the research has no conceptual framework, what would the
consequences be?

5. Compare and contrast these two: conceptual and theoretical framework.

6. Which between the conceptual framework and theoretical framework is
comparable to the post of a house? Justify your point.

7. Should you focus your attention first on the conceptual framework than on
the theoretical framework of your research paper? Why? Why not?

8. How does a conceptual framework mirror some personality traits of the
researcher?

9. Do you find writing a conceptual framework easy or difficult? Explain
your point.

10. If you were to write a conceptual framework, what should your work
contain?

Activity 2: Essay Writing
Directions: On the lines provided, without going back to the reading material on
conceptual framework, write a two-paragraph composition about the most
important things you learned about conceptual framework.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Decide whether each set of words make up a conceptual
or a theoretical framework. Put a check mark () on the line under your correct
answer.
Conceptual Theoretical
Framework Framework
1. Relationship of variables ______________ ______________

2. Language has a social basis ______________ ______________
3. Einstein’s ideas on nuclear energy ______________ ______________
4. Conducting pre-test and post-test ______________ ______________

5. Analysis of rhetorical patterns ______________ ______________
6. Reading as a psycholinguistic game ______________ ______________
7. Universe formation through explosion ______________ ______________
8. Seeing the link between the Science
book and the CHED syllabus ______________ ______________
9. Syllabus as the blueprint of the course ______________ ______________
10. Testing the effects of Ebola virus on rats ______________ ______________
Activity 2
Directions: GROUP WORK. Form small groups with four members each. Choose
which of the following group activities can give your group a higher teacher
evaluation.
1. TV Broadcaster or Radio Announcer. Pretend you are this kind of person. With
all confidence, fluency, and accuracy, take turns in airing what you know
about conceptual and theoretical framework. Decide on the time limit.
2. Academic Contest. Take turns in being a Quiz Master to ask series of questions
about conceptual and theoretical framework. Be qualified to be the next
Quiz Master in the group by giving three correct answers successively.
3. Colloquy. Pretend you are participants in a colloquy (conference of scholars
and experts). Exchange ideas or views about all the things you learned
through this lesson. Teacher evaluation of your performance takes place as
he/she mills around the room.
Activity 3
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Picture in your mind one thing you want to
accomplish as soon as possible. Give the basic structure, shape, or formation of
this mental picture of yours through a prose and a non-prose material.
Directions: Based on how much you understood the concepts behind each given topic,
grade yourself honestly from 0% to 100%.
1. Meaning of conceptual framework __________
2. Meaning of theoretical framework __________
3. Difference between conceptual and theoretical framework __________
4. Purposes of conceptual and theoretical framework __________
5. Graphical presentation of conceptual __________
6. Narrative presentation of the conceptual framework __________

7. Schematic diagram __________
8. Guidelines on conceptual-framework writing __________
1. Recall one research problem or topic that the past lessons made you ponder
on in a span of time. Write the conceptual framework of this research topic
that uses a schematic diagram to present your concepts about this research
topic. Explain this further with words.
2. Formulate three to four research questions about this research problem.
Your research questions will guide you on the specific topics your RRL or
review of related literature will focus on. Stick to your research questions
as you do your RRL in your school library and through the different online
library and academic databases like the ERIC, DAAI, PROQUEST, CAMIO,
and EBSHOST, among others.
3. Synthesize the results of your library and online readings. Apply the ethical
standards in writing your review of related literature by documenting them
properly with the use of one these standard referencing styles: APA or MLA.
LESSON 10 The Language of Research

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
2. communicate world views using newly learned words;
3. describe the language of research;
4. state the reasons behind research-language formation;
5. explain the meaning of operational definition;
6. distinguish an operational definition from other types of definition;
7. compare and contrast operational and theoretical definition; and
8. give an operational definition of a term based on the guidelines they learned
about defining terms operationally.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Answer the questions about the italicized center most word. Get some
clues about this middle word from the main reading selection of this lesson that
shows wherein these target words are underlined.
What is it? What is it like?
inherent
What are some examples?
73
bounds
endowed
gleaned

Directions: On the lines provided, use one newly learned word in a sentence. You may
use two or more new terms in one sentence.

Image Intensifier
GRAPHS OF LANGUAGES
Directions: Examine the following graph of languages. Put a check mark ()
in the cell having a language that you know; an X over the language you
know nothing about.
Ilocano French Spanish German English Italian

Chinese Bicolano Korean Pangasinense Cebuano Chavakano
Greek Japanese Pampangenio Ibanag Malaysian Arabian
Kankanaey Italian Waray-waray Ilongo Latin Russian
Concept Discovery
What about the language of research? What do you know about this kind of
language? Discover more about this language by reading the following text.
THE LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH
Characteristics of the Language of Research

Research is searching for truth in a systematic way or in a scientific method.
Doing things in this manner means going into a world of science that deals mostly with
facts, principles, theories, generalizations, methods, and the like. Existing within the
bounds of science that is quite different from other subjects because of its inclination
to special or abstract terms, research is likewise pregnant with extraordinary terms
because this has a language of its own. It has its own organized system of language
structures that you, as the researcher, use to communicate with your fellow researchers
and with readers eager to know the findings of your research.
Endowed with special knowledge; meaning, ideas that are applicable to a
particular purpose, you possess a certain expertise that only people belonging to your
area of specialization find understandable and easy to relate themselves with. Your
expertise or special knowledge in research causes you to use words, phrases, and other
language structures whose meanings and uses are familiar with or common only to
those engaged in research. For non-researchers, unless they purposely read books on
research, the language of research appears as a jargon. Jargons are terms considered
as technical because these are commonly used only by people belonging to the same
field of specialization. Exclusively used by specific set of persons, like the engineers,
doctors, lawyers, architects, or businessmen, among others, these terms do not sound
familiar or understandable to ordinary persons in society. (Shields & Rangarian 2013;
Trochim 2006)
Research-Language Formation
The specialized forms of the language of research are caused by the following
factors (Trochim 2006):
1. Multisyllable words
ome terms reflecting the inherent characteristics of research as a scientific
S
method are made up of a number of syllables such as the following:
• theoretical – concepts
• empirical – observable
• probabilistic – uncertain
• quantitative – numerical
• qualitative – opinionated
• scientific– systematic
• inquiry – investigation
2. Types and forms of questions
Research has its own types of questions. It has to ask questions that describe,
show relationships, and give reasons behind the occurrence of something.
For instance, for a qualitative research, questions to be asked must elicit
views, emotions, or opinions of people. Quantitative research, on the other
hand, asks questions about the exact number, percentages, or frequency
of things. Informative questions rather than yes-or-no questions are the
appropriate questions to ask in research.
3. Span of time covered by the research.
Owing to the length of time—months or years—that takes place in a study,
research introduced the terms cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.
Cross-sectional study involves a one-time collection of data in a span of time;
longitudinal study, repeated collection of data for the purpose of finding out
changes of patterns over time.
4. Variable relationships
oncerning itself with whether or not a variable has effects on another
C
variable, based on cause-effect relationships and on a certain pattern that
may result in positive or negative relationship, research came out with the
following terms for variables:
a. Independent variables – the cause of something

b. Dependent variables – bears the effect of the independent variable
c. Extraneous variable – extra or unexpected variable cropping up outside
the research design
d. Confounding variable – unstable variable
5. Formulation of Hypotheses
Forming of hypotheses indicates the staging of a research. It signals the
occurrence of a scientific or investigative way of doing things. Hence, there
are these terms: null hypotheses for guessing negative results of the research
and alternative hypotheses for positive results.
6. Data
These are facts, information, or logically derived forms of knowledge that
are called qualitative data if they are verbally and subjectively expressed;
quantitative data, if they are numerically and objectively expressed.
7. Unit of Analysis
The subject or object of your research study makes up one major entity and
this may either be one of the following:
a. Individual, group, artefact (painting, book, travelogue)
b. Geographical unit (municipality, province, country)
c. Social interaction (husband-wife, teacher-learner, employer-employee)
Operational Definition
Meaning of Operational Definition
Concepts, theories, principles, assumptions, predictions, and other abstracts
terms are the catchwords of research. These are cognitively-coined terms that appear
so complex to readers, in general, especially, those with zero background knowledge
about research. A theoretical definition (explanation based on the concepts or
knowledge related to the field of discipline and widely accepted as correct) prevents
readers from immediately seeing the relationships or relevance of things involved in
the research. One way of giving a clear meaning of a concept or anything involved in
the research is to define it operationally.
What is an operational definition? Operational definition is making the concept
or the thing meaningful by specifying the way your research should measure such
concept. It defines the basic concept through the operation used or research activity
involved to measure the concept. Making the concept measurable indicates that the
operational definition is a component of an empirical process that requires observation
for distinguishing the concept from other ideas, for measuring it with precision, and for
knowing its meaning clearly. Defining the term based on its operation or application in the
research gives other researchers the opportunity to evaluate the measurement procedure
and to repeat such procedure in their own research studies. The following examples give
you an idea on how to define a term operationally. (Ravich & Riggon 2012; Trochim 2006)
Guidelines in Giving Operational Definitions

Gleaned from books on research are the following pointers on defining terms
operationally:
1. Have a clear understanding of the concept focused on by your study before
you begin defining such concept operationally.
2. Base your operational definition on the concept under study.
3. Express the operational definition in only one sentence.
4. Let the operational definition explain the measurement of variables clearly.
5. Construct an operational definition that other researchers can understand,
assess, and repeat in other research studies.
Examples of Operational Definitions

1. Defining Temperature
 Theoretical/Conceptual Definition: heat flowing between infinite reservoirs
Operational Definition: define temperature in relation to operations with

gas thermometers
2. Defining Electric Current
 Theoretical/Conceptual Definition: force between two parallel conductors
Operational Definition: mention the device, current balance, to measure

electric current
3. Defining Anger
 T
heoretical/Conceptual Definition: intangible; not directly measured
by observation
Operational Definition: mention facial expressions, vocabulary, or voice

tone to measure anger
4. Defining Virgo
 T
heoretical/Conceptual Definition: constellation of stars (cannot tell
the process of formation)
Operational Definition: mention the way of locating Virgo in the sky

(repeatable process)
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Show the connection of two ideas by drawing an arrow to
link a phrase in column A to that in column B.
A B
1. Non-researchers meanings based on concepts of the field

Technical terms used by those in one field of profession
Systematic method consider language of research as a jargon
Theoretical definitions basis of operational definition
Concept under study scientific method

2. Operational definition concepts, theories, principles, inferences
Abstract terms length of operational definition
First step in operational definition consists of specialized forms
One-sentence definition focuses on concept measurement
Language of research knowing the concept under study
Activity 2
Directions: Check the statement that is true.

1. _______ Science is synonymous with jargon.
_______ Science deals with concrete and abstract terms.
_______ Science is a branch of research.
2. _______ Experts’ words and phrases enrich the language of research.
Experts’ specialized words of a subject are not applicable to
_______
research.
_______ Experts’ language is metaphorical and philosophical.
3. _______ Research has its own way of framing questions.
_______ Research gives way to any kind of question.
_______ Research happens despite the absence of research questions.
4. _______ Research is understandable because of its multisyllable words.
_______ Research sounds complex because of its multisyllable words.
_______ Research needs more multi-syllable words from experts.
5. _______ Operational definition stresses the category of the concept under study.
_______ Operational definition stresses theoretical definition of a concept.
_______ Operational definition stresses the measurement of a concept.
6. _______ An empirical study happens in a qualitative study.
_______ An empirical research defines terms selectively.
_______ An empirical research requires observations of the object.
7. _______ O
ther researchers should not mind one’s operational definition of
a term.
_______ O
ther researchers could base their definition on one’s operational
definition.
_______ Other researchers are not in a position to judge one’s operational
definition.
8. _______ Operational definition is full of specialized terms.
_______ Operational definition is an element of an empirical study.
_______ Operational definition is as understandable as a conceptual definition.
9. _______ Theoretical definition has nothing to do with operational definition.
_______ Theoretical definition is your stepping stone to operational definition.
_______ Theoretical definition is a substitute of operational definition.
10. _______ The language of research is classical.
_______ The language of research is ordinary.
_______ The language of research is unique.
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. On the line provided, write OD, if the sentence
defines the term operationally; TD, if it defines the term theoretically or
conceptually.
_______ 1. A sentence is a word or group of words that expresses a complete
idea.
_______ 2. A sentence is made up of a subject, consisting of a name word, and a
predicate, made up of an action word, to express a complete thought.
_______ 3. A bug is a fault or an error in a computer program.
_______ 4. A bug is an error in a computer program that is characterized by
high-speed telegraph key.
_______ 5. Strangury is less than 20-minute slow and bloody way of urinating.
_______ 6. Strangury is a person’s abnormal way of urinating.
_______ 7. S
terilization is any procedure such as the use of a steam-pressure
cooker to destroy microorganisms.
_______ 8. Sterilization is a complete destruction of all microorganisms.
_______ 9. Analog is the representation of values through the use of physical
variables.
_______ 10. Cycle is a set of operations.
Activity 2
Directions: Convert each theoretical definition to operational definition.

1. A university is a place for learning.

2. Electric fan is a device for convenience.

3. Painting is an art.

4. A phrase is a group of words.

5. Patience is an ability to wait.

Put a check mark () under the right heading to describe how much you have
learned the concept for the following topics.
Topics Excellent Very Good Good Poor

Characteristics of the language of
research
Formation of the language of research
Operational definition
Operational vs. Theoretical definition
Pointers in making the operational
definition
Abstract terms
Surf the Internet and look for online published research study. Make a list of
terms that the study defined operationally. Keeping in mind what you learned about
the language of research and operational definition, critique the way the online
operational definitions were made. Show your teacher and classmates a copy of your
critical evaluation of the online operational definitions.
Unit Understanding Data and
IV Ways to Systematically
Collect Data
A lot of data from different sources preoccupy your mind as you go through
the several stages of research. To understand the data; that is, to find meanings in
them in relation to your study, you have to conduct an orderly manner of gathering,
identifying, and grouping them. A set-by-set arrangement of facts and information is
a must in research, because in arriving at a conclusion about your study on the basis
of the collected data, you don’t only deal with lone proof or evidence but also with
several proofs hinging upon a common theme, concept or theory.
LESSON 11 Quantitative Research Designs

2. exchange ideas with one another using the newly learned words;
3. explain the meaning of quantitative research design;
4. compare and contrast the types of quantitative research designs;
5. classify the types of quantitative research designs;
6. outline the experimental research-design stages;
7. present a graphical look of the experimental research-design stages; and
8. judge the quality of finished quantitative research designs.
83
Concept Linkers
Directions: Circle the letter of the word or phrase that is similar in meaning to the
underlined word in the sentence. Be guided by some clues in the sentence.
1. Being a renowned person, he does not need to give his name to the guards.
All the people in the community know his name.
a. kind c. friendly
b. famous d. wealthy
2. The stone glitters like a star but it is not comparable to a real diamond; it is
a quasi-diamond.
a. costly c. genuine
b. cheap d. almost
3. Do you envisage yourself wearing the most expensive diamond ring on earth?
a. imagine c. present
b. justify d. prove
4. Befriend all people around you but shun relating yourself closely with
rumour mongers.
a. help c. expect
b. avoid d. hesitate
5. Wear something that approximates the gown of Ms. Universe or one red
dress that looks like orange at first glance.
a. looks damaging to c. appears close to
b. popularizes d. advertises
6. Neglecting to consult me about the list of names, your purposive erasure of
my name in the list needs immediate explanation from you.
a. forceful c. accidental
b. intentional d. careful
7. You must be in a good mental condition to be able to conceive the things you
want to do as soon as possible.
a. share ideas c. explain well
b. form ideas d. write well
8. My vision of Pope Francis, whom I haven’t personally met yet, reminds me
of one story I read about St. Francis of Assisi.
a. wishful attitude c. mental picture
b. comic strip d. scary dream
UNIT IV – UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA • 85
9. Lacking in Vitamin C, you are prone to colds and other respiratory diseases.
a. susceptible c. submitted
b. near d. similar
10. Studying hard will ensure you good grades.
a. show c. give
b. assure d. record
Activity 2: Vocabulary Practice (Guessing Game/Pantomime)
Directions: PAIR WORK. Act out something in relation to one of the new words
you have learned. Then, let your partner guess the target word but his or her
complete correct three-point answer depends also on the correct use of this word
in a sentence. Swap roles after every correct answer. Give an end to your guessing
game by submitting to your teacher your honestly accumulated points.
Image Intensifier
Brainstorming Session...The title of the main reading material of this lesson is
Quantitative Research Design. What immediately comes to your mind upon uttering or
hearing this title?
Concept Discovery
Do you think your thoughts or ideas on the said title are incorporated in the
following reading material? Read this text to find out the truth of your ideas on
quantitative research designs.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Meaning of Quantitative Research Design
There are a lot of things that you want to do in life. You want to be a Dean’s
Lister, to be in other parts of the world, to be a millionaire, to be a renowned scientist,
engineer, surgeon, and so forth. To realize one, two, or three of these things you want
to happen in your life, first, envisage any of these in your mind then have a vision of
what to do and how to do such thing. Doing this is seeing in your mind the order or
arrangement of things involved in the activity you want to perform. This is an act of
designing wherein a plan or an outline of your activities is conceived in your mind. It
is a design that takes a certain shape the moment you use symbols to lay its structure
or components on a piece of paper.
In any research type, much more, in a quantitative research where you do a great
deal of abstraction and scientific or logical thinking, a research design is a part and
parcel of your study. By means of your research design, you are able to make these
aspects of your research clear: your methods or techniques in finding answers to your
research questions and in collecting data.
Coming out with the design of your research is not an initial act of your study.
It is not the starting period of your research that makes you pour much of your time
in mulling over your research problem and in obtaining background knowledge
about your research topic. Preparing the design of your research work takes place
after finalizing your mind on these major aspects of your research: research topic,
background of the study, research questions, hypotheses, and research strategy
like: case study, experimentation, survey, and action research, among others, that
would introduce you to the different data-collecting techniques of interview,
observation, and questionnaire. Simply stated, quantitative research focuses on
numbers, statistics, and relationships between variables. (Punch 2014; Edmonds
2013; Lapan 2012)
Types of Quantitative Research Designs
Experimental Research Design
1. Definition
Experimental research design is a quantitative research design that bases its
research method on a scientific activity called experiment, in which a test
or examination of a thing under a manipulated or controlled environment
is done to determine the validity or truthfulness of such thing. This design
involves two groups of subjects: the experimental group on which the
condition, treatment, or intervention is applied and the control group that is
not given any treatment or condition.
Following this experimental design, you conduct two kinds of tests:
pre-test for both groups and post-test for the experimental or treatment group
to see the difference between them based on the effects of the treatment or
condition given to the experimental group. (Picardie 2014; Yin 2012)
2. Types
There are two types of experimental research designs: the true experimental
design and the quasi-experimental design. (De Mey 2013; Creswell 2013)
a.
True Experimental Design – What proves this as a true experimental
design is its random selection of participants. It is a bias-free selection
that ensures objectivity of results. This design is the best way to examine
causal relationships.
Quasi-experimental Design – The term quasi (pronounced as kwahz-eye)
b.
means partly, partially, pseudo, or almost. The non-adherence of this
research design to random selection of participants is the reason it got
the name, quasi-experimental research, which means a research with
the capacity to yield findings that are seemingly or more or less true.
Prone to bias caused by your purposive, rather than random selection
of participants, quasi-experimental design is incapable of establishing
cause-effect relationships. Trying to approximate or to be like the true
experimental design, this research design comes in different types such
as the following:
 Matched comparison group design

I n this quasi-experimental design, instead of selecting participants
for the control group, you get a set of participants that shows close
similarities with the experimental or treatment group based on one or
more important variables.
 Time-series quasi-experimental design
Your act of controlling the variables in this case is through multiple
observations of the subjects before and after the treatment or condition
applied to the experimental group. The purpose of serial observations
is to see the connection between the pre-test and the post-test based on
the taking place of the treatment or condition.
 Counter-balanced quasi-experimental design
ere, control is applied to one group to examine the effects of all treatment
H
and conditions to control variables. For instance, negative results coming
from three-time observations are counterbalanced or given weight that is
equated with positive results from four- or five-time observations.
 Single-subject quasi-experimental design
his design is used when the population is so large that you find
T
difficulty in choosing a group to study. So, you decide to apply the
condition or treatment to a single subject like a class of learners then
later find out the effects of the treatment on the entire class.
Experimental Research Design Stages

The true experimental and quasi-experimental designs follow the same stages in
research designing. Their difference lies only in the participant-selection process, in
that the first is randomized; the second, purposive. (Lapan 2012; Walliman 2014)
1. Clear knowledge of the research objectives that enable you to decide not
only on the kind of research you have to do, but also on the manner you
have to follow in conducting the research.
2. Formulation of hypotheses to state your guesses of what may not be true
(null hypotheses) or may be true (alternative hypotheses) about the results.
3. Method of testing your hypotheses or of examining their validity like
deciding whether you have to follow the experimental design or the quasi-
experimental design.
4. Choice of which instrument to use in collecting data; that is, whether to use
interview, observation, or questionnaire.
5. Process of selecting the subjects to compose the control group and the
experimental group.
6. Performance of experimentation that allows control of the cropping up of
extraneous variables and of the experimenter’s bias.
7. Collection and analysis of data.
Non-Experimental Research Design

1. Definition
Non-experimental design is a quantitative research design that is
capable of giving qualitative and quantitative data, but more on
qualitative data; hence, this is often used in the field of social sciences.
Unlike the experimental design that allows manipulation or control
of some aspects of the research, non-experimental research design
shuns controlling variables. Instead, it involves variables the way they
naturally exist on earth.
2. Types
The following are the types of non-experimental research designs
(Schreiber 2012; Letherby 2013; Creswell 2014):
1. Descriptive – depicts an image or a picture of an individual or a group
2. Comparative – states the differences or similarities between or among
people, things, objects, etc.
3. Correlative – shows the extent and direction of variable relationships,
that is, whether a negative or positive relationship exists between or
among them
4. Survey – describes the attitudes, preferences, views, feelings, views,
and other behavioral patterns of a big number of people for arriving at
a certain conclusion about societal concerns and issues
5. Ex Post Facto – translates itself into these English words, “that which
is done afterwards” and has the purpose of deriving data from things
that are by nature taking place, so as to obtain explanations about past
events (Litchman 2013, p. 42)
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Circle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Designing a research is thinking _______________.
a. critically c. literally
b. skillfully d. imaginatively
2. To design a research is seeing the research process in your _______________.
a. paper c. library
b. mind d. book
3. Preparing in your mind how to find answers to your research questions

is _______________.
a. deciding on your research topic c. designing your research
b. controlling your emotions d. asking research questions
4. These are aspects of your research: research objectives, topic, questions,
hypotheses, and methodology. You come to think of quantitative research
design _______________________.
a. before finalizing your mind on these aspects of your research
b. after thinking of these aspects of your research
c. as you formulate hypotheses about these parts
d. as you ponder on your research problem
5. Central to experimental design is analysing relationships that are _________.
a. specific c. hypothetical
b. causal d. stable
6. A quantitative research design that is equated with qualitative design is
_______________.
a. true experimental c. non-experimental
b. semi-experimental d. quasi-experimental
7. Quantitative research designs are true for all experimental designs except
the aspect on _______________.
a. subject selection c. treatment application
b. variable relationships d. variable control
8. A quantitative research design that makes you be have as a scientist
is_______________.
a. survey research c. experimental design
b. case study d. correlative study
9. An empirical study is based on a research design that is _______________.
a. qualitative c. quantitative
b. hypothetical d. theoretical
10. These two are the leading indicators of the occurrence of true experimental
design:
a. Pre-test and post-test c. treatment and condition
b. Randomization and variable control d. experimental and control group
Activity 2
Directions: Answer each question intelligently and concisely.

1. What should you be thinking of before designing your research?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Does your research still follow a quantitative research design despite its
non-use of random selection of subjects? Why? Why not?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. How do you know that one is applying a quantitative research design?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Supposing you can not apply a true experimental design but you still want
to follow a quantitative research design, what research can you do? Give
reasons for your answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. What do you mean by experimental and control group?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Should the experimental and control group always be selected randomly?

Why? Why not?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. Why do some people resort to applying quasi-experimental design rather

than true experimental design?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. Do you agree that the best research results come from experimental designs?
Justify your point?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. If you were to conduct a quantitative research, which quantitative research

design would you follow? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. Do you know of some people around who did a research study using a
quantitative research design? Describe this person in relation to his/her
study.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Make a topical outline and graphical presentation of the
categories of quantitative research designs.
1) OUTLINE
Quantitative Research Designs
2) GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
Quantitative Research Designs

Activity 2
Directions: Evaluate the accuracy of the following flow chart of the experimental
research designing stages.
Hypotheses Gathering Experimentation Research

formulation instrument objectives
Data collection
Selection process Hypotheses testing and analysis
Activity 3
Directions: In the space provided, present the correct flow chart of the experimental
research design stages.

Think of the concepts or ideas about quantitative research designs that you learned
through this lesson. Classify these ideas based on the extent of your understanding of
these concepts. List them down in the right column.
Concepts Excellent Very good Average Poor Zero
Discover the type of research one or two people around you did in the past.
Focus your attention on those who did quantitative research studies. Request them to
grant you a few-minute interview in relation to their quantitative studies. Center your
interview on the research design their studies applied. Then, subject the interview
results to critical evaluation on the basis of what you learned about quantitative
research designs. Let your teacher and classmates read a brief report on your interview
with these selected people.
LESSON 12 Quantitative Data-Collection Techniques

2. communicate world views using the newly learned words;
3. explain the meaning of quantitative data;
4. differentiate the quantitative-data collection techniques;
5. describe each quantitative data-collection instrument;
6. specify the appropriate data-collection instruments for each data-collection
method;
7. evaluate the effectiveness of interview questions; and
8. name the right quantitative measurement scale for a research question.
Concept Linkers
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Give the meaning of the underlined word in each
cluster of words. Be guided by the other words in the cluster serving as clues.
1. arbitrary, prejudicial, biased, subjective
2. graduated, ranked, gradated, ordered
3. faraway, secluded, distant, remote
4. express, connote, denote, signify
5. advent, arrival, coming, approach
6. fallacious, erroneous, wrong, incorrect
7. oblivious, absorbed, engrossed, preoccupied
8. highfalutin, complex, difficult, high-flown
9. guide, direct, manipulate, lead
10. reap, yield, produce, generate
94
QUESTION-ANSWER GAME
Directions: PAIR WORK. Ask a question that has some connection with the meaning
of one newly learned word. Let your partner guess the target word referred to
by your question. But he or she has to use the word correctly in a sentence to
get the two-point correct answer. Switch roles after every correct answer. Your
submission of the honestly listed points per correct answer signals the end of
your game.
Image Intensifier
Surround with the appropriate words and phrases the expression in the middle
of the graph.
Quantitative
Data
Collection
Techniques
Concept Discovery
What do you think? Could the words appearing as bubbles in the cluster be found
in the following reading material? Read this text to find out the truth.
QUANTITATIVE DATA-COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Definition of Quantitative Data

Data are pieces of information or facts known by people in this world. Appearing
measurable, numerical, and related to a metrical system, they are called quantitative
data. These data result from sensory experiences whose descriptive qualities such
as age, shape, speed, amount, weight, height, number, positions, and the like are
measurable. Denoting quantity, these words appear in records in numerical forms that
are either discrete (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6...) or continuum (amount of flour...). However, these
quantitative data become useful only in so far as they give answers to your research
questions. (Russell 2013; Creswell 2013).
Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data

Collecting data is one major component of any type of research. Undermining
its importance would result in the production of inaccurate data sufficient to render
your research study invalid. Hence, in collecting quantitative data, stress is given to
the accuracy or appropriateness of your data-gathering technique as well as of the
right instrument to collect the data. The following are the most used quantitative data-
gathering techniques along with the data-gathering instruments for each technique.
(Matthews 2010; Badke 2012; Thomas 2013; Woodwell 2014)
1. Observation
Using your sense organs, you gather facts or information about people,
things, places, events, and so on, by watching and listening to them; then,
record the results of the functioning of your eyes and ears. Expressing these
sensory experiences to quantitative data, you record them with the use
of numbers. For instance, watching patients lining up at a medical clinic,
instead of centering your eyes on the looks of the people, you focus your
attention on the number, weight, and height of every patient standing up at
the door of the medical clinic.
As a researcher preoccupied with collecting quantitative data through
observation, you begin to count the number of patients and get the
measurement of their height and weight. These numbers representing the
results of your counting and measurement are then jotted down in your
record notebook. Seeing, touching, and hearing the sources of data personally,
you engage yourself in direct observation. It is an indirect observation, if you
see and hear them, not through your own eyes and ears, but by means of
technological and electronic gadgets like audiotapes, video records, and
other recording devices used to capture earlier events, images, or sounds.
2. Survey
Survey is a data-gathering technique that makes you obtain facts or
information about the subject or object of your research through the data-
gathering instruments of interview and questionnaire. This is the most
popular data-gathering technique in quantitative and qualitative researcher
studies for the researchers are free to use not just one survey instrument but
also these two following data-gathering instruments.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a paper containing series of questions formulated
for an individual and independent answering by several respondents for
obtaining statistical information. Each question offers a number of probable
answers from which the respondents, on the basis or their own judgment,
will choose the best answer. Making up a questionnaire are factual and
opinionated questions. Questions to elicit factual answers are formulated
in a multiple-choice type and those to ask about the respondents’ views,
attitudes, preferences, and other opinionated answers are provided with
sufficient space where the respondents could write their sentential answers
to opinionated questions.
Responses yielded by this instrument are given their numerical
forms (numbers, fractions, percentages) and categories and are subjected
to statistical analysis. Questionnaire is good for collecting data from a big
number of respondents situated in different places because all you have
to do is either to hand the paper to the respondents or to send it to them
through postal or electronic mail. However, ironically, your act of sending
the questionnaires to respondents, especially to those in remote areas, is
susceptible to waste of money, time, and effort for you do not have any
assurance of the return of all or a large number of fully accomplished
questionnaires.
Interview
Survey as a data-gathering technique likewise uses interview as its
data-gathering instrument. Similar to a questionnaire, interview makes you
ask a set of questions, only that, this time, you do it orally. Some, however,
say that with the advent of modern technology, oral interview is already a
traditional way of interviewing, and the modern ways happen through the
use of modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, telephones, smart
phones, and other wireless devices.
 Order of Interview Questions
I n asking interview questions, you see to it that you do this sequentially;
meaning, let your questions follow a certain order such as the following:
(Sarantakos 2013; Fraenbel 2012)
First set of questions – opening questions to establish friendly relationships,
like questions about the place, the time, the physical appearance of
the participant, or other non-verbal things not for audio recording
Second set of questions – generative questions to encourage open-ended
questions like those that ask about the respondents’ inferences,
views, or opinions about the interview topic
Third set of questions – directive questions or close-ended questions to
elicit specific answers like those that are answerable with yes or
no, with one type of an object, or with definite period of time and
the like
Fourth set of questions – ending questions that give the respondents the
chance to air their satisfaction, wants, likes, dislikes, reactions,
or comments about the interview. Included here are also closing

statements to give the respondents some ideas or clues on your
next move or activity about the results of the interview
 Guidelines in Formulating Interview Questions
From the varied books on research are these tips on interview
question formulation that you have to keep in mind to construct
effective questions to elicit the desired data for your research study:
a. Use clear and simple language.
b. Avoid using acronyms, abbreviations, jargons, and highfalutin
terms.
c. Let one question elicit only one answer; no double-barrel question.
d. Express your point in exact, specific, bias-free, and gender-free
language.
e. Give way to how your respondents want themselves to be identified.
f. Establish continuity or free flow of the respondents’ thoughts by
using appropriate follow-up questions (e.g., Could you give an
example of it? Would you mind narrating what happened next?).
g. Ask questions in a sequential manner; determine which should be
your opening, middle, or closing questions.
3. Experiment
An experiment is a scientific method of collecting data whereby you
give the subjects a sort of treatment or condition then evaluate the results
to find out the manner by which the treatment affected the subjects and to
discover the reasons behind the effects of such treatment on the subjects. This
quantitative data-gathering technique aims at manipulating or controlling
conditions to show which condition or treatment has effects on the subjects
and to determine how much condition or treatment operates or functions to
yield a certain outcome.
The process of collecting data through experimentation involves
selection of subjects or participants, pre-testing the subjects prior to the
application of any treatment or condition, and giving the subjects post-test
to determine the effects of the treatment on them. These components of
experiment operate in various ways. Consider the following combination or
mixture of the components that some research studies adopt:
a. Treatment → evaluation
b. Pre-test → Treatment → Post-test
c. Pre-test → Multiple Treatments → Post-test
d. Pre-test → Treatment → Immediate Post-test → 6-mos.
Post-test → 1-yr. → Post-test
These three words: treatment, intervention, and condition, mean

the same thing in relation to experimentation. These are the terms to
mean the things given or applied to the subjects to yield certain effects
or changes on the said subjects. For instance, in finding out the extent of
the communicative competence of the subjects, put these participants in a
learning condition where they will perform varied communicative activities
such as dramatizing a story, round-table discussions, interviewing people,
table-topic conversation, and the like.
Dealing with or treating their communicative abilities in two or
more modes of communication is giving them multiple treatments. The
basic elements of experiment which are subjects, pre-test, treatment, and
post-test do not operate only for examining causal relationships but also
for discovering, verifying, and illustrating theories, hypotheses, or facts.
(Edmonds 2013; Morgan 2014; Picardie 2014)
4. Content Analysis
Content analysis is another quantitative data-collection technique that
makes you search through several oral or written forms of communication to
find answers to your research questions. Used in quantitative and qualitative
research studies, this data-collection method is not only for examining
printed materials but also for analyzing information coming from non book
materials like photographs, films, video tapes, paintings, drawings, and
the like. Here, you focus your study on a single subject or on two entities
to determine their comparative features. Any content analysis you want to
do is preceded by your thorough understanding of your research questions
because these are the questions to guide you in determining which aspect of
the content of the communication should you focus on to find the answers
to the main problem of your research.
Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data

In quantitative research, measurements of data expressed in numerical forms
form in a scale or one that consists series of graduated quantities, values, degrees,
numbers, and so on. Thinking about the type and scale of measurement that you have
to use in your quantitative research is important because your measurement choices
tell you the type of statistical analysis to use in your study. Not knowing which scale
of measurement to use may result in your erroneous examination of the data.
There are two categories of scales of measurement: qualitative scales of
measurement and quantitative scales of measurement. Under quantitative scales of
measurement are these two: the nominal scale to show the classification of things based
on a certain criterion such as gender, origin, brand, etc., and the ordinal scale to indicate
the rank or hierarchical order of things. The quantitative scales of measurement are
the interval scale for showing equal differences or intervals between points on the
scale in an arbitrary manner (showing differences in attitudes, inclinations, feelings,
ideas, fears, opinions, etc.) and the ratio scale, like the interval scale, that shows equal
differences or intervals between points on the scale. However, these two quantitative
scales of measurement are not exactly the same, in that, the latter gives value to zero,
while the former does not give any value to zero for the value depends solely on the
respondent. (Schreiber 2011; Letherby 2013)
Examples:
1. Nominal Scale – categorizing people based on gender, religion, position, etc.
(one point for each)
religion – Catholic, Buddhist, Protestant, Muslim
gender – male, female
position – CEO, vice-president, director, manager, assistant manager
Summing up the points per variable, you will arrive at a certain total that
you can express in terms of percentages, fractions, or decimals like: 30% of
males, 25% of females, 10% of Catholics, 405 of Buddhists, and so forth.
2. Ordinal Scale – ranking or arranging the classified variables to determine
who should be the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc., in the group
3. Interval Scale – showing equal intervals or differences of people’s views or
attitudes like this one example of a scale called Likert Attitude Scale:
Reading is important.

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______
Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree
How often does your professor come late?
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Always Most of the Sometimes Rarely Never
time
How would you rate your professor’s performance?
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
4. Ratio Scale – rating something from zero to a certain point

Performance in Math subject – a grade of 89% (from 0 to 100%)
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Fill in the blank with the correct answer.
Central to __________1___________ are words; to quantitative research
are _____2_____. In this second type of research, you use the data-gathering
technique called _______3_______ that uses __________4___________
and _________5_________, two data-gathering instruments that are
made up of _______6_______. Questions on things resulting from your
experience are called _____7_____ questions; those on your interpretative
or critical thinking are called _______8________ questions. Survey is a
data-gathering _____9_____ while interview and questionnaire are data-gathering
______________________10________________________. Another quantitative
data-gathering technique is the ______11_____ that uses your _____12______
organs, specifically, your _____13____ and _____14____ in collecting data.
Watching and listening to people and things with your own eyes and ears
is a ______15______ kind of observation; with audio tape or video tape, is
______16______ type of observation _______________________________________
_________________17_____________________ is one quantitative data-collection
technique that aims at controlling variables to discover ________18_________
relationships. This method involves independent ______19_______ variables and
dependent variables. The ____20____ receive treatment or condition and, if it is
given the performance rating of 95%, it will appear on a scale of measurement
called ______21______ scale.
Activity 2
Directions: Using the table below, compare and contrast each pair of expressions.
Pair of Expressions Comparison Contrast
Quantitative data vs.

Qualitative data
Interview vs.
Questionnaire
Direct observation vs.

Mediated observation
Pre-test vs. Post-test
Interval scale vs. Ration

scale
Activity 3
Directions: Based on what you learned about interview questions find out if the
following interview questions are effective. Give reasons for your answer.
1. Would you mind telling me all the events again, then give me what took
place right after the last event?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Tell me something about the UCLA’s SPSS and STATA statistical techniques.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Why don’t you preoccupy yourself mulling over the expediency of having a
merrymaking day with those waifs living with the high-strung, supercilious,
cantankerous woman?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Oh, you are in time for our session. Didn’t you find this place easy to
locate?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. As a starting question, please tell me why you refuse to attend your Religion
subject?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Do you find your Math subject difficult and what about having some tutorial
lessons about it?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. What question did I fail to ask that you think I should have asked?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. Why do you not like yourself to be identified as Maria Salome when this name
sounds unique and nicer than your present name, Janette Nicole Angelina?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. My first question is, what do you think of the extent of corruption that has
been going on in some government offices?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. Let me end this session by asking you this question, how did you reach this
place?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Activity 4
Directions: Check the right column that corresponds to the given questions.
Interview Opening Generative Directive Closing

questions questions questions questions questions
1. Is there anything you want me to

know more about your meeting
with the Pope that you failed to
reveal to me?
2. Can you describe your feelings

upon seeing the Pope?
3. We have agreed to have this

session in 30 minutes. Is this okay
with you?
4. What makes you so eager to see

the Vatican City, soon?
5. What time of the year do you

want to go to Rome?
6. You took a taxi cab in coming

here, didn’t you?
7. Why do you think the Pope love

visiting many countries?
8. Would you like sitting at the

window or near the bulletin
board?
9. Compare and contrast your

experience in meeting the
previous and the current Pope?
10. What do you think was the most

significant thing that we dealt
with in the interview?
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: GROUP WORK. Give the ideas signaled by the headings of the table about
each given research question.
Quantitative Quantitative Quantitative

Research Questions Data-Collection Data-Collection Scale
Technique Instrument of Measurement
1. How long did the audience
clap for PNoy’s SONA?
2. What percentage of the

students said they do not
like the style of their new
school uniform?
3. What difference, if any, is

there between intermediate
learners (ages 10–12) and
high-school learners (ages
13–16) in their fondness of
cellphone texting?
Activity 2
Directions: Using the space provided, present through a graph the categories of
the quantitative data-collection techniques and the quantitative data-gathering
instruments.
Activity 3
Directions: Form a group of three. Pretend you are guest speakers in a conference
about research. Divide among yourselves the significant topics about quantitative
data-collection techniques that you want to share with the conference participants
with the use of the latest technological devices. Allot a certain time for the open
forum.
Activity 4
Directions: PAIR WORK. Pretend you are researchers and choose the same data-
gathering method called survey that uses interview as its data-gathering
instrument. Interview your partner on your chosen topic. Using the same data-
gathering method and deciding to exchange roles later, agree on the time limit for
each interview session that you should ask questions in a sequential order.
Using the space below, write a reflective essay about your learning experience
on the quantitative data-collection techniques. Let your essay reveal how much you
learned about each concept behind each topic dealt with in this lesson. Express which
concepts are the most understood, slightly understood, and the least understood ones.
Did I learn
much or little?
Reflect...Reflect...
Reflect...
Use the Likert Scale to measure some of your grade-level schoolmate’s
satisfaction, attitude, feelings, biases, or inclinations about people, restaurants, TV
programs, government officers, social media networks, online games, Internet, digital
technology, and mobile phones, among others. Share some people what you discovered
about your fellow students whom you randomly selected from the total population
of Grade 12 students in your school. Likewise, include in your written results report
clear descriptions of the sample and the sampling procedure you used.
Unit Finding Answers through
V Data Collection
You want to satisfy your curiosity about a certain subject matter. The only way to
do this is to link yourself with people, things, and other elements in your surroundings
because, by nature, research involves interdependence or interactions among people
and things on earth. The answers to your investigative acts about the topic you are
interested in come from people you get to communicate with and from things you
subject to observations. Research is an act of gathering opinions, facts, and information
to prove your point or to discover truths about your research problem or topic.
LESSON 13 Quantitative Data Analysis

1. widen your vocabulary;
2. communicate worldviews using newly learned words;
3. trace the stages of quantitative data analysis;
4. differentiate the quantitative data-analysis techniques;
5. organize data in a tabular manner;
6. use a graph to show frequency and percentages distribution;
7. calculate the measures of central tendency; and
8. use descriptive statistics in analyzing data.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Give the meaning of the underlined word in the sentence. Be guided by
the way the it is used in the sentence.
1. Choose one from the several alternative solutions from the guidance
counsellor.
2. After collating those pages, staple them, please.
3. Go straight ahead; do no make the mistake of deviating from the route we
agreed upon.
107
4. Without drawing the graph, you can’t tabulate the test results.
5. Some consider roses, chocolates, heart-shaped candies as codes for love.
Directions: Do the KIM (Key, Information, Memory). Complete the following grid
with ideas or pieces of information indicated by the headings.
Memory Clues (sentence expressing your

Key Terms Information/Meaning
experience about the key term)
1. Alternative
2. Collating
3. Deviating
4. Tabulate
5. Code
Image Intensifier
Look at these figures. Do you know what these symbols mean? What is running
through your mind as you examine the things inside the box?
Concept Discovery
What about the following reading material? Does it have something to say about
the figures in the box? Read to find out.
UNIT V – FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION • 109
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Basic Concept
At this time, you already know that data means facts or information about people,
places, things, events, and so on, and when these data appear not in words, images
or pictures, but in numerical forms such fractions, numbers, and percentages, they
become quantitative data. To understand the numbers standing for the information,
you need to analyze them; that is, you have to examine or study them, not by taking
the data as a whole, but by separating it into its components. Then, examine each
part or element to see the relationships between or among the parts, to discover the
orderly or sequential existence of these parts, to search for meaningful patterns of the
components, and to know the reasons behind the formation of such variable patterns.
Quantitative data analysis is time consuming because it involves series of
examinations, classifications, mathematical calculations, and graphical recording,
among others. Hence, a thorough and advance planning is needed for this major aspect
of your study. However, all these varied analytical studies that you pour into your
research become significant only if prior to finalizing your mind about these activities,
you have already identified the measurement level or scale of your quantitative data;
that is, whether your study measures the data through a ratio or interval scale, not by
means of nominal or ordinal scale because these last two levels of measurement are for
qualitative data analysis. It is important for you to know what scale of measurement
to use, for the kind of quantitative analysis you will do depends on your measurement
scale. (De Mey 2013; Letherby 2013; Russel 2013)
Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis

Having identified the measurement scale or level of your data means you
are now ready to analyze the data in this manner (Badke 2012; Letherby 2013;
Mc Bride 2013):
Step 1: Preparing the Data

Keep in mind that no data organization means no sound data analysis. Hence,
prepare the data for analysis by first doing these two preparatory sub steps:
1. Coding System
To analyze data means to quantify or change the verbally expressed data
into numerical information. Converting the words, images, or pictures into
numbers, they become fit for any analytical procedures requiring knowledge
of arithmetic and mathematical computations. But it is not possible for you
to do the mathematical operations of division, multiplication, or subtraction
in the word level, unless you code the verbal responses and observation
categories.
For instance, as regards gender variable, give number 1 as the code
or value for Male and number 2 for Female. As to educational attainment
as another variable, give the value of 2 for elementary; 4 for high school,
6 for college, 9 for MA, and 12 for PhD level. By coding each item with a
certain number in a data set, you are able to add the points or values of the
respondents’ answers to a particular interview question or questionnaire
item.
2. Data Tabulation
For easy classification and distribution of numbers based on a certain
criterion, you have to collate them with the help of a graph called Table. Used
for frequency and percentage distribution, this kind of graph is an excellent
data organizer that researchers find indispensable. Here’s an example of
tabulated data:
Total Sample Size: 24
Gender Male: 11 (46%)

Female: 13 (54%)
Course Fine Arts: 9 (37%)
Architecture: 6 (25%)
Journalism: 4 (17%)
Com. Arts: 5 (20%)
School FEU: 3 (12%)
MLQU: 4 (17%)
PLM: 3 (12%)
PUP: 5 (20%)
TIP: 4 (17%)
UE: 5 (20%)
Attended in 2016 Summer Yes: 18 (75%)
Arts Seminar-Workshop No: 6 (25%)
Role in the 2016 Seminar- Speaker: 4 (17%)
Workshop on Arts Organizer: 3 (12%)
Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
Participant: 12 (50%)
Satisfaction with the Strongly agree: 11 (46%)
demonstration and Agree: 5 (20%)
practice exercises Neutral: 2 (8%)
Disagree: 4 (14%)
Strongly disagree: 2 (8%)
Step 2: Analyzing the Data

Data coding and tabulation are the two important things you have to do in
preparing the data for analysis. Before immersing yourself into studying every
component of the data, decide on the kind of quantitative analysis you have to
use, whether to use simple descriptive statistical techniques or advanced analytical
methods. The first one that college students often use tells some aspects of categories
of data such as: frequency of distribution, measure of central tendency (mean, median,
and mode), and standard deviation. However, this does not give information about
population from where the sample came. The second one, on the other hand, fits
graduate-level research studies because this involves complex statistical analysis

requiring a good foundation and thorough knowledge about statistics. The following
paragraphs give further explanations about the two quantitative data-analysis
techniques. (De Mey 2013; Litchtman 2013; Picardie 2014)
1. Descriptive Statistical Technique
This quantitative data-analysis technique provides a summary of
the orderly or sequential data obtained from the sample through the
data-gathering instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal the
following aspects of an item in a set of data (Morgan 2014; Punch 2014;
Walsh 2010):
 Frequency Distribution – gives you the frequency of distribution and
percentage of the occurrence of an item in asset of data. In other words,
it gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one question.
Example:
Question: By and large, do you find the Senators’ attendance in 2015

legislative sessions awful?
Measurement Code Frequency Distribution Percent

Scale Distribution
Strongly agree 1 14 58%
Agree 2 3 12%
Neutral 3 2 8%
Disagree 4 1 4%
Strongly disagree 5 4 17%
 easure of Central Tendency – indicates the different positions or

M
values of the items, such that in a in a category of data, you find an
item or items serving as the:
Mean – average of all the items or scores
Example: 3 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 3 + 10 + 3 = 38
38 ÷ 7 = 5.43 (Mean)
Median – the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides
the set into two groups
Example: The numbers in the example for the Mean has 2 as the Median.
Mode – refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most
repeated appearance in the set.
Example: Again, in the given example above for the Mean, 3 is the Mode.
 tandard Deviation – shows the extent of the difference of the data from
S
the mean. An examination of this gap between the mean and the data
gives you an idea about the extent of the similarities and differences
between the respondents. There are mathematical operations that you
have to do to determine the standard deviation. Here they are:
Step 1. Compute the Mean.
Step 2. Compute the deviation (difference) between each respondent’s
answer (data item) and the mean. The plus sign (+) appears before
the number if the difference is higher; negative sign (−), if the
difference is lower.
Step 3. Compute the square of each deviation.
Step 4. Compute the sum of squares by adding the squared figures.
Step 5. Divide the sum of squares by the number of data items to get the
variance.
Step 6. Compute the square root of variance figure to get standard deviation.
Example:
Standard Deviation of the category of data collected from selected faculty

members of one university.
(Step 1) Mean: 7
(Step 2) (Step 3)
Data Item Deviation Square of Deviation
1 −8 68
2 −5 25
6 −1 1
6 −1 1
8 +8 1
6 −1 1
6 −1 1
14 +7 49
16 +9 81
______
Total: 321
(Step 4) Sum of Squares: 321
(Step 5) Variance = 36 (321 ÷ 9)
(Step 6) Standard Deviation –6 (square root of 6)
2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods

An analysis of quantitative data that involves the use of more complex
statistical methods needing computer software like the SPSS, STATA, or
MINITAB, among others, occurs among graduate-level students taking
their MA or PhD degrees. Some of the advanced methods of quantitative

data analysis are the following (Argyrous 2011; Levin & Fox 2014;
Godwin 2014):
Correlation – uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the
a.
relationship of two variables. The results, however, are incapable of
establishing causal relationships.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – the results of this statistical analysis are
b.
sued to determine if the difference in the means or averages of two
categories of data are statistically significant.
xample: If the mean of the grades of a student attending tutorial lessons
E
is significantly different from the mean of the grades of a student not
attending tutorial lessons
Regression – has some similarities with correlation, in that, it also
c.
shows the nature of relationship of variables, but gives more extensive
result than that of correlation. Aside from indicating the presence of
relationship between two variables, it determines whether a variable is
capable of predicting the strength of the relation between the treatment
(independent variable) and the Outcome (dependent variable). Just
like correlation, regression is incapable of establishing cause-effect
relationships.
Example: If reviewing with music (treatment variable) is a statistically
significant predictor of the extent of the concept learning (outcome
variable) of a person
Concept Explanation
Activity 1: Speculative Thinking (Whole Class Activity)
Directions: Questions do not only indicate your curiosity about your world but also
signal your desire for clearer explanations about things. Hence, ask one another
thought-provoking questions about quantitative data analysis. For proper
question formulation, you may draft your questions on the space provided below.
Activity 2
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Recall two or three most challenging questions

your classmates aired to the class that you wanted to answer but failed to get the
chance to do so. Write and answer them on the lines provided.

Activity 3
Directions: Match the expression in A with those in B by writing the letter of your
answer on the line before the word.
A B
_______ 1. Mean a. data-set divider
_______ 2. Ratio b. facts or information
_______ 3. Data c. part-by-part examination
_______ 4. Coding d. data-preparation technique
_______ 5. Analysis e. repetitive appearance of an item
_______ 6. Mode f. sum ÷ no. of items
_______
7.
Median g.
valuable zero
_______ 8. Standard deviation h. ANOVA
_______ 9. Regression i. shows variable predictor
_______ 10. Table j. data organizer
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Have make-believe or imaginary grades of yours

in all your subjects in the last three grading periods. Also, compute the mean per
grading period including the general average.
Activity 2
Directions: Following the procedure in calculating standard deviation, compute the

standard deviation of the data set in the box. Likewise, give the median and the
mode of the data set.
Mean: __________________________________
Sum of Squares: _________________________
Variance: ________________________________
Standard Deviation: ______________________

0
0
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
7
7
7
Median __________________________________
Mode ____________________________________
How would you rate the extent of your learning of the concepts on quantitative
data analysis? Discover this by checking the right column that corresponds to the
given concept.
Concepts Very Poor Poor Fair Good Very Good Excellent
Meaning of data
Meaning of quantitative
data
Meaning of quantitative
data analysis
Stages of quantitative
data analysis
Coding
Data tabulation
Descriptive statistics
Mean
Mode
Median
Standard deviation
Correlation
ANOVA
Regression
Visit your school library. Scan several theses and dissertations in this place to find
out what kind of data analysis the studies used. Tabulate the results of your findings
of at least ten studies. Give your teacher and friends copies of your data tabulation.
LESSON 14 Statistical Methods

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
2. express their worldviews using newly learned words;
3. define statistics;
4. justify the relevance of statistics to research;
5. differentiate descriptive statistics from inferential statistics;
6. explain the methods of bivariate-data analysis;
7. familiarize themselves with bivariate statistical methods; and
8. compare and contrast the kinds of tests to measure correlation or covariation.
Concept Linkers
Directions: Put a plus sign (+) under the feature related to the word on the left side;
minus sign (−) under the feature not related to the word. Be guided by the way
such word was used in the main reading material of this lesson. Scan the text to
see these underlined words.
Vocabulary Concrete Trait Abstract Direction Action
1. calculate
2. soothsayer
3. variance
4. prowess
5. fork
117
Directions: Draw or sketch anything in connection to your understanding of the newly

learned terms. Write a sentence about your drawing on the following Sketch Pad .
SKETCH PAD
Image Intensifier
Be a soothsayer...Focus your attention on the title of the following reading material.
Predict what the text is all about. Write your predictions in the given space .
Concept Discovery
How do you think does the reading material validate your predictions? Read the
text to find out.
STATISTICAL METHODS
Basic Concept
What is statistics? Statistics is a term that pertains to your acts of collecting and
analyzing numerical data. Doing statistics then means performing some arithmetic
procedures like addition, division, subtraction, multiplication, and other mathematical
calculations. Statistics demands much of your time and effort, for it is not merely a
matter of collecting and examining data, but involves analysis, planning, interpreting,
and organizing data in relation to the design of the experimental method you chose.
Statistical methods then are ways of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting variable or
fluctuating numerical data.
Statistical Methodologies
1. Descriptive Statistics
This describes a certain aspect of a data set by making you calculate the
Mean, Medium, Mode and Standard Deviation. It tells about the placement
or position of one data item in relation to the other data, the extent of the
distribution or spreading out of data, and whether they are correlations or
regressions between or among variables. This kind of statistics does not tell
anything about the population.
2. Inferential Statistics
This statistical method is not as simple as the descriptive statistics.
This does not focus itself only on the features of the category of set, but on
the characteristics of the sample that are also true for the population from
where you have drawn the sample. Your analysis begins with the sample,
then, based on your findings about the sample, you make inferences or
assumptions about the population. Since the sample serves as the basis
of your conclusions or generalizations about the population, it is a must
that you use random sampling to guarantee the representativeness of
the sample; meaning, to make sure that the sample truly represents the
population in general.
Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that focuses on conclusions,
generalizations, predictions, interpretations, hypotheses, and the like. There
are a lot of hypotheses testing in this method of statistics that require you to
perform complex and advanced mathematical operations. This is one reason
inferential statistics is not as popular as the descriptive statistics in the
college level where very few have solid foundation of statistics. (Argyrous
2011; Russell 2013; Levin & Fox 2014)
Types of Statistical Data Analysis

Types of statistical analysis of variables in a quantitative research are as follows:
 Univariate Analysis – analysis of one variable
 Bivariate Analysis – analysis of two variables (independent and dependent
variables)
 Multivariate Analysis – analysis of multiple relations between multiple
variables
Statistical Methods of Bivariate Analysis

Bivariate analysis happens by means of the following methods (Argyrous 2011;
Babbie 2013; Punch 2014):
1. Correlation or Covariation (correlated variation) – describes the relationship
between two variables and also tests the strength or significance of their linear
relation. This is a relationship that makes both variables getting the same high
score or one getting a higher score and the other one, a lower score.
Covariance is the statistical term to measure the extent of the change in the
relationship of two random variables. Random variables are data with varied
values like those ones in the interval level or scale (strongly disagree, disagree,
neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose values depend on the arbitrariness or
subjectivity of the respondent.
2. Cross Tabulation – is also called “crosstab or students-contingency table” that
follows the format of a matrix (plural: matrices) that is made up of lines
of numbers, symbols, and other expressions. Similar to one type of graph
called table, matrix arranges data in rows and columns. By displaying the
frequency and percentage distribution of data, a crosstab explains the reason
behind the relationship of two variables and the effect of one variable on the
other variable. If the Table compares data on only two variables, such table
is called Bivariate Table.
Example of a Bivariate Table:
HEI Participants in the 2016 NUSP Conference
HEI MALE FEMALE Row Total

CEU 83 101 184
(10.2%) (12.2%)
FEU 69 93 162
(8.5%) (11.3%)
JRU 102 120 222
(12.6%) (14.5%)
La Salle 79 99 178
(9.7%) (12%)
MLQ 81 79 159
(10%) (9.5%)
NU 61 58 119
(7.5%) (7%)
OUP 59 48 107
(7.2%) (5.8%)
UP 120 98 218
(14.8%) (11.9%)
UST 152 127 279
(18.7%) (15.4%)
Column Total 806 823 1,629
(100%) (100%)
Measure of Correlation
The following are the statistical tests to measure correlation or covariation:
1. Correlation Coefficient
This is a measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship
between variables and likewise gives the extent of dependence between two
variables; meaning, the effect of one variable on the other variable. This is
determined through the following statistical tests for Correlation Coefficient:
(Argyrous 2011; Creswell 2014; Levin & Fox 2014)
Spearman’s rho (Spearman’s r, or r) – the test to measure the dependence

of the dependent variable on the independent variable
Pearson product-moment correlation (Pearson’s r, r or R) – measures the

strength and direction of the linear relationship of two variables and of
the association between interval and ordinal variables.
Chi-square – is the statistical test for bivariate analysis of nominal

variables, specifically, to test the null hypothesis. It tests whether or
not a relationship exists between or among variables and tells the
probability that the relationship is caused by chance. This cannot in
any way show the extent of the association between two variables.
t-test – evaluates the probability that the mean of the sample reflects the

mean of the population from where the sample was drawn. It also tests the
difference between two means: the sample mean and the population mean.
ANOVA or analysis of variance also uses t-test to determine the variance or
the difference between the predicted number of the sample and the actual
measurement. The ANOVA is of various types such as the following:
a. One-way analysis of variance – study of the effects of the
independent variable
ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariation) – study of two or more
b.
dependent variables that are correlated with one another
c. MANCOVA (Multiple Analysis of Covariation) – multiple analyses
of one or more independent variables and one dependent variable
to see if the independent variables affect one another
2. Regression
Similar to correlation, regression determines the existence of variable
relationships, but does more than this by determining the following: (1)
which between the independent and dependent variable can signal the
presence of another variable; (2) how strong the relationship between the
two variables are; and (3) when an independent variable is statistically
significant as a soothsayer or predictor.
Each of these statistical tests has its own formula that, with your good
background knowledge about statistics, you may be able to follow easily.
However, without solid foundation about statistics, to be able to apply them
to your research, you need to read further about statistics or hire the services
of a statistician.
Think of forking out hundreds of dollars or thousands of pesos for a
research study in the graduate or MA/PhD level, not for one in the collegiate
level. It is in your bachelor degree level where the world expects you to
show your prowess in conducting a research that uses simple descriptive
statistical techniques.
To attain mastery in the use of descriptive statistics is to prepare you

for another kind of research work that uses inferential statistics, a statistical
method requiring thorough knowledge and full mastery of the formulae
underlying advanced statistical methods to guarantee the validity, credibility,
and prestige of your research findings.
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Answer the following questions intelligently and

concisely.
1. Describe a research study that uses statistics.

2. Do non-experimental research methods use statistics, too? Why? Why not?

3. Differentiate the two kinds of statistical methods.

4. What is the role of hypotheses in inferential statistics?

5. How does bivariate analysis take place?

6. Which research method fits inferential statistics? Give reasons for your
answer.

7. Do you agree that standard deviation can measure variable relationships?
Why? Why not?

8. Could you possibly do any of the statistical methods you have learned?
Explain your point.

9. Is it correct to say, “To be a quantitative researcher is to know much about
statistics”? Justify your point.

10. Whom could you approach for help with regard to the true experimental
research study you intend to conduct, soon? Give reasons for your answer.

Activity 2
Directions: Compare and contrast the following expressions.

1. Univariate, bivariate, multivariate

2. Correlation, covariation, variance

3. ANOVA vs. MANCOVA

4. Spearman’s r vs. Pearson’s r

5. t-test vs. Chi-Square

Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Using a topical outline, organize the concepts you
have learned about statistical methods, statistical data analysis, bivariate-analysis
method, and measurement of bivariate analysis. Outline your ideas in the space
provided.
Topical Outline

Activity 2
Directions: Give a graphical presentation of the outline you made in Activity 1.
Statistical Methods
Activity 3: Question-Answer Game
Directions: GROUP WORK. Form a group of five. Work together in giving the answer
to the question drawn from a box. The first person to give the correct answer
earns 5 points for the whole group. The group with the highest number of points
becomes the winner.
Rate yourself from 50% to 100% based on the extent of your understanding of the
concepts behind each given topic.
1. Meaning of Statistic ______
2. Methods of Statistics ______
3. Types of Variable Analysis ______
4. Methods of Bivariate Analysis ______
5. Measurement of Bivariate Analysis ______
6. Correlation Coefficient ______
7. Statistical Test for Correlation ______
8. Regression ______
Recall one significant event participated in by you and a big number of people.
Using a bivariate table, categorize the participants in this affair.
LESSON 15 Sampling Procedure

1. widen your English vocabulary;
2. exchange ideas with one another using the newly learned words;
3. explain the meaning of sampling;
4. familiarize with the factors affecting sample selection;
5. compare and contrast sampling techniques;
6. find ways to overcome bias in sampling;
7. enumerate the pluses and minuses of some random-sampling techniques;
8. adopt the most appropriate sampling technique for a chosen research topic; and
9. carry out a sampling technique with scientific value.
Concept Linkers
Directions: From the box, pick out the word that means the same thing as the
underlined word in the sentence. Be guided by some clues in the sentence.
exact layers
no factual basis surrendered
unrighteous limitations
one with no fixed residence
1. Please, give me a precise answer to erase the doubt in my mind.

______________
2. You have not experienced meeting him yet, so stop burdening yourself with
those unfounded fears. ______________
3. The atmosphere of the earth is made up of several strata and the ozone is the
stratum that serves as the electric fan of the earth. ______________
126
4. I feel like I’m choked or tied to a rope with those many restrictions imposed
on me. ______________
5. Being in the last stage of Cancer, the man readily succumbed to the
physician’s treatment procedure for him. ______________
6. The wayward man has a technique in avoiding any policeman’s arrest.
______________
Directions: In the space provided, make a poster or advertisement that has something
to do with the newly learned words. Give your creative work a relevant and
interesting caption.
Image intensifier
Based on this title of the reading material, Sampling Procedure, what do you think
is the text all about?
Concept Discovery
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Basic Concept
Sampling means choosing from a large population the respondents or subjects
to answer your research questions. The entire population is involved but for your
research study, you choose only a part of the whole.
The word population is a technical term in research which means a big group of
people from where you choose the sample or the chosen set of people to represent
the population. Sampling frame, on the other hand, is the list of the members of
the population to which you want to generalize or apply your findings about the
sample, and sampling unit is the term referring to every individual in the population.
The sampling, as well as the research results, is expected to speak about the entire
population. Unless this does not refer to the population, in general, the sample-
selection procedure has no scientific value. (Emmel 2013; Lapan 2013)
Factors Affecting Sample Selection

In choosing your respondents, you do not just listen to the dictates of your
own mind but also to other factors such as the following (Babbie 2013; Edward 2013;
Tuckman & Engel 2012):
1. Sample Size
How big should the sample be? Some researchers base their decision
on their own experience and on research studies they have already read.
But the best way to guide you in determining the right sample size is the
representativeness of the sample with respect to the population. See to it that
the sample truly represents the entire population from where the sample came.
The representativeness or accuracy of a sample size is really hard
to determine. However, using the right sampling technique such as a
randomized one, your chances of getting a sample reflecting 95% distribution
of the population or of a sample representing the whole population is highly
probable. This acceptable level of probability of the representativeness of
the sample is called confidence level or 0.05 level. This theory of probability
is true only for randomly selected respondents, not for any non-probability
type of sampling.
2. Sampling Technique
Sampling techniques fall under two categories: probability sampling
and non-probability sampling. The first one uses a random selection; the
second, a purposive or controlled selection. Probability sampling that
gives all population members equal opportunity to be chosen as people to
constitute the sample is a precise way of sampling. Based on pure chance, it
is unbiased or an accurate manner of selecting the right people to represent
the population.
Bias is the leading factor in choosing your respondents. This is one of
the causes of sampling errors. The other errors in sampling are attributed to
your procedure in sampling.
3. Heterogeneity of Population
Heterogeneous population is composed of individuals with varied
abilities. There is a wide variation among the people composing the
population. If it is a homogeneous population where lots of uniformity in
abilities exist among population members, a sample of one will do. But for
a heterogeneous group, a sampling technique that will widely spread the

choosing of a large sample among all members of the population is necessary.
4. Statistical Techniques
The accuracy of the sample depends also on how precise or accurate
your methods are in calculating the numbers used in measuring the chosen
samples or in giving a certain value to each of them. Any error in your use
of any statistical method or computing numbers representing the selected
subjects will turn in unfounded results.
5. Time and Cost
Choosing samples makes you deal with one big whole population, with
each member of this large group needing your attention, time and effort,
let alone the amount of money you will fork out for the materials you will
need in making the sampling frame. Hence, considering all these things,
your sample selection makes you spend some of your time deliberating or
mulling over several factors affecting or influencing your sample selection.
Sampling Methods
The sampling methods are of two groups which are as follows (Tuckman 2012;
Emmel 2013; De Vaus 2013; Picardie 2014):
1. Probability Sampling
This is a sampling method that makes you base your selection of
respondents on pure chance. In this case, everybody in the population
participates. All are given equal opportunity or chance to form the sample
that is capable of reflecting the characteristics of the whole population from
where such sample was drawn. The following are the different probability
sampling techniques:
a. Simple-random sampling – choosing of respondents based on pure
chance
b. Systematic sampling – picking out from the list every 5th or every
8th member listed in the sampling frame until the completion of the
desired total number of respondents
c. Stratified sampling – choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided
into strata, sub-groups, or sub-samples during the stage of the data
analysis
d. Cluster sampling – selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in
separate individuals such as choosing 5 classes of 40 students each
from a whole population of 5,000 students
Ensuring a bias-free selection of subjects, these probability sampling
techniques are considered by many as more capable than the non-probability
sampling techniques in coming out with the accurate or exact samples to
give pieces of information about the population as a whole.
2. Non-probability Sampling
The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen
randomly, but purposefully. Not randomized, they are susceptible to bias.
Unlike the probability sampling techniques that exclude the researcher’s
judgment, the non-probability sampling techniques succumb to the control,
likes, or wishes of the researcher and to restrictions imposed by the researcher
on the sampling procedure. The following are the non-probability sampling
techniques:
a. uota sampling – choosing specific samples that you know correspond
Q
to the population in terms of one, two, or more characteristics
b. Voluntary sampling – selecting people who are very much willing to
participate as respondents in the research project
c. Purposive sampling – choosing respondents whom you have judged
as people with good background knowledge or with great enthusiasm
about the research
d. vailability sampling – picking out people who are easy to find or
A
locate and willing to establish contact with you
e.
Snowball sampling – selecting samples from several alternative
samples like drug dependents, human traffickers, street children, and
other wayward and homeless people whose dwelling places are not
easily located for they are like nomads moving from place to place
Random Sampling vis-à-vis Statistical Methods

The most preferred sampling technique in qualitative or quantitative research
is random sampling. However, this kind of probability sampling requires the use of
statistical method in measuring the sample. Three probability sampling techniques:
simple random, stratified, and systematic depend greatly on statistics for sample
accuracy. The use of statistics does not only prevent you from favoring any side
of a thing or situation involved in the research but also proves the accuracy or
precision of your sampling procedure. Contributing to the accuracy of sampling
through the use of statistical methods in stratified sampling is your adherence to
the following steps of this unbiased sampling technique (Suter 2012; Emmel 2013;
Corti 2014):
1. Decide on the size of the sample.

2. Divide the sample into sub-sets or sub-samples, with the sub-samples
having the same aggregate number as that of the sample they came from.
3. Select the appropriate sub-sample randomly from each sub-group or
stratum.
4. Put together the sub-sample results to get the total number of the overall
sample.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Five Basic Sampling Techniques
Sampling Techniques Advantages Disadvantages

Random Sampling The most accurate Unavailable list of
theoretically; influenced only the entire population
by chance sometimes or prevention
of random sampling by
practical considerations
Stratified sampling Assures a large sample to Can be biased if strata
subdivide on important are given false weights,
variables; needed when unless the weighting
population is too large to list; procedure is used for
can be combined with other overall analysis
techniques
Systematic sampling Similar to random sampling; Sometimes permits bias
often easier than random
sampling
Cluster sampling Easy to collect data on the Prone to bias when the
subject number is small
Quota sampling Available when random Presence of bias not
sampling is impossible; quick controlled by the quota
to do system
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Write C on the space before the number, if the sen-
tence is correct; NC, if it is not correct.
_______ 1. Sampling unit is synonymous with sampling frame.

_______ 2. Population in relation to sampling refers to the citizens of Philippine
archipelago.
_______ 3. The principal purpose of sampling is the application of results in
the population.
_______ 4. Y
ou look forward to having several group samples in a stratified
sampling.
_______ 5. I n a stratified sampling, you randomly choose samples from several
groups.
_______ 6. Sampling decisions depend 100% on your own dispositions or

judgement.
_______ 7. You are detached from your personal inclinations when you do a
random selection of subjects.
_______ 8. Non-probability sampling is not very particular about statistics.
_______ 9.
Probability sampling techniques are suitable for Quantitative
research studies.
_______ 10. Bias can only be minimized; can’t be totally eliminated.
Activity 2
Directions: On the lines provided, write your reasons to justify your NC answer in the
preceding activity (Activity 1).

Activity 3
Directions: From the box, choose the appropriate sampling technique for each given
situation. Write your answer on the line before the number.
A. quota sampling B. cluster C. availability
D. snowball E. purposive F. systematic
G. voluntary H. stratified I. probability
J. statistics K. simple random

_________ 1. Going to different areas to obtain a sample from varied set of people
_________ 2. O
ffering varied sampling techniques whose validity depends much
on statistics
_________ 3. Interviewing people buying fish at the market place
_________ 4. Selecting respondents from each of these sections: A, B, C, and D
_________ 5. Making sections A, B, C, and D as your respondents
_________ 6. Choosing from your class the native speakers of English as the
subjects in your study entitled: The Extent of the Grammatical
Competence of UST Freshmen Students
_________ 7. Putting all the names of population members in a box and draw
from the box the total number of the sample
_________ 8. Selecting the exact number of samples possessing comparative
features or traits with the population
_________ 9. Accommodating extra-willing people to act as the respondents
_________ 10. Taking every 15th person in the sampling frame as the chosen
respondent
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1: Quiz Master of the Year!
Directions: GROUP WORK. Quiz Master of the Year! Form a group of six. Alternate in
being a Quiz Master to ask questions about the things you learned through this
lesson. Every correct answer gets 2 points and gives one the qualifications to be
the next Quiz Master. Submit your honestly accumulated scores at the end of the
activity.
Activity 2
Directions: PAIR WORK. In the space provided, classify the following expressions
based on a certain criterion or factor. Write the basis for each class.
sampling technique availability sampling heterogeneous group
stratified sampling snowball sampling sample size
quota sampling cluster sampling simple random sampling
systematic sampling sampling unit voluntary sampling
time and cost purposive sampling simple random sampling
population sample statistics
Class A
Class B Class C
Basis: ______________ Basis: ____________ Basis: ____________
Using numbers 1 to 11, rank order the following topics based on the extent of
your understanding of the concepts behind each topic, with 1 as the most understood
topic; 11, the least.
_______ Probability sampling
_______ Sampling unit, sampling frame
_______ Sample vs. population
_______ Factors in choosing samples
_______ Non-probability sampling
_______ Statistics vs. Random sampling
_______ Sample size
_______ Heterogeneous vs. homogeneous group
_______ Advantages and disadvantages of random sampling
_______ Sampling errors
_______ .05 level
Think of one doable quantitative research topic. Surf the Internet for a list of
topics from where you can get an idea of one specific topic you can work on. Decide
on which appropriate sampling technique to use for this topic. Make a written report
defining, explaining, and describing every aspect of your sampling design or plan.
Unit
VI Reporting and Sharing Findings
Research adheres to a certain manner of making public its findings. It is incapable

of convincing any readers of the genuineness of the research report, unless it follows
the academically and professionally accepted standards of writing the report in terms
of its language, structure or format, and acknowledgment or recognition of the sources
of knowledge responsible for making the entire research study reputable, genuine,
and credible basis for effecting positive changes in this world.
LESSON 16 Research-Report Writing

1. lengthen the list of English words you know;
2. use newly learned words in expressing worldviews;
3. explain the meaning of research-report writing;
4. compare and contrast research writing and report writing;
5. apply the guidelines on research-report writing;
6. become familiar with the language of academic writing;
7. point out the similarities and differences between APA and MLA styles;
8. familiarize with the standard research-writing format ;
9. acquire awareness of the mechanics of research-report writing; and
10. critique the structural organization of a sample research-report component.
Concept Linkers
Directions: The words listed are underlined in the reading material that you are going
to read later. Look for the word that corresponds in meaning to the word or
phrase below in the list. Be guided by the contextual clues and write your answer
on the line opposite each word.
1. accept or stick to something ________________
2. mental ________________
3. deliberate ________________
135
4. absolutely necessary ________________

5. owning something ________________
6. superior or towering over ________________
7. directed ________________
Directions: PAIR WORK. Have a conversation about any topic both of you are interested
in. Discover the connection of the newly learned words in your conversation as
you use them in your exchange of ideas with your partner.
Image Intensifier
What kind of writing have you already experienced? Write your answers in the
Table by checking the right column representing your thoughts and feelings about the
kind of writing you have already experienced. Accomplish the last column, too.
Types of Writing Easy Difficult Challenging Enjoyable Reason/s

Technical writing
Expository writing
Research Writing
Literature writing
Concept Discovery
RESEARCH-REPORT WRITING
Basic Concept
The first things you do in research are: mulling over a research problem that will
lead you to the final topic of your research, obtaining background knowledge about
your topic by reviewing related literature, formulating research questions, collecting
and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and making recommendations. Going
through all these research stages make you perform all levels of thinking especially
the HOTS or higher-order thinking strategies of interpretative, critical, interactive,
and creative thinking.
Moving on after all these cognitive-driven research activities, you reach the final
stage of your research study which is the presentation of your research output. This
is the time when you have to think of how to give a formal account of what and how
you discovered something about your research topic. Central to this last stage of your
research study is sharing information or making known to people the results of your
several-month inquiry of a certain topic. However, it is not telling the readers of how
you found out truths in any way you want. Your study is an academic work that has
to abide by some rules or standards in research-report writing.
UNIT VI – REPORTING AND SHARING FINDINGS • 137
You learned that there are different kinds of writing: technical writing, expository
writing, fictional writing, and academic writing, among others. Research-report
writing is an academic writing, in that, its focus is on reporting or telling about the
results of your investigation of a specific subject matter. It is not simply communicating
your opinions, but doing this in a controlled way; that is, you have to follow socially
determined and discipline-specific rules in terms of language, structure, and format or
style. Governed by several writing rules and standards, research-report writing is the
most challenging and demanding kind of writing among learners in higher education
institutions. (Russell 2013; Corti 2014; Punch 2014)
Research Writing vs. Report Writing

How would you compare and contrast research writing and report writing? Both
depend on various sources of data or information, but they differ from each other as to
what kind of data they present. Research writing presents facts and opinions of other
people about a particular subject matter. It also includes your own interpretations,
as the researcher, about these known facts. Report writing, too, presents facts and
opinions of others; however, it does not claim that these opinions originally come from
the writer, for the reason that some reading materials like books, journals, magazines,
and other reading materials have already published these facts and opinions. This is
where the main difference between the two lies.
The research paper gives you what other people think of a certain topic in
addition to what you, the researcher, think about this topic, while report just presents
facts and information about a subject matter without adding something new to this
existing body of facts and opinions. Further, a genuine research paper does not only
shed a new light on a subject by finding new facts and opinions, but also aims at
saying something original by re-evaluating or using these known facts and opinions.
(Litchman 2013; Babbie 2013; Punch 2014)
Guidelines in Research-Report Writing

Now, you know that research-report writing is not plain writing of a report where
you just present facts and opinions of other people that you got from varied reading
materials. It is a special kind of writing that communicates not only declarative
knowledge or discovered ideas, but also procedural knowledge or the processes
you did in discovering ideas. Hence, to make your research report communicate all
these forms of knowledge to readers, you need to apply the following guidelines in
research-report writing.
1. Organize the parts of your research report based on the standard research-
report structure that consists of the following sequential components:
a. Title. This part of your research paper gives information and
descriptions of the things focused on by your research study.
b. Abstract. Using only 100 to 150 words, the abstract of a research paper,
presents a summary of the research that makes clear the background,
objectives, significance, methodologies, results, and conclusions of the
research study.
c. Introduction. Given a stress in this section of the paper are the research
problem and its background, objectives, research questions, and
hypotheses.
d. Methodology. This part of the research paper explains the procedure in
collecting and analyzing data and also describes the sources of data.
e. Results or Findings. There’s no more mentioning of analysis of data
or not yet analyzed data in this section. What it does is to present the
research findings that are expressed through graphics, statistics, or
words.
f. Conclusions. This section explains things that will lead you to significant
points, insights, or understanding, or conclusions that derive their
validity, credibility or acceptability from the factual evidence gathered
during the data-collection stage. Stated here, too, is the significance of
the results; that is, whether or not these are the right answers to the
research questions or the means of hypotheses acceptance or rejection.
Your assessment of the data in relation to the findings of previous
research studies is also given a space in this section of the research paper.
g. Recommendations. Due to teachers’ instructions or discipline-specific
rules, this section tends to be optional in some cases. Done by some
researchers, this section gives something that will expand or extend
one’s understanding of the conclusions raised earlier, such as suggesting
a solution to the problem or recommending a further research on the
subject.
h. References. It is in this part where you display the identities or
names of all writers or owners of ideas that you incorporated in your
research paper.
i. Appendices. Included in this section are copies of materials like
questionnaires, graphs, and letters, among others that you used in all
stages of your academic work, and are, then, part and parcel of your
research study.
2. Familiarize yourself with the language of academic writing.
Research-report writing is an academic writing and central to this kind of
writing is the expression of ideas, viewpoints, or positions on issues obtained through
learned or trained methods of producing sound evidence to support your claims or
conclusions about something. Geared toward bringing out what are generally true,
valid, and acceptable, the language of research-report writing uses rich-information
vocabulary and adopts an objective, formal, or impersonal tone or register.
Here are some ways to maintain an objective and an impersonal tone in academic
texts such as your report about your research study:
a. Dominantly use passive voice than active voice sentences.
b. Use the third-person point of view by using words like his or her, they,
or the user, instead of the personalized first-person point of view like I,
We, Me, Our, etc.
c. De-emphasize the subject or personal nature of the academic text by

avoiding the use of emotive words like dissatisfied, uninteresting, or
undignified.
d. Use modality (words indicating the degree of the appropriateness,
effectiveness, or applicability of something) to express opinionated
statements that are prone to various degrees or levels of certainty.
For instance, use low modality when you think your opponents have
strong chances to present their valid reasons against your argument,
or high modality, when you are sure you have sufficient basis to prove
your point.
High modality expressions like could, should, must, definitely, absolutely, surely,
necessarily, and essentially are usually used for recommending solutions to problems
or for specifying reasons for some actions.
3. Observe the mechanics of research-report writing which are as follows:
a. Physical Appearance. Use white bond paper having the size of 8 ½ x 11
in. and provide 1 ½ in. left-right margin, plus 1 in. top-bottom margin.
Unless your teacher instructs you to use a particular font style and size,
use the standard Times Roman, 12 pts.
b. Quotations. A one-line, double-spaced quotation is in quotation marks;
4- to 5-line, single-spaced quotations are indented further from the
margin to appear as block quotation.
c. Footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page and are numbered
consecutively stating with number one (1) in each chapter.
Statistics and Graphs. Use tables, charts, bar graphs, line charts,
d.
pictograms, flowcharts, schematic diagrams, etc. in connection with
the objectives of the study.
e. Final Draft. Subject the final form of the research report to editing,
revising, rewriting, and proofreading.
f. Index. Alphabetize these two types of index: subject index and author
index.
Research-Report Writing Styles or Format

Depending on the requirements of your teacher or the area of your discipline,
adopt any of the following research-report writing styles or format:
1. APA (American Psychological Association)
2. MLA ( Modern Language Association)
3. CMS (Chicago Manual of Style)
The first two styles—APA and MLA—are the most commonly used styles or format.
Prone to objectivity, those in the fields of Science, Psychology, Business, Economics,
Political Science, Anthropology, Engineering, and Law go for APA; to subjectivity,
Humanities (Religion, Literature, and Language) go for MLA.
esson 8 of this book gives you comprehensive and detailed explanations plus
L
examples of these two research writing styles. Chicago style is the basis of the
APA and MLA styles. It is called Author-Date Style if it follows the APA form;
Humanities Style, if it follows the MLA style. (Babbie 2013; Schutt & Engel 2013;
De Vaus 2014)
Concept Explanation
Activity 1
Directions: PAIR WORK. Fill in the blank with the correct answer.
1) Chicago style is given the name, _______a_______ system for APA; Humanities
system for _______b_______. Deciding on what font style to use refers to the
_______c_______ of your paper. This also tells you to use _______d_______
for one-line quotation and single space for _______e_______ quotation.
2) A brief summary of your research paper is given by the _______a_______;

the Background, research problem, and research questions by the
_______b_______. In the _______c_______ section of your paper, you reveal
research _______d________ that get their extended meanings in the section
called _______e_______.
Activity 2
Directions: Without going back to the text, compare and contrast each given pair of
expressions.
Words in Pairs Comparison Contrast
1. Research vs. Report writing

2. Author-date system vs. Humanities system
3. MLA vs. APA
4. One-line quotation vs. Five-line quotation
5. Conclusion vs. Recommendation
6. Left-Right margin vs. Top-Bottom margin
7. Abstract vs. Introduction
8. Academic language vs. Literary language
9. Passive voice vs. Active voice
10. Research report vs. Literature report
Concept Elaboration
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Check the column that represents your view about
the given statement. Justify your choice in the last column.
Reasons, Comments,
Statements Agree Disagree
Reactions
1. You are free to use any language
form in academic texts.
2. Facts and opinions in all report
types are genuine.
3. Things mentioned in the conclusion
are evidence-based information.
4. Very little difference exists between
APA and MLA.
5. APA and MLA are applicable in any
area of knowledge.
6. Read data analysis in the body of the
paper, not in the conclusion portion.
7. Research paper submission occurs

immediately after writing all major
research parts.
8. Recommendation is not as
compulsory as conclusion.
9. Discipline-specific writing rules

come from the school heads.
10. Research writing is report writing
Activity 2: Class Inquiry Hour
Directions: Form a group of four. The first group representative to correctly answer
a question coming from the teacher earns five points for the whole group.
Submission of the summary of honestly earned points signals the end of the
inquiry.
Activity 3
Directions: Find out if the following abstract of a research paper is in keeping with
your concepts about abstract writing. Write the results of your critical evaluation
on the lines provided.
ABSTRACT
The crucial role of language in the improvement of man’s critical thinking
in this era of globalization, multiculturalism, knowledge explosion, or modern
technology prodded several professionals, academicians, and graduate-school
students to conduct research studies on language teaching and learning, specifically,
on language theories and pedagogical practices related to communicative approach
and functional grammar. (Freeman & Anderson, 2012) One modern grammar
theory this study assumed as the theoretical underpinning of any language teaching
and learning methodology that zeroes in on critical thinking, a higher-order
thinking strategy that every nation in this contemporary world needs to progress
economically and politically, is the SFG or Systemic Functional Grammar.
The results showed that the ideas behind the Systemic Functional Grammar
were likewise the ones applied in language teaching and learning activities infusing
critical thinking. The SFG concepts: (1) multi-functionality of clauses, (2) grammar
structures linked with communicative functions, (3) interactive activities
(4) contextualized exercises, (5) stressed macro-function of language, (6) exercises
giving wide latitude of choice and, (7) use of discourse as the dominant language
structure would trigger off critical-thinking acts like: comparing, classifying,
patterning, planning, critiquing, hypothesizing, and reasoning inductively or
deductively. (Bloor 1995; Eggins 1994; Halliday 1994, 2004, 2009)
Validating the impact of the SFG theory on developing excellent communicators
and reasonable or logical thinkers for global progress is the contribution of this
paper to the field of language teaching and learning.
CRITICAL EVALUATION

How Much I Learned about Research-Report Writing
In the space provided, write a reflective essay stating how much or how little
your understanding is about the research concepts you learned through this lesson.
Refresh your mind about the research topic you thought of in this section of Lesson
15, Concept Transformation, and to which you applied a certain sampling technique.
Conduct a research study on this. In carrying out this research with the assistance of
your school library, different academic/library databases, and other online resources,
do the following:
1. Conduct a review of related literature.
2. Collect and analyze data.
3. Draw conclusions based on data-analysis results.
4. Formulate recommendations.
5. Present a written report of your research indicating its adherence to the
standard structure or format of an academic written work and a paper
manifesting your creativity in using non-prose materials like graphs to
make the whole of your written work presentable.
6. Make a complete list of references you used.
References
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Bernard, R. 2013. Social research method: Qualitative and quantitative approach. Los
Angeles: Sage.
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145
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Index
A D
Analysis of covariation, 121 Data analysis, statistical
Analysis of variance, 121 bivariate, 119–120
ANCOVA, 121 correlation, 119
Appendices, 138 covariance, 120
Attribute variables, 31 covariation, 119
multivariate, 119
B univariate, 119
Bias, 128 Data analysis
Bibliography, 54 meta-analysis, 21, 54
Bivariate analysis, 119 primary, 21
quantitative, 109
C
secondary, 21
Causal questions, 40
Data tabulation, 110
Central tendency, 111
Data
Chi-square, 121
qualitative, 77
Citation, 54
quantitative, 77, 96
Coding system, 109
Declarative statements, 38
Concept map, 67
Deductive approach, 40
Conceptual framework, 66–67, 68
Descriptive research questions, 40
Conclusions, 138
Descriptive statistical technique, 111
Confounding variables, 30, 77
Direct observation, 98
Constant variables, 31
Content analysis, 99 E
Continuous variables, 31 Experiment, 98
Control group, 16, 86 Experimental group, 16, 86
Correlation coefficient, 120–121 Experimental research, 9, 16–17, 39, 86
Correlation, 121
Covariate variables, 31 F
Cross-sectional study, 76 Frequency distribution, 111
Cross tabulation, 120
149
H M
Heterogeneous population, 128 MANCOVA, 121
Heterogeneous study, 54 Mean, 111
Homogenous study, 54 Median, 111
Hypotheses Methodology, 138
alternative, 46, 77 Mode, 111
causal, 47 Multiple analysis of covariation, 121
data-driven, 47 Multiple treatment, 17
descriptive, 47 Multi-syllable words, 76
directional, 47
non-directional, 47 N
null, 46, 77 Non-experimental research design
one-tailed, 47 comparative, 88
theory-driven, 47 correlative, 88
two-tailed, 47 descriptive, 88
ex post facto, 88
I Non-experimental research, 9, 16–17,
Indirect observation, 96 21–22, 88
Inductive approach, 40 Numerical research, 8
Inductive thinking, 4
O
Inferential thinking, 45
One-way analysis of variance, 121
Inquiry, 3
Operational definition, 40, 77
Interrogative statements, 38
Interview, 97 P
In-text citation, 54 Pearson product-moment, 121
Introduction, 138 Population, 128
Investigation, 4
Q
J Qualitative research, 9–10
Jargons, 76 Qualitative scales of measurement
interval, 99, 100
L
nominal, 99, 100
Longitudinal study, 76
ordinal, 99, 100
ratio, 99, 100
INDEX • 151
Quantitative analytical method Sampling

analysis of variance, 113 availability, 130
correlation, 113 cluster, 129, 131
regression, 113 frame, 128
Quantitative research, 8–10, 36–37, 85 non-probability, 128, 130
Quantitative research problem, 37 probability, 128–129
Quantitative scales of measurement, 99 purposive, 130
Quasi-experimental research, 16–17, 23, quota, 130, 131
39, 86 random, 130, 131
matched comparison, 17, 87 simple random, 129
single-subject, 17, 87 snowball, 130
time-series, 17, 87 stratified, 129, 131
Question-driven methodology, 53 systematic, 129, 131
Questionnaire, 97 techniques, 128
unit, 128
R
voluntary, 130
Recommendations, 138
Spearman’s rho, 121
References, 138
Standard deviation, 111
Referencing
Statistics
APA, 54
descriptive, 119
MLA, 54
inferential, 119
Regression, 121
Students-contingency table, 120
Relation questions, 40
Survey, 96–98
Report writing, 137
Survey research, 22–24, 88
Research, 3–4
Systemic Functional Grammar, 67
Research design, 22
Systematic review, 53
Research problem, 37
Research questions, 38, 46 T
Research writing, 137 Theoretical definition, 77
Results of finding, 138 Theoretical framework, 68
Review of related literature, 52–53 Title, 137
Traditional review, 53
S
Treatment evaluation, 17
Sample, 128
true experimental research, 16, 39, 86
Sample size, 128
t-test, 121
U dichotomous, 31
Unit of analysis, 77 endogenous, 31
exogenous, 31
V extraneous, 30, 77
Variables independent, 30, 77
attribute, 31 latent, 31
confounding, 30, 77 manifest, 31
constant, 31 nuisance, 31
continuous, 31 participant, 30
covariate, 31 situational, 30
dependent, 30, 77

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unit i Nature of Inquiry and Research

unit ii Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

unit iii Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

unit iv Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

unit v Finding Answers through Data Collection

unit vi Reporting and Sharing Findings

Wondering a lot about your world, you are always in quest of

I am deeply indebted to all the book authors and Internet website

LESSON 1 Inquiry vs. Research: A Review

Intended Learning Outcomes

Activity 2: Vocabulary Practice

LOOPING OR FREE WRITING

INQUIRY vs. RESEARCH: A REVIEW

Nature of Inquiry and Research

formulating hypotheses, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Cognitively

Inquiry vis-à-vis Research

WHOLE CLASS ACTIVITY

Situation Inquiry Research

1. A person wants to know the occupant of

1. Differences and similarities between Inquiry and Research

2. Behavior of people practicing Inquiry and Research

3. Reasons behind people’s inquisitive attitudes

4. Research as an inductive thinking

5. Lower-order and higher-order thinking strategies

Intended Learning Outcomes

Activity 1: Vocabulary Improvement

Directions: To acquire substantial knowledge on some topics in this lesson, activate

Activity 2: Vocabulary Practice

Definition of Quantitative Research

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Standards Qualitative Quantitative

Standards Qualitative Quantitative

4. Some think of quantitative research as complex because of its use of _________.

Directions: Work in pairs for any of the following activities.

4. In which country do OFWs love to work?

Intended Learning Outcomes

Activity 1: Vocabulary Improvement

Manage, direct, guide Depends on the doer’s

organizing seminars, soldiers obeying their

Activity 2: Vocabulary Practice

Definition of Experimental Research

Research Design of Non-Experimental Research

3. Determine the dependent and independent variables.

Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Explain your understanding about the text by

1. Compare and contrast the two basic types of experimental research.

2. Why is an experimental research also called a scientific method?

3. What is the primary factor in determining whether a research is true

4. What are the implications of declaring what is true by means of a

5. Which is better between the two types of experimental research? Justify

6. How do you know when one is doing a true experimental or a

7. Do you know somebody who has already done an experimental research?

Activity 1: Idea Clarification

Directions: PAIR WORK. Show through a PowerPoint Presentation a flow

Directions: GROUP WORK. In a group of three, graphically present the major