Bam, Fern, DD 1209

History
The history of calculus consists of several phase. The first one is the ‘prehistory’, which goes
up to the discovery of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Which is the contributions of
Democritus(460 B.C-370 B.C.) who discover diving object into an infinite amount of cross-sections.
and ​Eudoxus ​which he provides a ``method of exhaustion'', close to the limiting concept of calculus,
which is used by himself and later Greeks to find areas and volumes of curvilinear figures​. And the
last person in this phase is Archimedes(287 B.C.-212 B.C.) He is the first person to created the
example of summations of an infinite series.
The second phase of calculus history is called ‘pre-calculus’ It’s started in 1615 when
Johannes Kepler uses infinitesimals to calculate volumes of revolution in ​New Measurement of the
Volume of Wine Casks​. Secondly, in 1635 when Bonaventura Cavalieri calculates volumes using
infinitely small sections. And continually to develop the concept of calculus in 1655 when John
Wallis studies infinite series in Arithmetic of Infinitesimals and lastly, in 1658 Blaise Pascal, working
on the sine function, and almost discovers calculus. The third phase is called ‘Early calculus’ Started
in 1665 when Isaac Newton retires to the country to escape the Great Plague in London; there he
invents the first form of calculus. Later on, in 1668 James Gregory includes a geometrical version of
the fundamental theorem of calculus in Geometrical Exercises and the Universal Part of Geometry.
Next year, Newton includes his method for finding areas under curves in his On the Analysis of
Equations Unlimited in the Number of Their Terms, circulated privately. Follow by, Isaac Barrow
uses methods similar to calculus to draw tangents to curves, find the lengths of curves, and the areas
bounded by curves. In 1670 Isaac Barrow uses methods similar to calculus to draw tangents to curves,
find the lengths of curves, and the areas bounded by curves. Five years later, Gottfried Leibniz
introduces the modern notation for integration and the notation dx/dy for differentiation; he also
determines the product rule for differentiation. Finally, in 1676 Newton writes two letters to Leibniz,
hinting at his work with infinite series and fluxions (his form of calculus); also this year, Leibniz
discovers how to differentiate any fractional power of x. The next phase is ‘big-time calculus’ Started
with Leibniz publishes introduced a new method for maxima and minima as well as tangents, which is
impeded neither by fractional nor by irrational quantities, and a remarkable type of calculus, however
it’s just about six pages long and few can understand it. In 1694, Jean Bernoulli discovers the method
known as l'Hospital's Rule; it is known by that name because Marquis Antoine de l'Hospital bought it
from Bernoulli and introduced it in his influential 1696 textbook Analysis of Infinitesimals. Lastly, in
1715, Brook Taylor introduces his famous series in Methodus Incrementorum Directa et Inversa, in
which he develops the calculus of finite differences.
The last phase of the history of calculus is called ‘later calculus’ This phase started in 1797
when ​Joseph-Louis Lagrange introduces the notations ​f'x and ​y' for the derivatives of ​f(x) and ​y​,
respectively. And in 1800, Louis F. A. Arbogast introduces the symbol D for the operation of
differentiation. After Louis introduces his work in 1800, 41 years after that in 1841 Carl Gustav Jacob
Jacobi adopts the modern notation for partial differentiation; Adrien-Marie Legendre originally
introduced it in 1786, but immediately abandoned it. In 1854, Bernhard Riemann defines the integral
in a way that does not require continuity. Lastly, in 1872 H. Eduard Heine, a student of Karl
Weierstrass, presents the modern ``epsilon-delta'' definition of a limit in his Elements. To conclude,
this last phase or ‘later calculus ’ mostly are just an analysis that became abstract and used set theory
in an essential way. Essentially all the techniques covered in the first courses on calculus were
discovered shortly after Newton’s and Leibniz’s publications, mainly by Jakob and Johann Bernoulli
and Euler.
 Bam, Fern, DD 1209

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus justifies our procedure of evaluating an antiderivative

at the upper and lower limits of integration and taking the difference.
An integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that can describe displacement, area,
volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal data. Integration is one of the two
main operations of calculus, with its inverse operation, differentiation, being the other. The operation
of integration, up to an additive constant, is the inverse of the operation of differentiation. For this
reason, the term integral may also refer to the related notion of the antiderivative, a function F whose
derivative is the given function f.

if is continuous on the closed interval and is the indefinite integral of on

, then

This result, while taught early in elementary calculus courses, is actually a very deep result
connecting the purely algebraic indefinite integral and the purely analytic (or geometric) definite
integral.

- holds for a continuous function on an open interval and any point in , and states that
if is defined by

then at each point in .

The fundamental theorem of calculus along curves states that if has a continuous
indefinite integral in a region containing a parameterized curve for
, then
 Bam, Fern, DD 1209

Application
Calculus, meaned “a small pebble used for counting,” is the Latin word which is one of
mathematics. Calculus is the studies of change of things as well as the its impacts on a system
consisting of two main branches which are ​integral calculus and differential calculus​. Integral
calculus is to connect the small quantities together to see how it is connected to each other and the
effect by the small changes by small thing. On the other hands, differential calculus is to split thing
into small piece to see the effect of small change to the whole.
This paragraph will show the application of calculus. First example is credit card company
since the minimum payment is set by using calculus because many variables process statement which
exactly statements at the time such as a fluctuating available balance. Secondly, in electrical engineer,
to determine the length of power cable need to use integration. If the cable is too big from poles and
slightly curving, it will be easier to use calculus to determine a precise figure. As well as Architecture
that has to use integration to find the exact amount of necessary materials to build the curved dome,
nd fine the dome’s weight. Next, calculus is also frequently used while space flight engineers are
planning the length missions because they must consider how different orbiting velocities of the
planet and the Earth are in order to Launch an exploratory probe, and gravitational influence of the
moon and the sun. Due to the fact that it is more accurate to use calculus. Moreover, statistician also
uses calculus to help them develop the plans for business while they are estimating the survey data
which has a lot of questions and answers for different companies since. Not only that, it can check the
answers of mathematical disciplines such as algebra, and analytical geometry Next is Physicist. To
design the perfect safety function of the sport’s mass center of utility vehicle is also used calculus
because it is need specific different road surfaces and at speeds. In addition, when observing various
method at manufacturing corporation, calculus will be used by operations research analyst because
improve expanding production, gaining more profits, ad operating efficiency can be helped by them.
Next is graphics artist that uses calculus to find the difference of three-dimensional models that will
be done when dominated to swiftly changing conditions, and it can create movies or video games’
realistic environment. In addition, in the term of ​biology, Formulating the rates such as death rates and
birth also use it. Next is physics, a lot of physic concept use calculus consisting of electricity, motion,
light, heat, acoustics, harmonics, dynamics, and astronomy. As well as, ​Einstein's theory of relativity
and electromagnetism in ​advanced concepts also use calculus. Moreover, to predict function of
radioactive decay and reaction rates also use calculus. For economic, ​economists use calculus to
compute ​marginal revenue and marginal cost to predict the highest profit of specific setting. In
addition, predicting weather is more accurate than in the past due to the improvement of technology
such as computer model using calculus, and it has ability to predict upcoming weather. It also helps
meteorologists determine the changes of pressures and temperatures in the atmosphere. The last is that
field of epidemiology which is the study of the spread of infectious disease heavily uses calculus to
determine how fast and far a disease is able to spread.
There are tons of means of how to adapt calculus to everyday life. This paragraph will show
the application of integral calculus. Firstly, swimming pool is integral calculus because it is contains a
water drop from a tap until it is full in the pool to find the total volume of water in the pool by small
drops of water.
This paragraph will show the application of differential calculus. Swimming pool is also
differential calculus because if you want to know the rate of water filling in the pool, you can count
the amount of water drops per second dripping from a tap. However, our aim is not finding the
volume of water in the pool. Secondly, the volume of a box is differential calculus, and the length and
width are given. For example, we are going to build a box by using cardboard, and trying to find the
maximum volume for this box. Therefore, we are finding the perfect dimension for the box by
increasing the length, width, and height more and more until we are able to find the maximum
volume. Thirdly, biologists, to find the rate of a bacteria’s culture growth is used differential calculus
such as food source and temperature are changed. It also helps not only expand the necessary
bacteria’s growth rate, but also reduce the harmful and threatening bacteria’s growth rate.